Gas Turbine Fundamentals Guide

Training Centre
Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE
Category Aerospace
Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals
MODULE 15
Sub Module 15.1
FUNDAMENTALS
For Training Purpose Only
ISO 9001:2008 Certified
15.1
CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09
Rev. 00
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Category Aerospace
OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS --------------------------------- 18
Contents
FUNDAMENTALS-------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION -------------------------------------------------- 3
APPLICATION OF NEWTON'S LAWS -------------------------------------------- 7
WORK---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
POWER -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
ENERGY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
PRESSURE----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
HEAT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
TEMPERATURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------10
INTRODUCTION TO GAS PHYSICS ----------------------------------------------11
SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH A CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT DUCT

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
THERMODYNAMICS -------------------------------------------------------------- 20
EFFICIENCY ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
HEATING PROCESS IN THERMODYNAMICS --------------------------------- 21
CYCLE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
THE OTTO CYCLE ------------------------------------------------------------------ 24
THE BRAYTON CYCLE ------------------------------------------------------------- 25
THRUST ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 27
BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE TURBOPROP ENGINE
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
PERFECT GAS EQUATION --------------------------------------------------------11
BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE TURBO-SHAFT

ENGINE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 33
GAS DYNAMICS --------------------------------------------------------------------13
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE TURBO-PROP AND THE TURBO-JET 34
STATIC AND DYNAMIC PRESSURE ---------------------------------------------13

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW --------------------------------------------------------------15
CONTINUITY THEOREM ----------------------------------------------------------15
CONVERGENT DUCT --------------------------------------------------------------15
DIVERGENT DUCT -----------------------------------------------------------------15
BERNOULLIS THEOREM ---------------------------------------------------------16
SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW -----------------------------------------------------------17
NORMAL SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS ---------------------------------18
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FUNDAMENTALS
ACCELERATION
DYNAMICS
In physics, dynamics is the study of forces (why objects move).
When studying dynamics, vectors are used to describe forces.
Acceleration is the change in velocity over time. In common

speech, the term acceleration commonly is used for an increase
in speed (the magnitude of velocity); a decrease in speed is
called deceleration.
MOTION
DISPLACEMENT
Motion is change in the location of a body. Change in motion is

the result of applied force. Motion is typically described in terms
of velocity, acceleration, displacement, and time. An objects
velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as
described by Newton's first law also known as Inertia.
Displacement is the shortest directed distance between any two

points.
TIME
Time is a component of the measuring system used to
sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the
intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects.
VELOCITY
Velocity is the rate of change of position. It is measured in
meters per second.
Absolute Velocity
Absolute velocity refers to the velocity of an object as compared
to a fixed object or surface.
SPEED
Speed is a measure of how fast an object is moving. Speed
involves only the length of the path traveled by an object and
the time taken to travel the path.
Units: Miles per Hour (MPH), Kilometers per Hour (KPH), Meters
per Second (mps).
Relative Velocity
MASS
Relative velocity refers to the velocity of an object as compared
to another moving object.
Mass is a measure of the amount of fundamental matter of which

an object is composed.
Units: Kilogram (Kg), Pound (lb)
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WEIGHT
The weight of an object is the effect of gravity on it.
Units: Kgms2', Ibfts2
MOMENTUM
Momentum is defined as the product of the mass of a body and
its velocity. It is the property of a moving body, which determines
the length of time required to rest under the action of a constant
force.
Units: Kilogram Meters per Second
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NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION
NEWTONS FIRST LAW OF MOTION
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to

the total force acting upon it and occurs in the direction of the
force. i.e. the effect of a force depends on its mass, speed and
direction, As shown in the following figure.
Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a

straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by an
external force acting upon it.
i.e. You cannot move, stop or steer anything unless you apply a
force to it, As shown in the following figure.
This law defines force

FORCE
That which attempts to changes the state or position of a body.
Types of forces are gravity, friction, electrical, etc.
Units: Newton, Pound Force (Ibf)
F=ma
Where,
F: force
m: mass
a: acceleration
This law gives rise to concept of inertia.

INERTIA
Centrifugal force
Inertia is resistance of a body to change of state of momentum.

Example :( A ball kept on a level table will remain motionless
until it is made to move by some external action such as a gust
of wind or a push by a person's hand.
Centrifugal force is the force, which tends to causes an object in

circular motion to move further away from the centre of the
circle, as shown in the following figure.
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Centripetal force
NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Centripetal force is the force a restraining agent apply on a

object In rotary motion, As shown in the following figure.
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

This law defines reaction.
The term action means the force exerted by one body on another,
while the reaction means the force the second body exerts on the
first.
These forces always occur in pairs but never cancel each other
because, although equal in magnitude, they always act on different
objects.
As an example, when a person jumps from a boat, it is pushed
backwards with the same force that pushes the person forward. The
person gains the same amount of momentum as the boat receives,
but in opposite directions.
Some examples of Newton's Third Law are shown below.
-
When a balloon is blown up and released, it will travel at a high

speed because of the air expelled in the opposite direction.
When a gun is fired, as the bullet moves at high speed in one

direction, the gun is forced in the other direction, which is
called recoil, As the figure shows.
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Reaction engines
A family of engines uses the principle of the Newton's third law to
create a force called thrust to move vehicles. These engines are
called reaction engines. Because, the force these engines generate is
a reaction to the expelling of hot gasses in the opposite direction.
This family of engines includes engines such as Ramjet, Pulsejet, Gas
Turbine Jet engine and Rocket engine, As shown in the figure.
PULSE JET
RAM JET
ROCKET ENGINE
GAS TURBINE JET

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APPLICATION OF NEWTON'S LAWS

When a balloon is inflated, the inside air pressure, which is
stretching the skin, is greater than the outside pressure. If the
stem is tied closed, the inside air pushes equally in all directions
and the balloon will not move.
Releasing the stem removes a section of the skin on that side of
the balloon against which the air has been pushing. On the side
directly opposite the stem, however, the air continues to push
on an equal area of the skin. It is this unbalanced push on this
area that causes the balloon to move in the direction away from
the stem. The balloon's flight is short because the pressure
within the skin is lost quickly. This handicap can be overcome
by pumping air into the balloon with a bicycle pump so the
pressure and airflow are maintained.
of the balloon, which is in effect a jet nozzle. The transformation

is now complete and the balloon 'jet engine' can operate as long
as there is fuel to burn. The action that Newton's third law
refers to is the acceleration of the escaping air from the rear of
the balloon. The reaction to this acceleration is a force in the
opposite direction acting on the balloon.
Since the forces always occur in pairs, it can be said that if it
takes a certain force to accelerate a mass rearwards, the
reaction to this force is thrust in the opposite direction, As
shown in the following figure.
To transform this apparatus into a self contained jet engine, the

hand pump is replaced with a compressor. And if the
compressor is turned at high speed, a large quantity of air is
passed through the balloon while holding a high pressure inside.
For energy to turn the compressor, a burner is placed in the
stream. Burning fuel raises the air temperature rapidly, and the
air volume is greatly increased. Since the compressor pressure
blocks the forward flow, the air can only move rearwards on the
less restricted path leading to the exit.
By placing a turbine in the path of the heated air, some of this
energy is used to spin the turbine, which in turn, spins the
compressor by means of a connecting shaft. The remaining
energy is expended in expelling the hot gases through the stem
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WORK
PRESSURE
Work is done when force acting on a body causes it to move

through any distance.
Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
Work = Force x Distance

Units: Newton Meters (Nm), Pound force feet (Ib-fft)
Units: Pounds per square Inch (psi), Bar (B), Inches of Mercury
(InHg), Pascal (Pa)
Absolute pressure
POWER
A pressure reading measured with reference to a complete

vacuum.
Power is the rate of doing work.

Power = Work
Power = Force x Distance / Time
Units: Newton Meters per Second (Nm/S), Pound force feet per
second (Ibf ft/s)
Units: psia
Gauge pressure
Gauge
pressure
is
the
pressure
reading
that is obtained from a pressure gauge that is calibrated to
indicate zero at atmospheric pressure or ambient pressure.
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Units: Joule, Foot Pounds
Therefore Gauge pressure is pressure above ambient.

Potential Energy
Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure - Ambient pressure
Potential Energy is the energy a body possesses due to its
condition, position, or its chemical state.
Potential energy = Weight x Height
Units: psig
Differential Pressure
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its
motion.
Kinetic Energy = 1/2 x Mass x Square of Velocity, as shown in the
following figure.
Differential pressure is the difference between two pressures.

The term Delta P refers to this pressure.
Units: psid
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HEAT
Where:
Heat is a form of energy the addition of which results in an

increase of internal energy (kinetic energy of molecules) of a
body.
C = Centigrade
TEMPERATURE
K = Kelvin
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of molecules of

a body.
R = Rankine
F = Fahrenheit
Static Temperature
Units: Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit
Static temperature is a measure of the heat in a gas or liquid.
Temperature Scales Conversion
Total Temperature
The temperature scale normally used in thermodynamics is the
Kelvin scale. American engine manufacturers commonly use
degrees Fahrenheit when describing their engines. It will be
useful, therefore, to remember the conversions:
Total temperature is a measure of the energy in the gas or

liquid.
For interpolation 1C = 18F

C = 5/9 (F 3
K = C + 273
F = (9/5C) + 3
R = F + 460
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INTRODUCTION TO GAS PHYSICS
COMBINED GAS LAW
In order to attain a fuller understanding of the functioning of gas

turbines, it is essential to have an appreciation of the basic gas
laws.
Derived by combining Charles's and Boyle's laws for a unit

mass of gas.
Pressure (P) x Volume (V) = Constant (C)
Temperature (T)
BOYLES LAW
'The volume of a given mass of gas, whose temperature is
maintained constant, is inversely proportional to the gas
pressure.
PV/T=C
What this means is that if the pressure of a given mass of gas is

doubled, its volume is halved, or if the pressure is halved, the
volume will be doubled, provided that the temperature of the
gas remains constant, as shown in the following figure.
PERFECT GAS EQUATION
If the mass is kept constant.
For a unit mass of air (11b.), the constant (C) of above equation
becomes a specific constant known as the Universal Gas
Constant (R).
Pressure (P) x Volume (V) = Constant(C)

If Mass and Temperature kept constant.
PV = C
Pressure (P) x Volume M = UGC (R)

Temperature (T)
PV = MRT
CHARLES LAW
If the pressure of a given mass of a gas is maintained constant,
the volume of gas increases as its temperature is increased.
Volume (V)
= Constant (C)
Temperature (T)
If Mass and Pressure is kept constant.
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CHARLES'S LAW
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GAS DYNAMICS
STATIC AND DYNAMIC PRESSURE
Up to this Point, we have been primarily concerned with the

internal energy of the gasses or air that is due to molecular
activity within the body. But a body of gas can possess energy
that is not due to individual molecular activity. When any body is
moving, its movement represents a considerable amount of
energy. The energy of movement is separate from the energy
inside the body. This concept is one of the most important in
understanding the performance of a turbo-jet engine.
Static Pressure
There is one very significant difference between the internal

molecular energy and the external energy of flow. The
molecules are charging around in random directions so the
energy they possess is exerted in all directions. The whole body
of moving air is moving in only one direction so the energy of
flow can be exerted in only one direction. In other words the
static Pressure inside the body pushes outward from the center
of the body in all directions whereas the pressure of flow is only
in the downstream direction, As shown in the following figure.
Static Pressure refers to the pressure, exerted by a mass of

stationary air, equally on all of the walls of a container.
Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic Pressure refers to the pressure that would be exerted if
a flow of air were brought to a stop.
When the static pressure and the flow pressure are added
together we get what is commonly known as Total Pressure.
This is important because the total pressure represents a
combination of internal and external pressure energy. The total
temperature is likewise the sum of the static and flow
temperatures. If we neither add nor subtract energy from a body
of flowing gas, we still can change internal energy into flow
energy and vice versa. Thus the total temperature and pressure
will stay the same even though the static temperature and
pressure do change into flow energy in the form of velocity, and
this leads to: Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure
Static Temp. + Dynamic Temperature = Total Temperature
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SUBSONIC AIRFLOW
At low airspeeds, the study of aerodynamics is greatly simplified
by the fact that air may experience relatively small changes in
pressure with only negligible changes in density. The airflow is
termed incompressible since the air may undergo changes in
pressure without apparent changes in density. This is similar to
flow of liquid such as water.
CONTINUITY THEOREM
For fluids in steady motion an identical mass of fluid passes
each cross-section of a duct per second.
Density x Velocity x Area = Constant
DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct is one which has an inlet area which is less
than the outlet area. This gives a decrease in velocity with an
increase in pressure and temperature, As shown in the figure.
pVA= C
Where p is density, V is velocity, A is area and C is a constant
CONVERGENT DUCT
A convergent duct is one that has an area at the inlet greater
than the area at the outlet. When air flows through such a duct
it incurs a velocity increase at the expense of the static pressure
and temperature, As shown in the following figure.
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BERNOULLIS THEOREM
Then,
At any point in a tube (or a gas passage) through which liquid

(or gas) is flowing, the sum of the pressure energy, the potential
energy and the kinetic energy is constant. Thus, if one of the
energy factors in a gas flow changes, one or both of the other
variables also changes so that the total energy remains
constant, As shown in the following figure.
P + pV2 = C 2
This theorem gives us the relationship between velocity and

pressure of a stream of air flowing through a tube, or duct, such
as a gas turbine engine.
This theorem is applicable for incompressible fluids only. Air can
consider to be abiding by this theorem when velocities are
subsonic.
From the foregoing theory:
Pressure
Dynamic
Energy
Energy
Potential
Energy
Total Energy
Where: Pressure Energy is energy due to static pressure.

Dynamic energy is kinetic energy.
P + -pV2+pgH = C
Where P is Static Pressure, V is velocity, p is Density g is
gravitational acceleration H is height and C is a constant.
Changes in Potential Energy may be neglected, as it is
negligible for a gas and if there will be no appreciable changes
in height for a fluid.
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SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW
Speed of sound
So far we have dealt with flow velocities of low speed (or

subsonic) nature. The behavior of air under subsonic conditions
is easily predictable. However, when at high speeds, airflow
behavior is altogether different from that of subsonic airflow. At
high airflow speeds, pressure changes that take place are quite
large, and significant changes in density occur; this type of
airflow is called a compressible flow.
Speed of sound is the rate at which small pressure differences

will spread through the air. Speed of sound is not affected by
changes in atmospheric pressure but is affected by changes in
temperature. Therefore the speed of sound can be calculated
as,
If the velocity of the gas flow through a venturi duct is increased

beyond a certain point, Bernoulli's equation can no longer be
applied. This point occurs at approximately the local speed of
sound, beyond which, the effects of convergent and divergent
ducts are reversed.
This is due to the gas flow reaching a velocity where the flow
becomes compressible and no longer follows the theory of
incompressible flow (Bernoulli's equation).
Speed of Sound a = (kRT) 1/2

.
Study of compressibility effects due to high-speed airflow are of
great importance in the design of both aircraft and engines. The
compressibility phenomenon and the speed of sound are closely
related to each other.
As an object moves through the air, velocity and pressure
changes occur which create pressure disturbances in the airflow
surrounding the object. These pressure disturbances propagate
through the air at the local speed of sound.
If the object is traveling below the speed of sound, these
pressure disturbances propagate ahead of the object and
influence the air immediately in front of the object.
If the object is traveling at the speed of sound, these pressure
disturbances will accumulate and form a compression wave or
shock wave immediately in front of the object. This type of
shock wave is called a normal shock wave, as the shock wave
will form perpendicular to the line of travel Shock waves are
very narrow areas of discontinuity where changes in velocity,
pressure and temperature will take place.
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k = ratio of specific heats)

R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)
NORMAL SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS

Air passing through a Normal shock wave will undergo following
changes.
For an ideal gas the speed of sound is proportional to the

square root of the absolute temperature.
Example - Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of sound in air at 0 oC and absolute pressure 1 bar
can be calculated as
Air velocity decreased from supersonic to subsonic.

Air static pressure increases. Magnitude of change
depends on the strength of the shock wave.
Air temperature increases.
Direction of airflow will not change.
And
If the object is traveling at some speed above the speed of

sound, the airflow ahead of the object will not be influenced as
the pressure disturbances cannot propagate ahead of the
object. In this condition the object is out-speeding its own
disturbances. In this condition the airflow ahead of the object is
not influenced until forced out of the way by a concentrated
pressure wave set up by the object. This pressure wave is
formed at an angle to the airflow, therefore is called an oblique
shock wave.
R = 287 (J/K kg)
OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS
The speed of sound in air at 20 oC and absolute pressure 1 bar

can be calculated as
Air passing through an oblique shock wave will undergo

following changes.
c = (1.4 (287 J/K kg) (273 K))1/2

= 331.2 (m/s)
Where
k = 1.4
c = (1.4 (287 J/K kg) (293 K))1/2

= 343.1 (m/s)
Air velocity will decrease but will remain supersonic.

Static pressure of air will increase.
Temperature of air will increase.
Direction of airflow may change.
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SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW
DIVERGENT DUCT
THROUGH
CONVERGENT-
The characteristics of a supersonic airflow through a

convergent-divergent duct are the exact opposite to that of a
subsonic airflow.
Convergent duct
Velocity Decreases
Pressure Increases
Divergent duct
Velocity Increases
Pressure Decreases
Mach Number
The Mach number refers to the speed at which a body is
traveling in relation to the local speed of sound.
The speed of sound varies according to the temperature of the
air and therefore, we must add to the definition the fact that the
speed of sound must be that corresponding to the temperature
of the air in which the body is actually traveling.
oblique shock wave
MACH NO = V/a
Where,
V=actual speed
A=speed of sound
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THERMODYNAMICS
Thermal Efficiency
Thermodynamics is the study of heat flow and heat exchange.

For example, the heat flow from one level to another and the
exchange of heat energy for mechanical energy and mechanical
work for heat energy.
The overall thermal efficiency of a gas turbine engine is equal to

the useful work output divided by the heat of combustion of the
fuel used, when both quantities are measured in the same units,
such as BTU's or horsepower.
1. Laws of thermodynamics I (Conservation of energy)

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but can only be
transformed from one form to another.
The thermal efficiency of an engine may be expressed as the

ratio of heat energy supplied from fuel combustion to the kinetic
energy as represented by the jet nozzle velocity of engine.
2. Laws of thermodynamics II (Transformations of energy)

Heat can only transfer from a warmer body to a cooler
body.
Propulsive Efficiency
EFFICIENCY
A number of Efficiencies are present in gas turbine engine
operation. However, all of them express the ratio of the work
obtained from the machine (or process), to the work or energy
put into each, in producing the desired result. Briefly stated,
efficiency is the output divided by the input, and each
component of the gas turbine such as the compressor, the
burners, the turbines and the exhaust nozzle, has its own
efficiency.
The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work

is termed the propulsive or external efficiency and this is affected
by the amount of kinetic energy wasted, by the propelling
mechanism. Wasted energy dissipated in the jet wake, which
represents a loss, can be expressed as,
Energy wasted; Ew = MaV
Where
V is wasted velocity and V = Vj - Va
Vj is Jet velocity
Va is aircraft velocity
Ma is mass airflow
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the useful work output of a
machine to the work or energy input. This difference is due
chiefly to mechanical friction losses, but also includes gas and
other losses.
It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range the

pure jet stream wasted considerably more energy than a
propeller stream and consequently is less efficient over this
range. However, this factor changes as aircraft speed increases,
because although the jet stream continues to issue at a high
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velocity from the engine its velocity relative to the surrounding

atmosphere is reduced and, in consequence, the waste energy
loss is reduced.
Briefly, propulsive efficiency (Pe) may be expressed as:
Pe =
Work done on the aircraft

Energy imparted to engine airflow
Pe=
______
Work done __________
Work done + work wasted in exhaust
CYCLE EFFICIENCY
Briefly, cycle efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the amount
of useful work obtained from the gas turbine engines actual
cycle to the amount of work that would be obtained from the
same ideal cycle. The ideal work of a cycle would be obtained if
all component efficiencies - compressor efficiency, combustion
efficiency, mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency, jet nozzle
efficiency, etc. were 100 per cent, but since none of the
components are perfect, the actual cycle efficiency is always
less than the ideal.
Work done is the net thrust multiplied by the aircraft speed.
Specific Fuel Consumption
Therefore, progressing from the net thrust equation given

above, the following equation is arrived at:
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) or thrust specific fuel

consumption (TSFC) which is the measure of amount of fuel
used for generation of a unit of thrust. This in turn can be used
as a measure of how efficient an engine is at developing thrust.
TSFC will enable a person to judge how efficient an engine is
relative to another simply by comparing TSFC; even between
engines classed in two different thrust levels.
Pe =
2Va
Va + Vj
Where
HEATING PROCESS IN THERMODYNAMICS
Va is aircraft velocity
Vj is jet velocity
From the above equation we see that if, aircraft speed {Va) is
'0', the efficiency will be zero. If Va equals Vj efficiency will be
100%. But this will never happen as we notice that If Va equals
Vj there will be no acceleration of air through the engine which
means no momentum change i.e. no reaction force, and no
thrust produced. Therefore, the propulsive efficiency must
always be less than 100%.
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Here we will discuss briefly, different ways of heating and

expanding a gas. They are referred to as thermodynamic
processes.
Constant Volume Heating (Isochoric)
A gas, heated in a fixed enclosed space will remain at constant
volume. The heating will be accompanied by a rise in pressure
and temperature.
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As there is no change in volume there will be no external work

done by the gas; the whole of the heat supplied will be stored in
the gas in the form of internal energy.
Constant Pressure Heating (Isobaric)
A gas may be heated whilst enclosed in a cylinder containing a
sliding piston, on which a constant force is acting; this will
maintain a constant pressure in the cylinder, the heating of a
gas under constant pressure causes an increase in volume and
temperature. External work is done owing to the increase in
volume.
Adiabatic Expansion
When a gas expands, doing external work, in such a manner
that no heat is supplied or rejected during the expansion, the
expansion is called adiabatic. The adiabatic expansion may
take place in an engine cylinder, in which case no heat passes
through the cylinder walls and work is done on the piston as the
gas expands. The following three conditions must be satisfied in
this type of expansion:
(a) No heat is supplied or rejected during the expansion.
(b) Work of some nature, must be done by the gas in expanding.
(c) The expansion is assumed to be frictionless.
Constant Temperature Heating (Isothermal Expansion)

If heat is supplied to a gas whilst maintaining temperature
constant the gas will expand, doing external work equal to the
amount of heat supplied. An expansion at constant temperature
is known as an isothermal expansion. When a gas is
compressed or expanded in accordance with the Boyle's Law,
the change is said to take place isothermally.
As the gas is not receiving heat, the work done must be

performed at the expense of its own supply of internal energy.
Hence, it follows, that the temperature will fall during an
adiabatic expansion, and will rise during an adiabatic
compression
Such a process can only be approached in practice if the change

takes place slowly so that all the heat of compression or
expansion was absorbed or supplied by an external source. In
practice changes takes place quickly and there is always a
change in temperature so that the isothermal change has no
practical significance in connection with our consideration of the
Gas Turbine Engine.
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CYCLE
Due to the heating stages of each cycle take place in different

conditions, so different types of cycle are resulted.
A cycle is a process that begins with some known conditions

and ends with those same conditions.
There are mainly two forms of cycle; they are the open cycle
and the close cycle. The typical example for a close cycle is the
operation of a piston engine, and the example for an open cycle
is the operation of a jet engine. The same series of events, i.e.
intake, compression, power, and exhaust take place in both, the
main difference being that in the jet engine, all these events are
happening simultaneously but each event take place in separate
component design for its particular function, and the cycle is
continuous as long as the engine is running. This is why the
cycle for a jet engine is called a open cycle or a continuous flow
cycle.
For the case of a piston engine, all the events take place one
after or each event must follow the preceding one, and they all
occurs in the same chamber i.e. engine cylinder, and the cycle
is constantly repeating itself.
We come to look at two different types of cycle which we usually
come across, they are the:
1. Constant volume cycle or the Otto cycle.
2. Constant pressure cycle or the Brayton cycle.
THE OTTO CYCLE

(THE CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE)
The reciprocating engine operates on what is commonly termed
a closed cycle.
1. In the series of events shown in Fig. 1-39, air is drawn in on
the intake stroke at point 1, where compression by this
piston raises the temperature and decreases the volume of
the gases.
2. Near the end of the compression stroke, point 2, ignition
occurs, which greatly increases the temperature of the
mixture. The term "constant volume" is derived from the fact
that from point 2 to 3 there is no appreciable change of
volume while the mixture is burning.
3. Point 3 to 4 represents the expansion stroke with a loss of
temperature and pressure, and a corresponding increase in
volume. It might be noted that this is the only stroke of the
four from which power may be extracted.
4. When the exhaust valve opens near the end of the power
stroke (point 4 to 1), the gases lose their remaining pressure
and temperature and the closed cycle starts all over again.
These cycles will commence with a certain known conditions

and goes through the usual events of intake compression,
combustion, expansion and exhaust, then end up with more or
less the same conditions as it began.
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THE BRAYTON CYCLE

(THE CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE)
Since all of the events are going on continuously, it can be said
that the gas turbine engine works on what is commonly called
an open cycle. Refer Fig.
1. As in the reciprocating engine, air is drawn in and
compressed (point 1 to 2) with a corresponding rise in
pressure and temperature, and a decrease in volume.
2. Point 2 to 3 represents the change caused by the burning of
the fuel air mixture in the combustion chamber at an
essentially constant pressure, but with a very large increase
in volume. This increase in volume shows up as an increase
in velocity because the engine area does not change much
in this section.
3. From the burner, the gases expand through the turbine
wheel causing an increase in volume and a decrease in
temperature and pressure (Point 3 to 4).
4. This process continues from point 4 to 5 through the
exhaust nozzle.
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THRUST
Distribution of Thrust
The thrust developed within a gas turbine engine is, as
previously stated, the acceleration of a mass airflow within the
engine. The acceleration can be rearward as well as forward.
The total forward thrust is the gross thrust developed by the
engine but the forward thrust less the rearward thrust is the net
thrust developed. Since the rearward thrust can be over 60% of
the total this means that, with other losses, there is less than
40% left over to drive the aeroplane forwards.
The force of the thrust is felt against all the static and rotating
parts of the engine. The thrust felt against the rotating parts has
to be transferred to the static part and then passed to the
airframe to drive the aircraft forwards.
Not all of the thrust is felt in the same place; it is spread
variously along the engine so that some is developed at the
compressor and some at the combustion section, and so on.
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Basic Construction and Operation of the Pure Jet

The modern jet engine is basically cylindrical in shape as it is
essentially a duct into which the necessary parts are fitted. The
parts from front to rear are the: Compressor
Combustion system
Turbine assembly
Exhaust system
A shaft connects the turbine to the compressor and fuel burners
are positioned in the combustion system. Initial ignition is
provided once the air flow is produced by rotation of the
compressor; the pressure of the mass ensures the expanding
gas travels in a rearward direction. Once ignition is achieved,
the flame will be continuous, providing fuel is supplied and the
ignition device can be switched off. The hot gases crossing the
turbine produce torque to drive the compressor; therefore the
starter can also be switched off.
Stage Centrifugal Flow Turbojet

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Add a higher by-pass ratio, the engine shown above is a low

by-pass of around 1:1, to make the engine more efficient at
lower altitudes and speeds and the turbofan comes into
existence. These have ratios of over 1:1 to more than 65 and
are said to be high by-pass engines. Note that the British term
is a twin spool engine but the Americans use the phrase dual
axial. On some high by-pass engines the cold air and the hot
air emerge as separate streams; on others, the streams are
combined in what is called a common nozzle.
The high bypass turbofan engine is essentially a fixed pitch,
multi-bladed, ducted propeller. It shifts a very large mass of air
faster than a conventional propeller but much more slowly than
a pure jet. It is able to move this large mass of air quite quickly
because, unlike a propeller blade, the fan blade can cut through
the air at supersonic velocities the tip is usually quoted as
moving at around Mach 1.3.
Triple Spool Front Fan turbojet

(High By-Pass Ration)
It is for this reason that some turbofans have mid-span shrouds
(snubbers or clappers) at some stage along their length to
support them and stop them whipping or flapping in the
airflow. Wide chord fan blades do not require these supports.
As stated above, the air mass flow is cooler leaving a by-pass
engine so that the thrust is achieved by moving the air through a
larger area of nozzle. By making a comparison between pure
jet engines and by-pass engines more differences can be found.
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The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they are
smaller overall spool sizes and permits a closer matching

between the components, this, in turn, leads to less stages in
both the compressor and the turbine to perform the same tasks.
For a given mass flow of air through the engine a by-pass
engine produces less thrust due to the lower exit velocity. To
obtain the same thrust, a by-pass engine must be scaled to
move a greater mass flow of air than a pure jet engine. The
weight of the engine is still less than the equivalent pure jet
engine because of the reduced size of the HP section which still
gives an improvement in the power-weight ratio as well as a
lower specific fuel consumption (this will be dealt with later).
BASIC CONSTRUCTION
TURBOPROP ENGINE
dealing with the whole mass flow of air through the engine. Bypass engines are only using a proportion of the air through the
turbines which mean, in turn, that the HP compressor and the
combustor can now be made smaller and, therefore, lighter. In
order to obtain the same power at the turbine to drive the
compressors and the accessories, the turbine inlet temperature
is elevated and the pressure ratio is also increased. The core
engine is not only narrower but shorter and the use of modern
materials and improved gas flow characteristics makes for a
considerably lighter engine. The weight reduction on a typical
low by-pass engine over a pure jet of similar mass flow is
around 20%.
Curiously, the number of parts in a triple spool engine is less
than those in a twin spool. This is brought about by having
15.1 - 31
AND
OPERATION
OF
THE
The turbo-prop (turbo-propeller engine) is a combination of a

gas turbine and a propeller. Turbo-props are basically similar to
turbo-jet engines in that both have a compressor, combustion
chamber(s), turbine and jet nozzle, all of which operate in the
same manner on both engines.
However, the difference is that the turbine in the turbo-prop
engine usually has more stages than that in the turbo-jet
engine.
In addition to operating the compressor and
accessories the turbo-prop turbine transmits increased power
forward, through a shaft and a gear train, to drive the propeller.
The increased power is generated by the exhaust gases
passing additional stages of the turbine.
The exhaust gases and reaction within the engine also
contribute to engine power output through jet reaction; the
amount of energy available for jet thrust is roughly 10% on most
modern engines at ISA (SL).
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Category Aerospace
Single Entry Two Stage Centrifugal Flow Turbo propeller

The turbo propeller pictured above is known as a fixed turbine
unit. This is because the turbine drives the compressor,
accessory gearbox and reduction gearbox (propeller) as one
mechanically coupled unit. This is a very simple system. It is
light for the power output obtained and relatively simple to
maintain.
Most turbo propeller engines are now free turbine units. This is
a design where there is one turbine to drive the compressor and
the accessory gearbox and another turbine to drive the
reduction gear and propeller. The only link between the core
engine (the turbine, compressor and accessory gearbox) and
the propeller drive is energy rich gas.
Free power turbines are connected to the gas generator solely
by a stream of energy enriched gas, there is no mechanical
coupling.
The turbo propeller engine shown above is a combination of the

two because it has a free turbine that also drives a LP
compressor and a HP compressor driven by its own turbine.
The accessories are driven from the gas generator (core) the
HP section.
The typical turbo-prop engine can be broken down into
assemblies as follows:
The power section assembly which contains the usual major
components of gas turbine engines (compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine and exhaust system).
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The reduction gear or gear-box assembly which contains those

sections peculiar to turbo-prop configurations.
BASIC CONSTRUCTION
TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE
The torque meter assembly which transmits the torque from the
engine to the gear box to the reduction section.
A gas turbine engine that delivers power through a shaft to

operate something other than a propeller is referred to as a
turbo shaft engine. Turbo-shaft engines are similar to turbo-prop
engines. The power take-off may be coupled directly to the
engine turbine or the shaft may be driven by a turbine. The free
turbine is located downstream of the engine turbine. The free
turbine independently, being connected to the main engine only
by the hot stream of gases. This principle is used in the majority
of turbo-shaft engines currently produced and is being used
extensively in helicopters and hovercraft.
The accessory drives housing assembly.

The turbo-prop engine can be used in many different
configurations. It is often used in transport aircraft, but can be
adapted for use in single-engine aircraft.
Free Turbine Turbopropeller
AND
OPERATION
OF
THE
Free Turbine Turbo shaft
Twin spool Turbo shaft with Free Turbine

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PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE TURBO-PROP AND THE

TURBO-JET
Comparative Engine Propulsive Efficiencies
Fixed Turbine Turbo shaft
At aircraft speeds below approximately 450 mph the pure jet

engine is less efficient than a propeller-type engine, since its
propulsive efficiency depends largely on its forward speed; the
pure jet engine is, therefore, most suitably for high forward
speeds. The propeller efficiency does, however, decrease
rapidly above 350 mph due to the disturbance of the airflow
caused by the high blade-tip speeds of the propeller. These
characteristics have led to some departure from the use of pure
turbo-jet propulsion where aircraft operate at medium speeds by
the introduction of a combination of propeller and gas turbine
engine.
The advantages of the propeller/turbine combination have to
some extent been offset by the introduction of the by-pass,
ducted fan and prop-fan engines. These engines deal with
larger comparative airflows and lower jet velocities than the
pure jet engine, thus giving a propulsive efficiency which is
comparable to that of a turbo-prop and exceeds that of the pure
jet engine.
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Gas Turbine Fundamentals Guide

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Training Centre

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS --------------------------------- 18

SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH A CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT DUCT

PERFECT GAS EQUATION --------------------------------------------------------11

BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE TURBO-SHAFT

GAS DYNAMICS --------------------------------------------------------------------13

PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE TURBO-PROP AND THE TURBO-JET 34

STATIC AND DYNAMIC PRESSURE ---------------------------------------------13

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

Page Intentionally Left Blank

For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

Acceleration is the change in velocity over time. In common

Motion is change in the location of a body. Change in motion is

Displacement is the shortest directed distance between any two

Mass is a measure of the amount of fundamental matter of which

For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION

NEWTONS FIRST LAW OF MOTION

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to

Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a

This law defines force

This law gives rise to concept of inertia.

Inertia is resistance of a body to change of state of momentum.

Centrifugal force is the force, which tends to causes an object in

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals

NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Centripetal force is the force a restraining agent apply on a

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

When a balloon is blown up and released, it will travel at a high

When a gun is fired, as the bullet moves at high speed in one

For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.1 Fundamentals