Journal of Holistic Nursing

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Narrative Criticism : A Systematic Approach to the Analysis of Story

Linda Honan Pellico and Peggy L. Chinn
J Holist Nurs 2007 25: 58
DOI: 10.1177/0898010106295188
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Journal of Holistic Nursing

Volume 25 Number 1
March 2007 58-65
2007 American Holistic
Nurses Association
10.1177/0898010106295188
http://jhn.sagepub.com
hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com

Narrative Criticism
A Systematic Approach to the Analysis of Story*
Linda Honan Pellico, PhD, APRN
Yale University School of Nursing

Peggy L. Chinn, PhD, RN, FAAN

University of Connecticut
Research reveals that writing about ones experiences offers an individual the opportunity to improve function,
develop insight, and foster growth. Storytelling and story writing are pedagogical tools used frequently in practice
professions. It is reasonable to see these writings as a rich source for research. They are vehicles for understanding
human experience and aesthetic knowing. This article presents an innovation in the method used for analysis of stories. It is a blending of two established methods, those of narrative analysis as described by Riessman (1993), and
aesthetic criticism by Chinn, Maeve, and Bostick (1997). The merging of both methods, termed narrative criticism,
allows for a rich level of insight into unique human experiences.
Keywords: aesthetic; method; narrative; stories

arrative as a healing modality is coming of age.

Narrative is also recognized as a rich ground from
which to develop new insight and new knowledge. One
can scarcely open a journal, Web site, or course offering
without noting the presence of the use of story. From the
classroom (Beck, 1997; Diekelmann & Diekelmann,
2000; Evans & Severtsen, 2001), to the computer screen
(Cangelosi & Whitt, 2006; Perry, 2005), the institutions
(Jones, 1997; Olthuis, Dekkers, Leget, Vogelaar, 2006;
Painter, 2002; Williams & Jarman, 2006) and to the privacy of ones room (Boud, 2001; Gaydos, 2005;
Hiemstra, 2001; Pellico, 2004; Peterson & Jones, 2001;
Riley-Doucet & Wilson, 1997), storytelling and story
writing have become standard pedagogical tools to
improve learning. Because writing about ones experiences offers an individual the opportunity to improve
function, develop insight, and foster growth, it is reasonable to see these stories as a rich source for research.
This article presents a proposed integrated method
used for analysis of narratives, with the purpose of
understanding human experience and aesthetic knowing. It is a blending of two established methods, those of
narrative analysis as described by Riessman (1993), and
aesthetic criticism by Chinn, Maeve, and Bostick
(1997). The integrated method, termed narrative criticism, was developed to analyze stories written by nonnurse college graduates entering nursing to gain insight
concerning their transition into nursing (Pellico, 2004);
58

however, it can be used with any examination of stories.

This method draws on a tradition of structural analysis
that some may see or view as linked to a positivistic
approach to knowing. This is not the authors aim.
Rather, our intent is to move toward an aesthetic method
grounded in a thorough understanding of structure and
form as a prerequisite for aesthetic insight or knowing.

Background
Writing illuminates kinds of understanding that
encompass being (Heidegger, 1962). It brings about
understanding of who one is and how one operates
within the world (Boud, 2001). It is not simply recording ones story but reflecting on ones experience that
brings about personal insight and solutions to problems
(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Indeed, journal writing
has demonstrated positive benefits in psychological
health (Dellasega & Haagen, 2004; Donnelly & Murray,
1991; Murray & Segal, 1994; Pennebaker & Beall,
1986), immune function (Petrie, Booth, Pennebaker,
Davison, & Thomas, 1995; Petrie, Fontanilla, Thomas,
Booth, & Pennebaker, 2004) and functional ability
(Kelley, Lumley, & Leisen, 1997; Smyth, 1998; Smyth,
*This article is available for Continuing Nursing Education credit
at www.ahna.org.

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Pellico, Chinn / Narrative Criticism 59

Stone, Hurewitz, & Kaell, 1999), as well as medical

(Charon, 2001, 2004) and nursing students clinical
competency (Glaze, 2001; Ibarreta & McLeod, 2004;
Kok & Chabeli, 2002; Lyons, 1999; Magnussen &
Trotter, 1997; Patton et al., 1997; Schaefer, 2002;
Sedlak, 1999). As Larkin and Zahourek (1988) noted,
stories can propose ideas and potential solutions to
problems, give instruction for action, and reframe situations to see things in a new and different light
(p. 48). It is not surprising that the use of journal writing as a means to reflect on practice has been broadly
adopted in nursing and in medicine nationally and
internationally (Beynon & Forchuk, 1998; Charon,
1986, 2001, 2004; Gaydos, 2005; Kok & Chabeli,
2002; Lyons, 1999; Sedlak, 1999). As Butcher (2004)
noted, Narratives provide insight into peoples
thoughts, feelings, and words as they deal with issues
of loss, sometimes failing and sometimes succeeding (p. 39). When analyzed, these personal narratives can illuminate individual and collective action
and meanings, as well as the social processes by which
social life and human relationships are made and
changed (Laslett, 1999, p. 392). From the singular
story, shared universal experiences can be proposed.
Narrative embraces structure and meaning. Whereas
structure refers to the form in which the author chooses
to create, that is poetry, prose, or drawings; meaning
has to do with the authors interpretation of what has
happened. Narrative offers a way of gaining understanding and exploring our own world and offering
others a glimpse of our experiences, beliefs, and values. It is a means of personal knowing and a means of
illumination for those who analyze the stories.
Equally significant is the understanding that when
one renders an account of experience in the form of narrative, the creations represent the act of producing art.
The act of writing moves beyond a cursory appreciation
of experience to reveal deeper meanings associated
with aesthetic knowing. It was Carper who in 1978
coined the four fundamental patterns of knowing in
nursing. They are the empirics or science of nursing, the
ethics, the aesthetic or art of nursing, and personal
knowing. This early article has been recognized for its
clarity, simplicity, and comprehensiveness when considering the work of nursing. Chinn and Kramer (2004)
expanded on Carpers early work and described aesthetic knowing as that aspect of knowing that connects
with deep meanings of a situation and calls forth inner
creative resources that transform experience into what
is not yet real, but possible (p. 193). Chinn (Chinn
et al., 1997) described the expression of this knowledge
as transformative artacts that may take the form of art
or literature and seek an answer to the questions: what

does this mean and how is this significant? Whether

one uses clay or pencil, ones body or voice to create
or write about a nursing experience, these are all
examples of the transformative artacts that Chinn
described. These creative expressions can be analyzed
for themes, meanings, and/or commonalties that give
voice to this dimension of aesthetic knowing.
The ability to see the quality of the art in the first
place is referred to as connoisseurship, or the art of
appreciation (Eisner, 1998, p. 63). Criticism is the discursive aspect of aesthetic knowing (Chinn & Kramer,
2004). It is the process of enabling others to see the
qualities that a work of art possesses, to essentially
midwife insight (Eisner, 1999, p. 6). To state it simply,
the connoisseur is capable of appreciating the art within
the object; the ability to then make visible that awareness is termed criticism (Eisner, 1998). The aesthetic
method requires that the researchers skills, competencies with the subject matter, and personal lens related
to the subject matter are realized. Therefore, the
researcher needs to compose an explicit account of
these required personal perspectives before beginning
the investigation (refer to Table 1).

Method
As in other methods, narrative criticism begins by
posing research questions that guide the analysis and
interpretation. Examples include: what were pivotal
moments or turning points described by the writers;
what did the writers identify as personal insights,
strengths, and/or talents; what were the critical elements noted in the experience described by the writer.
The method that is presented here involves initially
completing the narrative analysis and then building
on this foundation, adding aesthetic criticism as a
means to portray a deeper, broader meaning for the
culture under study. The twofold modes of analysis in
the current study required the researcher to assume
dual roles: narrative analyst and connoisseur.

Narrative Method
According to the guidelines developed by
Riessman (1993), there are at least five levels considered when writing, telling, and analyzing story, with
fluidity between and among each level. The levels are
identified as attending, telling, transcribing, analyzing, and reading (p. 10).
Attending: the process by which certain phenomena are
represented as meaningful and implies choice,
selection, interest, and value. What is chosen for

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60 Journal of Holistic Nursing

Table 1
Narrative Criticism
1. Composing the researchers lens.
2. Determining whether the narratives meet the criteria for inclusion in the study.
3. Conducting a pilot study using projected structural and analysis methods.
4. Delineate the structure of each of the stories depending on the framework chosen.
5. Analyze each story for figures of speech, archetypal forms, critical moments, turning points, themes, and/or ideas. Considers
technical, ethical, political, and personal perspectives and memos when the reflections occur.
6. Identify and synthesize the relationships among the stories.
7. Express the analysis.

inclusion in the current study can reveal much

about these valuations.
Telling: how the writer expressed the experience, and in
addition, how the writer wishes to be known to herself or himself and to the reader. It is understood
that the writers may present themselves in a particular light to the reader and may present the story
differently for someone else.
Transcribing: the method by which the stories or conversations are captured and involves decisions that
affect researchers interpretations. Examples
include audiotape, videotape, or written work.
Analyzing: Actively examining and probing the narratives, creating distinctions among the stories and
identifying similarities. A metastory or new composite story is created from the many stories.
Reading: the final stage when the analysts interpretations are recorded and read by colleagues or participants. The reading can be in the form of publications
or presentations of the interpretation.

It is understood that the object of investigation is

the story itself (Riessman, 1993, p. 1). As noted earlier, narrative embraces structure and meaning, and
both must be analyzed. Structure is a characteristic of
the narrative; unpacking the text (p. 6) is an activity
that the analyst undertakes. The classic method of analyzing language suggested by Burke (1969) is one
option. In this method, each story is examined for
aspects such as act (what was done), scene (where was
it done), agent (who did it), agency (by what means or
instruments did they do it), and purpose (why they did
it). Another is Labovs (1982) framework that analyzes each narrative for an abstract (summary of the
narratives essence), orientation (person, time, place,
etc.), complicating action (sequence of events), evaluation (significance and meaning), resolution (what
happened in the end), and coda (return to present point
of view). A further option is Gees (1991) linguistic
approach, where stories are divided into lines, stanzas,
and strophes. Attention is paid to changes in features

of speech (pitch, pause, etc.) emphasizing the poetics of a narrative. In addition to the frameworks
described, verb construction is assessed, that is,
whether verbs are active (I did this) or passive (this
happened to me). As with other methods, the structural approach chosen should be determined by the
research questions asked and the narratives under
study (Beck, 2006).
Riessman (1993) recommended beginning the
analysis with structural aspects to avoid reading the narratives for content alone and/or evidence of prior theory.
The parsing of a story or the analysis of storys structure
is what opens up issues of interpretation for readers to
see such as power (whose voice was heard) or contradictions (incongruity or inconsistency) within the narratives. When the structure is parsed, meanings emerge.
The aesthetic criticism phase of the analysis begins
with completion of the narrative analysis process.
Aesthetic criticism, in combination with narrative
analysis, provides a means of expressing the broad
interpretation of artistic expressions through a connoisseurs lens. The aim of this method is to put forward
interpretations and meanings that come from the studied perspective of the connoisseur, not to establish a single supreme perspective that is reproducible. The
connoisseur examines all possible meanings to differentiate between that which is shallow, individual, and
on the surface and that which is deep, complex, and
universal. What is presented in the findings is intended
to give insight into possible meanings that may not be
readily apparent to others.

Aesthetic Criticism
It is understood that those who hear and see the
works of art also engage in an aesthetic experience of
perceiving meaning in a situation (Chinn & Kramer,
2004, p. 214). Aesthetic criticism is the process of
bringing the connoisseurs lens to bear in the work. It
is the formal discursive method for expression of the

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Pellico, Chinn / Narrative Criticism 61

Table 2
Theme of Intimacy and Intensity of Nursing
Nursing transgresses the normal bounds of social interaction, and I marvel at how even as a complete novice I am granted unquestioned
access to the most intimate of physical and emotional spaces. Sometimes I feel brutally unprepared, as if I lacked the emotional
algorithm to process what I encounter. How to respond when Frances tells me this dying business is hard to get used to.
Sucking for air. Eyes watering. Body jerking. Gasping. He finally found his breath. I think for those few seconds he missed it.
Please dont leave me alone, she pleaded, there is too much pain when I am alone.
From behind that nurses station, I swore Id never be one of those women, smelling like the sputum they just suctioned. But I guess
I am.
S. was trying to wiggle and snake the catheter between her legs! I thought about the fact that this beautiful woman had all these
strangers touching her where many women are afraid to touch themselves. I thought about her having to depend on her mother to
toilet her, her own mother administers enemas and took care of her children. I thought of the humility and humanity exchanged
everyday of this incredible relationship.
..it dawned on me that I was not a stranger or an intruder. I was a nurse now, and as a member of this group, I will forever be privy to
peoples most intimate and personal moments, a privilege that few professions afford.
But I also am amazed at all that I have seen, particularly in the intimate way that I have been included, if even for a short while, into
the mysteries of peoples lives. I never fully understood what a scary place the hospital is, how it robs you of your dignity and
shames you in so many ways. I never understood what an incredibly lonely place it is.
As students were taught about the privilege of patient-nurse intimacy, but suddenly when I was experiencing it, I felt the personal
impact of both the privilege and the intimacy. The mere fact that she requested this type of assistance demonstrated an admirable
degree of egotistical disarmament. Secondly, I realized that the task I had just completed would have been awkward even between
two lovers, much less to strangers.
I could still smell him on my skin. In my hair. I could taste him in the back of my mouth.
His sweat combined with mine. His shit. His sheets.
His silent stink. Intimate strangers. Never invited. Never introduced. No hihellonicetomeetyouhowareyoufine.

aesthetic experience (Chinn & Kramer, 2004) and

consists of the following essential elements: historical
integration, comparative description of the art form,
consideration of plausible interpretations of meaning,
and translation of future possibility.

Historical integration involves understanding the

history of the storys content and reflecting on its
significance over time. It can involve placing the
work in the context of earlier and later work but
may also be seen as interpreting the significance of
a singular story in cultural or institutional context.
Comparative description of the art form: When analyzing the narratives, comparative descriptions are
made between the individual artwork and others so
that the uniqueness and significance of the individuals work within the community under inquiry can
be identified. Correlates to Glaser and Strausss
(1967) constant comparative analysis are seen.
Consideration of plausible interpretations of meaning refers to the critic or researcher remaining open
and fluid in her or his analysis. There is a deliberate rereading of the story on different days as a
means to seek alternative insight.
Translation of future possibility is where the
researchers interpretations are expressed and criticism provided for the purpose of continued development of the discipline or understanding of the
research topic.

The translation feature sets the stage for inspiration (Chinn & Kramer, 2004). Just as the narrative
analysis method creates a metastory, the aesthetic
method creates a meta-aesthetic product. A myriad of
forms can be used such as music, art, or video to
express the researchers art-act.

Processes Used to Carry Out

Narrative Criticism
The first step is for the researchers lens to be composed. Included in the narrative is a discussion of the
researchers strengths with specific reference as to
why the investigator is capable of judging the work.
In doing so, the investigators history with the topic,
subject, and/or experience illustrates her or his ability
to develop insight into the work.
The next step is to determine the sample. In this
stage, the researcher studies the journal stories, poems,
drawings, and so on and determines whether they meet
the criteria for inclusion in the study; that is, can they
be analyzed for narrative and aesthetic significance?
Whereas structure includes aspects such as act and
scene, sequence of events, and resolution, or stanzas
and strophes that are easily verifiable, meaning and
aesthetic value is a subjective assessment. Suggested
inclusion criteria for poetry, prose, or sketches include:

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62 Journal of Holistic Nursing

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Does the story relate a vivid story that addresses

the research questions?
Are essential elements present in the story, that is:
act, scene, agent, agency, and/or purpose?
Does the story present with substantive richness?
Does the story relate a diversity of clinical situations, challenges, thoughts, and/or issues related to
the research questions?
Does the story reflect common or typical issues
encountered concerning the research question?

When inclusion criteria are determined, all stories

that meet the conditions are typed, compared to the
original written text for accuracy, and laid end to end
in a word document. Each line of the transcript is numbered from line number one to the end consecutively.
The title of each story, if provided, and the transcript
line numbers for each narrative is documented. This
will allow the researcher more fluid access to the stories in question when interpreting the data and provides for an audit trail.
A template is created that includes the elements
essential to this method (structure, meaning, and aesthetic criticism). Significant phrases or statements that
directly relate to the research questions are extracted.
An area for memoing for each story is created. In
addition, notes are kept on thoughts and impressions
as they occur. Reflection on the stories, poems, poetry,
and sketches involves reading and rereading the narratives a minimum of two times before considering the
research questions.
A pilot study of selected works is suggested for
refinement of procedures and personal lens. Three stories are considered an appropriate number on which to
evaluate the data analysis procedures. Refinement of
the researchers personal lens and data analysis procedures based on the pilot study is next. Each story,
poem, poetry, or sketch is analyzed on a minimum of
two separate occasions to note any additional insight
into the research questions or aims.

Data Analysis
This type of analysis is complex and demanding.
There are a total of seven steps to narrative criticism.
The first three have been described previously; that is,
composing the researchers lens, determining whether
the narratives meet the criteria for inclusion in the
study, and conducting a pilot study. In Step 4, the
investigator delineates the structure of each of the stories. As noted above, one can choose from several
approaches when distinguishing the stories structure.

The framework chosen will be determined by the

researcher as the best fit to the research question and
type of sample under study. Grids are created for each
story depending on the structural approach chosen. In
addition to the selected structural approach, favored
words used by the writers and verb constructions are
noted in the grid, that is, whether verbs are active (I
did this) or passive (This happened to me). It is the
unpacking of the story that opens the story up for
interpretation of meaning.
It is at this point that the two methods overlap. In
Step 5, both methods suggest analyzing data for figures
of speech, archetypal forms, critical moments, turning
points, themes, and/or ideas of each story. The findings
should be noted, clustered, and examined. In addition,
the researcher as connoisseur considers technical, ethical, political, and personal perspectives (Chinn et al.,
1997) and memos when the reflections occur. The sixth
step is for the researcher to identify and synthesize the
relationships among the stories by listing and then juxtaposing them with the other stories, bringing to bear
the connoisseurs expertise with the subject and culture
under study. During this process, the researcher draws
conclusions about the relationships between the stories
and develops insights regarding history and context.
When grouped and examined, the depth and breadth of
the theme emerges, revealing a richer understanding of
the diversity and power of voice. Table 2 provides evidence of the thick descriptions and range of meaning
the stories revealed about the intimacy and intensity of
nursing from the perspectives of novice students.
The investigator in Step 6 concatenates each analysis of the individual stories according to the research
questions posed. For example, all documentation relating to critical elements of the experience can be
merged into one document. The investigator clusters
the findings so that the essential elements can be articulated. From the numerous stories a new richer sense
of the experience is created and described. The
researcher seeks stories in opposition to others so a
more complex understanding of the phenomenon of
interest is recalled and then described.
The final phase or Step 7 is expressing the analysis.
A discursive description based on the findings of the
study represents the vehicle to express this new knowledge. In addition to this discursive narrative, an aesthetic report should be considered that capstones the
findings of the experience under study. A myriad of
forms can be used such as music, art, poetry, prose, and
video to express the aesthetics. In the end, a metastory
and art form are created.

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Pellico, Chinn / Narrative Criticism 63

Methods to Ensure Rigor

in Narrative Criticism
The aim of narrative inquiry is not certainty but
believability, not control but insight and understanding. Narrative analysis allows one to learn about the
general from the particular (Riessman, 1993, p. 70).
The questions of validity of the analysts findings can
be found in answers to any of four possible criteria:
persuasiveness, correspondence, coherence, and pragmatic usefulness. Not all are necessary or required;
however, the extent to which these criteria can be documented supports the validity of the study.
Persuasiveness answers the question: Is this interpretation clear, coherent, meaningful, and convincing
(Riessman, 1993)? If the audience concurs with the
results, persuasiveness is achieved. Correspondence
refers to going back to the correspondents and
affirming the analysis. Riessman (1993) argued that
our theorizing across a number of narratives [cannot]
be evaluated by individual narrators (p. 67).
However, the researchers audit trail exists to provide
plausible interpretation and evidence of consistency
with the original story. It is a means to avoid the
predicament of representation or what Sandelowski
(2006) described as maintaining the voicelessness of
the participants. Coherence refers to interpretations
that are rich and related. Pragmatic use refers to
whether the study becomes the basis of other work. It
is seen with the studys application and extension in
other research, practice, and/or educational settings.
Because the aesthetic interpretation extends beyond
the original intent of the storyteller, the researcher
must turn to those experienced with the subject and/or
culture to concur that the results are reasonable. There
are three guiding principles for affirming aesthetic
knowledge. The first is observers agree that the aesthetic product is grounded in the human experience.
The second is that the aesthetic product expands the
dimensions of meaning, that is, the audience learned
from the study. Finally, that future possibilities are
illuminated as a result of the creative expression
(Chinn & Kramer, 2004). Future possibilities include
but are not limited to the unfolding of the experience
itself; that is, being able to see the creative possibilities in human understanding that the stories detail.
With the merging of these two methods, the authors
contend that there is no canon on which truth and validity of the study can be measured. The truth value of the
work is established not in the replicability or generalizibility of the interpretations but rather in the plausibility
of the connoisseurs interpretations, or the extent to

which the interpretations resonate as plausible meanings of human experience. Ultimately, narrative criticism is open to multiple translations by different
readers; thus the adoption of set procedures and a connoisseurs approach is of paramount importance. A
storys meanings are dependent on the background,
biases, expectations, perspectives, and interpretation skills of the writer and the reader (Clandinin
& Connelly, 2000; Gergen & Gergen, 1986). As
Polkinghorne (1988) noted, each reader brings to
a narrative a different set of experiences and expectations. Differences in interpretation can be derived
from differences in personal experience and social
understanding (p. 97).
In the end, the aim of narrative criticism is not to
reveal the correct view of a story but rather to provide
insight and understanding into the work. Our stories
about experiences in health care or academic institutions need to move beyond creative writing awards,
grades, or publication in popular and scholarly press.
They are a rich source of understanding about the
experience of nursing and offer us evidenced based
data on the quality and outcomes of nursing education
and our health care systems. In addition, nurses stories
offer us an opportunity to reveal aesthetic knowing.
What we need is a means to unearth the insight of the
written word and the aesthetics associated with the creation. The method of narrative criticism provides a systematic approach to the study of stories and holds
promise for future applications.

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Linda Honan Pellico, PhD, APRN, is an assistant professor of

nursing at Yale University. She has taught in the accelerated graduate entry program at Yale since 1989 and is interested in creative
teaching and narrative scholarship.
Peggy L. Chinn, PhD, RN, FAAN, Professor Emerita of nursing at the University of Connecticut. She has authored books
and journal articles in the areas of nursing theory, feminism
and nursing, the art of nursing, and nursing education. She is
cofounder of the Nurse Manifest project, www.nursemanifest
.com.

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