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Doc Brown's Edexcel GCSE Science-Biology Revision Notes

EDEXCEL GCSE Additional Science BIOLOGY UNIT B2 The components of life STUDY NOTES
BIOLOGY UNIT B2 Topic 1 The building blocks of cells Revision Notes

A cell is the smallest unit of life able to control its own activities, but it relies on the rest of the organism (if multicellular) or the
surroundings (if unicellular) to provide it with raw materials i.e. nutrients and removal
1.1 Be able to describe the function of the components of a bacterial cell including chromosomal
DNA, plasmid DNA, flagella and cell wall (see diagram and notes below).
Bacterial cells are much smaller than plant or animal cells with some quite distinct and different features.
Chromosomal DNA: One long strand of DNA comprises the single chromosome that controls the cells functions and the
cell division of replication.
The chromosomal DNA moves freely around the cytoplasm and is not confined in a distinct nucleus as in plant and
animal cells.
Plasmid DNA: Plasmids are small hoops of extra DNA that are separate from the chromosomal DNA.
Plasmids contain genes that help tolerance against drugs and can be passed from one
bacteria to another.
This is how the dangerous bacteria MSRA have evolved.
Flagella: The flagellum is a long thin tail like structure that projects out of the body of the
cell, and can rotate to move the bacteria along.
Some bacterial cells have more than one flagella (flagellum).
Each flagellum is effectively driven by a tiny biochemical electric motor with moving
parts, mostly made of proteins!
It is quite a remarkable piece of biochemical engineering - bioengineering!
Cell wall: The cell contents i.e. the cytoplasm, DNA etc. are all held together within the cell
wall surface membrane which controls the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a jelly like fluid in which most of the cells chemical reactions take
place with the aid of enzyme catalysts.
1.2 Be able to describe the function of the components of a plant cell including chloroplast, large
vacuole, cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria, cytoplasm and nucleus (see diagram and notes
below) and know the differences between plant and animal cells.
Plant cells are much larger than bacterial cells, with important differences from animal cells.
Chloroplast: The chloroplasts contain the green chlorophyll molecules which are involved in the energy absorbing process
of photosynthesis.
sunlight energy + carbon dioxide + water ==> sugars e.g. glucose + oxygen
Therefore chloroplasts are the site of food production.
Large vacuole: The large vacuole in plant cells contains cell sap, a dilute solution of salts and sugars.
Cell wall: The rigid cell wall in plant cells is made of cellulose and gives the cell membrane and contents extra support
giving plants their rigidity - their stable 3D structure.

Cell membrane: The cell contents i.e. the cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole,
mitochondria, chloroplasts etc. are all held together by the cell surface membrane
which controls the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
Mitochondria: The energy releasing chemistry of respiration occurs in the
mitochondria.
e.g. glucose + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Mitochondria are power house of the cells and provides the chemical energy
for any of the cells functions.
Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a jelly like fluid in which most of the cells chemical
reactions take place.
Nucleus: The cell nucleus contains all the DNA of the genes in the chromosomes
which control the cells functions and the cell division of replication. The nucleus
controls the activities of the cell by sending instructions to the cytoplasm.
Starch grains: Stored food for respiration
1.3 Be able to describe the function of the
components of an animal cell including cell
membrane, mitochondria, cytoplasm and
nucleus (see diagram and notes below).
Animal cells are much larger than
bacterial cells, with important
differences from plant cells.
Cell membrane: The cell contents i.e.
the cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles,
mitochondria etc. are all held together
by the cell membrane which controls
the passage of substances in and out
of the cell.
Mitochondria: The energy releasing
chemistry of respiration occurs in the
mitochondria.
e.g. glucose + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Mitochondria are power house of the cells and provides the chemical energy for any of the cells functions.
Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a jelly like fluid in which most of the cells chemical reactions take place.
Nucleus: The cell nucleus contains all the DNA of the genes in the chromosomes which control the cells functions and the
cell division of replication. The nucleus controls the activities of the cell by sending instructions to the cytoplasm.
Glycogen granules: Stored food for respiration.
Small vacuoles:
1.4 Be able to describe how plant and animal cells can be studied in greater detail with a light microscope.
Microscopes enable you to objects (like microorganisms) which you cannot see with the naked eye.
Microscopes using the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (visible light) were invented in the late 16th century and
the optical lens systems have been improved through the following centuries even until today.
With these light microscopes you can see individual cells and smaller details such as nuclei and mitochondria in all cells,
and chloroplasts in plant cells.
1.5 Be able to demonstrate an understanding of how changes in microscope technology have enabled us to see cells with more
clarity and detail than in the past, including simple magnification calculations.
In the 20th century, with advances in atomic physics, the electron microscope was invented which works off beams of
electrons instead of visible light.
This has enabled the magnification produced by a microscope to be considerable increased to the point where you can see
even smaller structures such as the internal details of mitochondria, chloroplasts and plasmids (hoops of DNA).
magnification = length of image / length of object
1.6 Know that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that it codes for a specific protein.
The genetic code ('blueprint') to make a particular protein is in the form of a sequence of bases attached to the sugarphosphate backbone of a DNA molecule.
1.7 Be able to describe a DNA molecule as
a) two strands coiled together to form a double helix
b) strands linked by a series of complementary base pairs joined together by weak hydrogen bonds (base-pairing H bonds
shown here as
):
There are four bases in DNA holding the structure together and the same bases are always paired together.
(i) adenine (A) with thymine (T) i.e. A
T
(ii) cytosine (C) with guanine (G) i.e. C
G
where
represents the weak (but crucial) intermolecular attractive force between pairs of bases, called the
hydrogen bond.
The double helix structure diagram below illustrates how the DNA is held together by the
hydrogen bonds.

1.8 Appreciate how to extract DNA from cells

You should have a description of how to extract DNA from e.g. onion in your laboratory notebook, exercise book or
textbook.
1.9 Be able to explain how the structure of DNA was discovered, including the roles of the scientists Watson, Crick, Franklin and
Wilkins.
In the 1950s, Rosalind Franklin working for Maurice Wilkins examined strands of DNA using a technique called X-ray
diffraction.
The sample under investigation, e.g. a DNA crystal strands, is bombarded with X-rays and the layers of atoms
behave like a diffraction grating and scatter the X-rays in particular pattern that depends on the 3D arrangement of
atoms in the molecule. The path of the scattered X-rays is recorded on a photographic plate.
Rosalind Franklin died tragically young from cancer, and never received the Nobel Prize she would have undoubtedly
received, BUT, in one of the last things she wrote in her laboratory notebook, she speculated that DNA had a helix
structure.
Later Frances Crick and James Watson gathered together this X-ray data (Crick had access to Rosalind Franklin's 'classic'
X-ray photograph of crystallised DNA, characteristic of a helical structure) with other information ...
e.g. the chemical analysis of DNA, particularly the ratios of the four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine),
the shape of the four base molecules ...
and then built a model and deduced what we recognise today as the double helix structure of DNA - brilliant insight,
more Nobel Prize winners along with Maurice Wilkins.
The important thing is that the experimental observations from chemical and structural analysis fitted the evidence
based model.
1.10 HT only: Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the implications of sequencing the human genome (Human Genome
Project) and of the collaboration that took place within this project.
The project has mapped the DNA sequence for the ~25,000 genes of the 23 pairs of chromosomes from human cells.
By getting many genetic research groups to collaborate and work together on the project simultaneously e.g. sharing
out the genes/chromosomes to be analysed between them, it became much quicker to produce the full human
genome sequence.
What is the point of the Human Genome Project? What can we gain from it?
We are gradually building up a database of which genes ('genetic character') that predispose people to particular
conditions.
Therefore, it may enable us to predict which people are likely to suffer from a particular disease or disorder and
therefore perhaps offer a preventive course of action, which may involve medical treatment or lifestyle changes.
It may be possible, using genetic engineering, to prevent diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia.
Could we produce 'designer medicines' based on our own genetic blueprint?
Can we develop more accurate diagnostic techniques for certain conditions which are difficult to diagnose at an early
stage?
Each person has unique and characteristic DNA sequence, and genetic fingerprinting is already being used to identify
bodies, suspects and innocent people by forensic scientists.
It is also used by archaeologists too (see the AQA biology page about the discovery of the bones of
Richard (III, its a good science story!)
Will it be possible in the future to even get a more detailed picture of a person just from a DNA sample? e.g.
hair/skin colour, eye colour and other body characteristics?
So far, all positive possibilities, so is there a downside to the Human Genome Project?
I'm afraid so, although its great science, the social implications of this genetic knowledge raise serious ethical issues
about what is acceptable to society.
If it is known that you may be susceptible to a particular disease or disorder which you may suffer from later
in life, what happens if your employer, medical insurance company or life insurance company has your genetic
profile?
You could be discriminated against, e.g. an insurance company may demand your genetic profile and modify
the premiums you pay according to your 'genetic risk'.
This may not be the only thing that bothers you, if are told that you may suffer from a particular disease or
disorder, you may be worried about or perhaps undertake preventative courses of action which may not be
required?
1.11 Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the process of genetic engineering, including the removal of a gene from the
DNA of one organism and the insertion of that gene into the DNA of another organism
This is exemplified by the production of insulin from bacteria by inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria and growing
the bacteria to produce lots of insulin quickly and economically efficiently.

1. An appropriate bacteria is selected that will give a good yield of insulin.

2.The bacterial plasmids are extracted from the bacteria.
3. A section of the plasmid DNA is cut by enzymes.
4. The human gene responsible for insulin production is cut out from the human chromosomal DNA with enzymes.
5. Other enzymes are used to insert ('splice') the insulin gene in to the bacterial plasmid DNA.
6. The modified ring plasmids of DNA are put back into the bacteria cells, so human genes have used to produce
genetically modified or GM bacteria.
7. The bacteria rapidly reproduce when grown in a fermenter.
8. The insulin is extracted and the waste bacterial cells destroyed.
1.12 Discuss an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering to produce GM organisms, including:
a) beta carotene in golden rice to reduce vitamin A deficiency in humans
Beta-carotene is essential for our bodies to make vitamin A.
Vitamin A deficiency is common in many Asian and African countries and can cause blindness.
Golden rice is GM rice whose genetic make-up contains two genes from other organisms which enable this variety of
rice to produce sufficient quantities of beta-carotene.
With golden rice as part of their diet, the risk of vitamin A deficiency is reduced and less people are likely to go blind.
b) the production of human insulin by genetically modified bacteria
GM produced insulin production has been described in detail in section 1.11
The process overall is one of inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria and growing the bacteria to produce lots
of insulin quickly and economically efficiently (cheaply!).
c) the production of herbicide-resistant crop plants
You can modify the genetic make-up of plants by inserting genes that resistant to certain 'pests' e.g. fungal attack.
You can also make crops resistant to a herbicide being used to kill all weeds in the field of growing crops i.e. only the
crop that you want survives!
Both of these effects will help to increase crop yields.
Again we see three positive examples of the use of genetic engineering, but there are, as ever!, issues and problems to
solve.
1. This is new technology, new 'biotechnology' to be precise, and people quite rightly are concerned about e.g. GM
crops, though curiously enough, I've never heard anybody express worries about GM produced insulin - the latest
versions of which are produced by GM techniques!
2. There are concerns as to whether GM crops e.g. cereals or rice have the same nutrient contents (mineral ions,
vitamins etc.).
3. Are there any long-term effects from consuming GM modified grain or vegetables etc.?
4. Will GM plants spread and affect the local diversity of the farmland and environs e.g. GM plants becoming more
successful than local plants?
5. Will GM crops hybridise with other crops or grasses to produce new strains of plant, again, these could affect the
original biodiversity of the local flora (plants) and fauna (animals).
6. Points 4. and 5. have considerable implications e.g. if the genes from GM plants spread to other native plants, we
do not know what genotypes will be formed and what will be the resulting phenotypes (gene expression)? If we
produce a herbicide resistant plant, what happens if a group of herbicide weeds evolves, that are even more herbicide
resistant than the crop! From an agricultural point of view, a bit scary!

1.13 Be able to describe the division of a cell by mitosis as the production of two daughter cells, each with identical sets of
chromosomes in the nucleus to the parent cell, and that this results in the formation of two genetically identical diploid body
cells.
Cell division by mitosis which occurs during growth, repair and asexual reproduction (diagram above, notes below)
Human body cells are diploid because have two versions of each chromosome, one from the individual's father and one
from the individual's mother (23 pairs of chromosomes in total).
On cell division, two identical cells are formed in mitosis, and both nuclei will contain the same number of chromosomes as
the original cell (i.e. both cells are once again diploid).
How does mitosis take place? What is the 'mechanism'? - refer to diagram where a few genes are graphically exaggerated to
help explain the process.

1. Prior to cell division, the DNA is in long strings within the very thin membrane of the nucleus
2. When the cell gets the signal to divide, the DNA must be copied (duplicated) exactly, and the result is X shaped
chromosomes. Remember, to make two identical cells, you need two lots of identical DNA and both V-sections of
the X-shaped chromosome are identical.

3. The nucleus membrane is temporarily removed and the X-shaped chromosomes then line up across the centre of the
cell. Simultaneously, very fine fibres pull each X-shaped chromosome apart into two identical sections (e.g. both Vshaped).

4. The two sets of chromosomes collect together on opposite sides of the cell and two nuclear membranes form around
each set of chromosomes

5. The cytoplasm divides in two with both sections surrounded by a cell membrane to give two identical diploid cells.
1.14 Know that mitosis occurs during growth, repair and asexual reproduction
See 1.13 above for details of this type of cell division.
Mitosis creates new cells for growth, replacing damaged cells or tissue, and many organisms (both plant and animal) use
mitosis for asexual reproduction.
It should be noted that in asexual reproduction, there is no genetic variation.
1.15 Know that, at fertilisation, haploid gametes combine to form a diploid zygote.

via a fertilised egg!

Sex cells are called gametes, the ova/ovum in females and sperm in males.
Gametes are haploid cells because they only have one copy of each chromosome.
When two gametes combine in fertilisation the resulting cell is referred to as being zygote.
Zygote cells are diploid because they have two copies of each chromosome e.g. human cells have 23 pairs of
chromosomes (46 chromosomes in total).
Gamete cells contain one copy of each chromosome (23 in human haploid cells).
In sexual reproduction two gametes (sex cells) combine to form a new individual with the full compliment of
chromosomes (46 in human diploid cells, 23 from mother's egg, 23 from father's sperm) and, because the offspring
cells have a mixture of the two sets of male and female chromosomes, each new individual is unique in genetic and
phenotype character.

1.16 Be able to describe the division of a cell by meiosis as the production of four daughter cells, each with half the number of
chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of genetically different haploid gametes.
Cell division by meiosis diagram above, notes below
This double cell division process is called meiosis and only occurs in the reproductive organs.
Meiosis generates cells that have half the normal number of chromosomes (haploid cells).
These haploid gamete cells have different single sets of chromosomes and explains why sexual reproduction produces
genetic variation.

1. The process starts with a diploid cell in which the DNA has been replicated to form X-shaped chromosomes (so has
two copies of each chromosome).

2. The chromosomes pair up, held by very fine fibres.

3. The pairs of chromosomes are then pulled apart to form two groups, each encased in a nuclear membrane, so
forming two separate nuclei. This process is much more complicated than shown in the diagram and the alleles can
get quite mixed up creating considerable variation in the offspring (see 5.).

4. The cytoplasm divides in two, completing the first cell division, noting that some of the male's chromosomes and
some of the female's chromosomes go into each new cell.

5. The 2nd cell division is a bit like mitosis, and, produces four haploid gamete cells, each with their own unique set of
chromosomes - the source of genetic variation when gamete cells combine in sexual reproduction.
1.17 Know that cloning is an example of asexual reproduction that produces genetically identical copies
1.18 HT only: Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the stages in the production of cloned mammals, including:
a) removal of diploid nucleus from a body cell
b) enucleation of egg cell
c) insertion of diploid nucleus into enucleated egg cell
d) stimulation of the diploid nucleus to divide by mitosis
e) implantation into surrogate mammals
Adult cell cloning the nucleus containing the genetic material is removed from an unfertilised egg cell.
Cloning is a type of asexual reproduction producing cells that are genetically the same as the original starting cell.
A nucleus extracted from an adult body cell, e.g. from a skin cell, is inserted into the egg cell from which the original
nucleus was removed ie the egg cell nucleus has been replaced with a complete set of chromosomes (diploid cell).
An electric shock stimulus then causes the egg cell to begin to divide to form embryo cells, just as a normal embryo
would do.
These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell.
When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted (implanted) into the womb of an adult female
(surrogate mother) to hopefully continue its development from embryo ==>foetus ==> baby.
1.19 Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the advantages, disadvantages and risks of cloning mammals
Although cloning is a successful technique, it is not without problems and raises social and ethical issues.
Cloning involves retaining the same restricted pool of DNA but it is providing valuable research into embryo development
and cell aging and age related disorders.
Cloning mammals inevitably produces a reduced gene pool whereas sexual reproduction provides genetic variety.
The limited pool of alleles which make up chromosomes can make the species more susceptible to a contracted disease
and other conditions such as premature aging, organ and immune system failures etc. (Look up the case of 'Dolly the
Sheep').

The rate of successful cloning very low, genetic defects are common and those animals which survive the cloning
procedure are often unhealthy and are much more susceptible to disease i.e. they are a 'genetically weak' animal.
If human cloning was attempted, it could lead to babies being born with disabilities, there is only a certain chance that an
embryo would develop into a completely normal healthy baby - an ethical and moral dilemma for potential parents and the
medical profession.
Cloning mammals is a means providing organs for transplants e.g. genetically modified pigs could be bred to provide donor
organs for humans and cloning the pigs could meet the ever increasing demand from critically ill patients on the waiting list.
Cloning could be used to reproduce endangered animal species, whose numbers were falling dangerously low i.e. in danger
of extinction.
1.20 Know that stem cells in the embryo can differentiate into all other types of cells, but that cells lose this ability as the animal
matures.
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement.
1.21 Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the advantages, disadvantages and risks arising from adult and embryonic stem
cell research.
Cells from human embryos and adult bone marrow, called stem cells, can be made to differentiate into many different types
of cells, eg nerve cells.
Stem cells are found in early human embryos and have the potential to be converted into any type of cell found in the
human body.
In the early stages, embryonic cells are undifferentiated (all the same) and are called embryonic stem cells.
Later, as the embryo develops, the stem cells divide, producing more stem cells, but also differentiated cells - the process
of differentiation in which cells for a specific specialised function are produced e.g. cells for skin, organ tissue, blood cells
etc.
Adults have stem cells in their bone marrow but these can only be converted into a few specific type of cells - you may
have heard the phrase 'bone marrow transplant' - this involves treating a patient with a supply of healthy stem cells to
differentiate into specific healthy cells to replace damaged or faulty cells e.g. blood cells.
A bone marrow transplant is a gene therapy procedure that involves replacing damaged bone marrow with healthy bone
marrow stem cells.
Stem cells in bone marrow produce three important types of blood cells : red blood cells which carry oxygen around the
body, white blood cells which help fight infection and platelets which help stop bleeding.
Bone marrow transplants are used to treat sufferers of leukaemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and sickle cell anaemia.
Human stem cells have the ability to develop into any kind of human cell.
It is possible to extract stem cells from early human embryos and reproduce them under particular conditions so that
they differentiate into particular types of specialised cells.
These cells could be used to replace diseased damaged tissue or tissue damage from injury e.g. new nerve
connections, cardiac tissue for people suffering from heart disease.
Quite simply, there is huge potential from stem cell research and application to alleviate many medical conditions,
which up to now, have been very difficult to treat.
e.g. treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as paralysis and it is hoped to be able to grow
nerve cells for people disabled by a spinal injury.
Stem cell research is a very controversial area despite the obvious great medical benefit to individual patients.
The ethical issue of using embryos for medical purposes is abhorrent to some people.
This is the argument of 'potential life' versus help for seriously ill 'living people' i.e. each embryo has the
potential to develop into a human being, but equally potently, using embryonic stem cells might save a life.
It is possible to use unwanted embryos from fertility clinics because there is no other source of universal stem
cells and these unwanted embryos would be destroyed.
Stem cell research is allowed in some countries like the UK, but there are very strict guideline as to how it can
be carried out.
1.22 Be able to describe how the order of bases in a section of DNA decides the order of amino acids in the protein.
DNA is shorthand for deoxyribonucleic acid.
The genetic code ('blueprint') to make a particular protein is in the form of a sequence of bases attached to the sugarphosphate backbone of a DNA molecule.
All the different proteins are built up from only 20 amino acids and each amino acid is indicated by a 3 base code sequence
in a gene, which is part of a DNA molecule.
The sequence of these triplet base codes in the gene on the DNA molecule determines the order in which the amino acids
are put together to synthesise the protein molecule.
So, the order of the triplet base codes on the DNA molecule can be eventually translated into an amino acid
sequence to form a specific protein molecule.
HT only: The base code forms the template for the production of RNA which is made first from DNA in order to then
synthesize the protein molecules (all of this is described in the next section).

1.23 HT only: Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the stages of protein synthesis, including transcription and translation:
Proteins are made in the cell by organelles called ribosomes (an organelle is a differentiated structure in a cell, with its own
membrane, and performs are particular function in the cell's chemistry e.g. chloroplast, vacuole, mitochondria, ribosome
etc.)
(a) the production of complementary mRNA strand in the nucleus (diagram and notes below).
RNA is shorthand for ribonucleic acid.

The large DNA molecules cannot move out of the nucleus because of their size, so the information must be transferred by
other means to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
This is done by messenger RNA (mRNA) which is shorter than DNA and only a single strand (as opposed to the double
strands of the DNA helix).
mRNA conveys the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm which will construct
the proteins from the base code information.
The diagram shows that the DNA double helix strands unwind and by base pairing (A-T and C-G) the complimentary single
strand of mRNA is built up.
Therefore a single DNA strand acts as a template for the formation of the complimentary mRNA and this process is called
transcription i.e. the copying of the triplet base codes into another form.

Points (b) to (e) are illustrated above, and this process of translation is explained below.
(b) the attachment of the mRNA to the ribosome
The mRNA exits from the nucleus and docks into a ribosome
(c) the coding by triplets of bases (codons) in the mRNA for specific amino acids
The triplet base codes for particular amino acids and their joining up sequence can now be read from the mRNA
molecules.
(d) the transfer of amino acids to the ribosome by tRNA
After the mRNA joins onto a ribosome, molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) bring the amino acid that matches the code
on the mRNA, the complimentary base codes of the mRNA and tRNA ensure that all proteins are synthesised with
their specific protein sequence, so all proteins are completely reproducible.
(e) the linking of amino acids to form polypeptides
The ribosome then acts as the catalytic site for linking the amino acids together to synthesise a specific protein.
The second process is called translation i.e. the triplet base code sequence is read and translated into the amino
acid sequence of a protein.
A sequence of amino acids joined together in a chain is called a polypeptide (a natural polymer or macromolecule).
All of these reaction are catalysed by enzymes.
1.24 Be able to describe each protein as having its own specific number and sequence of amino acids, resulting in different-shaped
molecules that have different functions, including enzymes.

The shape of the protein, especially if an enzyme, is vitally important for it to function properly. If the 'active site' on the
enzyme is not the perfect shape for the substrate molecule to dock into, then the enzyme cannot perform that specific
chemical change.
In a cell the DNA also controls which genes are switched on and off to make particular proteins in a cell.
These proteins may end up in muscle cells, brain cells, enzyme catalysts, haemoglobin molecules etc.
The proteins, particularly enzymes, are involved in building up non-protein molecules e.g. fats, cell walls, glycogen etc.
1.25 Be able to demonstrate an understanding of how gene mutations change the DNA base sequence and that mutations can be:
(i) harmful - causing genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, Downe syndrome, haemophilia and colour blindness.
(ii) beneficial - the gene expression produces an enhanced feature that makes that organism more able to survive, this is
partly responsible for driving the evolution of more successful species, but not always to our benefit! e.g. bacteria genes are
quite susceptible to mutations and some are becoming very resistant to antibiotics as their DNA subtly changes!
(iii) or neither ('neutral') - any faults from DNA mutations do not affect the organisms existence i.e. protein functions are not
affected, no advantage is gained and no disadvantage either.
1.26 Be able to describe enzymes as biological catalysts.
A catalyst is substance that speeds up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, that is the
threshold energy the reactants must have before they can change to products on collision.
A true catalyst is not used up in the reaction, but may temporarily change in the course of the reaction, and subsequently
be regenerated to act again (you should include this 2nd point when defining the action of ANY true catalyst).
Most chemical reactions ('biochemistry') in living organisms are catalysed by enzymes, hence their descriptions as
'biological catalysts'.
The chemical reactions in living organisms must be carefully controlled in order for the organism to survive successfully and
these reactions are enabled by enzymes without the need for high temperatures i.e. the enzymes lower the activation
energy required.
This makes enzyme controlled reactions very efficient even at the relative low temperature of the human body temperature
i.e. ~37oC.
Enzymes have a special shape, and within this 3D shape, a particular site called the 'active site' where the molecule to
changed 'docks into', hence the term 'key and lock mechanism' (illustrated below).

The enzyme will only work with specific substrate molecules which fit 'snugly' into the active site and are held in place
temporarily by chemical bonds, or more likely, the weaker intermolecular bonds/forces.
1.27 Be able to demonstrate an understanding that enzymes catalyse chemical reactions occurring inside and outside living cells,
including:
a) DNA replication (see also see section 1.23)

The diagram above gives an extremely simplified summary of how DNA can self-replicate, with the help of several
enzymes.
Essentially the original DNA double helix is unwound ('unzipped') by one enzyme E1 to form two template strands.
Other enzymes e.g. E2, can then select the matching base component (A <=> T or C <=> G), pairing them up and
then zipping up to form the two new replica double helix strands of DNA completing the replication process.
So, enzymes help the DNA copying process.
b) protein synthesis (see section 1.23)
Proteins (polypeptides) are synthesised in structures called ribosomes and the constituent amino acids are knitted
together' to form the polypeptide by 'polymerising enzymes'.
The enzymes help join the amino acids together to synthesise the protein.
c) digestion

The 'key and lock' mechanism diagram shown above illustrates typical function and regeneration of biochemical
catalysts we call enzymes (which often have a complex protein structure).
The catalyst structure is the same at the start and the end of the reaction, but the permanent chemical change is the

reactant substrate molecule changing into the two new molecules - the reaction products.
The above diagram illustrates the breaking down of a larger molecule into smaller ones e.g. typical of a digestion
enzyme catalysed reaction.
The enzymes are secreted in saliva and gut, each enzyme performing a particular digestion breakdown reaction.
1.28 Be able to describe the factors affecting enzyme action, including:
a) temperature

The first graph diagram is typical, and the 2nd temperature graph shows what happens to the speed of the enzyme
catalysed process of photosynthesis as the temperature is increased.
As the temperature increase the rate of catalysis increases (normal effect on the speed of reaction as the average
kinetic energy of the molecules increases), but at high temperatures the protein structure of the enzyme is
destroyed, so the active site on the enzyme is damaged and won't work correctly because the shape of the protein
molecule has changed and the substrate molecule can't 'dock in'.
So, a graph of rate versus temperature rises to a maximum (optimum temperature) and then falls away as the
enzyme becomes thermally denatured and destroyed and ceases to function at high temperatures (see diagram
above on right).
b) substrate concentration

The higher the enzyme concentration, the faster the reaction, and likewise, the higher the substrate concentration,
the faster the reaction.
For a given enzyme concentration, when the concentration of substrate is high, all the active sites on the enzymes
are occupied and the rate of reaction reaches a maximum and stays constant no matter how much more
concentrated the substrate concentration is..
c) pH

Different enzymes have different optimum pHs (diagrams above).

The pH, ie how acid or how alkaline the aqueous medium is, affects the protein structure of the enzyme, so like the
temperature graph, the graph rises to a maximum for the optimum pH.
Increase in acidity or alkalinity creating a pH well away from the optimum, can affect the protein structure of the
enzyme and so affecting the active site, and, the substrate molecule can no longer readily lock into place into the
active site and cannot be transformed into the product molecules.
The first diagram is typical of many enzymes operating in near neutral solutions (~pH 7)
The second diagram shows the wide range of pH that different enzymes can operate in
e.g pepsin breaks down proteins in the very acid conditions of the stomach.
Blood has a pH of ~7.4 and carbonic anhydrase (optimum pH ~7) is found in red blood cells. This enzyme enables
the efficient conversion of carbon dioxide and water into the carbonic acid and the hydrogen carbonate ion
('bicarbonate ion') and operates in near neutral conditions.
Trypsin is a protease enzyme from the pancreas that breaks down proteins (peptides) in the alkaline conditions (~pH
8.5) of the smaller intestine, so its optimum rate of reaction is around that value.
1.29 Know that enzymes are highly specific for their substrate

1.30 Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the action of enzymes in terms of the lock-and-key hypothesis

1.31 Be able to describe how enzymes can be denatured due to changes in the shape of the active site

1.32 Revise any investigations you did on the factors that affect enzyme activity
i.e. measuring how long an enzyme reaction takes (measuring speed/rate of reaction).
e.g. using the enzyme amylase to breakdown starch to sugar.
Starch gives a blue black colour with iodine, which sugar does not.
As the starch is hydrolysed to sugar in test tubes, testing with iodine solution, shows the blue-black colour gradually
fades until the iodine solution no longer gives a positive test for starch.
You can modify the experiment to put test tubes of starch solution in water baths of increasingly higher temperatures.
You can make up starch solutions in different buffers to investigate the effect of pH on the rate of hydrolysis (breakdown) of
starch, all at the same room temperature.
Also at the same temperature, you can do more quantitative experiments with different concentrations of the starch
substrate or different concentrations of the enzyme amylase.

Edexcel GCSE Additional Science BIOLOGY

When revising, these pages provide you with a summary of what you need to know and be able to do.
BUT remember, your primary source of revision are your class notes, investigations and Edexcel GCSE science textbooks as well
as examination practice with past papers.
EDEXCEL GCSE Additional Science BIOLOGY 2 UNIT 2 B2 The components of life INDEX
Biology Unit B2 Topic 1 The building blocks of cells
Biology Unit B2 Topic 2 Organisms and energy
Biology Unit B2 Topic 3 Common systems
ALL Edexcel GCSE Science Units: Edexcel GCSE Science Biology Unit B1 Influences on life
Edexcel GCSE Science Biology Unit B2 The components of life * Edexcel GCSE Science Unit B3 Using biology
Edexcel GCSE Science Unit C1 Chemistry in our world * Edexcel GCSE Science Unit C2 Discovering Chemistry
Edexcel GCSE Science Unit C3 Chemistry in action * Edexcel GCSE Science Unit P1 Universal Physics
Edexcel GCSE Science Unit P2 Physics for your future * Edexcel GCSE Science Unit P3 Applications of Physics
GCSE Science-Biology courses AQA GCSE Science A BIOLOGY * EDEXCEL GCSE Science BIOLOGY
OCR GCSE 21st Century Science A BIOLOGY * OCR GCSE Gateway Science A BIOLOGY

* Doc Brown's Edexcel GCSE Biology Revision

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Rosalind Franklin, Physicist and Biologist

keywords: gcse bacterial animal plant cell chromosomal DNA plasmid DNA flagella wall chloroplast large vacuole membrane
mitochondria, cytoplasm nucleus Watson Crick Franklin Wilkins base pairs genetic engineering GM mitosis diploid body cells
sexual/asexual reproduction, zygote haploid gametes cloning mRNA tRNA enzymes Topic 1 The building blocks of cells Biology Unit B2
The components of life Edexcel gcse additional science

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