DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology

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CHAPTER 2: FUNDAMENTALS OF PROOFS

2.1

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Methods of Proof
Proof: Demonstrate that a theorem is true with a sequence of statements that
form an argument.
Rules of Inference: Rules provide the justification of the steps used to show that a conclusion follows
logically from a set of hypotheses.
Valid Arguments: Valid if whenever all the hypotheses are true, the conclusion is also true.
Fallacies: Resemble rules of inference but are based on contingencies rather
than tautologies.
Rules of Inference for qualified statements
a) Universal Instantiation: Used to conclude that P(c) is true, where c is a particular member
of the universe of discourse, given the premise xP( x) .
b) Universal Generalization: Stated that xP( x) is true, given the premise that P(c) is true for
all elements c in the universe of discourse. C is selected arbitrarily.
c) Existential Instantiation: Conclude that there is an element c in the universe of discourse for
which P(c) is true if we know that xP( x) is true.
d) Existential Generalization: Used to conclude that xP( x) is true when a particular element c
with P(c) true is known.

Table 10.1: Rules of inference for quantified statement

Name and explanation
Universal instantiation Used to conclude that P(c) is true, where c is a
particular member of the universe of discourse, given the
P(c)
premise xP(x) .
P(c) for an arbitrary c
Universal generalization States that xP( x) is true, given the premise
that P(c) is true for all elements c in the universe of discourse.
xP(x)
xP( x)
Existential instantiation Conclude that there is an element c in the
P(c) for some element c universe of discourse for which P(c) is true if we know that xP( x) is
true.
P(c) for some element c
Existential generalization Used to conclude that xP( x) is true when a
particular element c with P(c) true is known.
xP( x)
Rules of inference
xP( x)

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DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology
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2.2

Examples Methods of Proof

Rules of inference for propositions

The means used to draw conclusions from other assertions by tying together the steps of a proof.
Table 10.2 Rules of Inference.
Rule of Inference
Name
P
Modus ponens
Pq
q
q
Modes tollens
pq
p
pq
Hypothetical syllogism
qr
p r
pq
Disjunctive syllogism
p
q
p
Addition
pq
pq
Simplification
p
p
Conjunction
q

pq
pq
p r
q r
pq
q p

Resolution

Contrapositive

Description of Modus Ponens

If X is true, then Y is true.
X is true.
Therefore Y is true.
Example 1:
If you repent, you will go to heaven. You have repented, so you will go to heaven.
Example 2:
If you buy today, I will give you a 10% discount. You have agreed to buy today, so I will reduce the
price by 10%.
Example 3:
Suppose that the implication if it snows today, then we will go skiing and its hypothesis, if it is
snowing today, is true. Then by modus ponens, it follows that the conclusion of the implication, we
will so skiing is true.
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DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology
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Example 4:
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argument: It is below freezing now.
Therefore, it is either below freezing or raining now.
Solution 4:
Let p It is below freezing now and q It is raining now. The argument is of the form

p
.
pq

This is an argument that uses the addition rule.

Example 5
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argument: It is below freezing and raining
now. Therefore, it is below freezing now.
Solution 5:
Let p It is below freezing now and q It is raining now. The argument is of the form

pq
. This
p

argument uses the simplification rule.

Description of Modus Tollens
If X is true, then Y is true.
Y is false.
Therefore, X is false.
Example 6:
If there is smoke, there is fire. There is not fire, so there is no smoke.
Example 7:
If I am happy, then I smile. Im not smiling, therefore Im not happy.
Logical equivalence formulas
Figure 8.1 contains a list of logical equivalences.
A true true
A false A
A true true
A false A
A true A
A false A

A true A
A false false
true A A
false A true
A true A
A false A

A A
A A A
A A true
A A true
A A true

A A A
A A false
A A false

A B B A
AB B A

A B B A
A B B A

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DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology
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A B B A

A ( B C ) ( A B) C
A ( B C ) ( A B) C

A ( B C ) ( A B) C
A ( B C ) ( A B) C

A ( B C) ( A B) ( A C)
A ( A B) A

A ( B C) ( A B) ( A C)
A ( A B) A

A B ( A B) ( B A)
A B A B
A B (A B)
A B A B

A B ( A B) ( B A)
A B ( A B)
A B (A B)
A B ( A B)

A B A ( A B)
A B ( A B) ( A B)

A B B ( A B)
A B ( A B) ( A B)

Figure 8.1 Logical Equivalence

Valid arguments
Argument will be constructed to show the hypotheses leads to the desired conclusions. An argument
form is called valid if whenever all the hypotheses are true, the conclusion is also true.
Example 8
Show that the hypotheses It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday, we will go
swimming only if it is sunny, If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip and if we
take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset lead to the conclusion we will be home by
sunset.
Solution 8
p It is sunny this afternoon q It is colder than yesterday, r we will go swimming s we will
take a canoe trip t we will be home by sunset
Construct an argument to show our hypotheses lead to the desired conclusion as follows
Step
1. p q
2. p
3. r p
4. r
5. r s
6. s
7. s t
8. t

Reason
Hypothesis
Simplication using step 1
Hypothesis
Modus tollens using Step 2 & 3
Hypothesis
Modes ponens using Step 4 & 5
Hypothesis
Modus ponens using Step 6 & 7

Example 9
Show that the hypotheses If you send me an e-mail message, then I will finish writing the program,
If you do not send me an e-mail message, then I will go to sleep early, and If I go to sleep early,
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DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

then I will wake up feeling refreshed lead to the conclusion If I do not finish writing the program,
then I will wake up feeling refreshed.

Solution 9
Let p be the proposition You send me an e-mail message, q the proposition I will finish writing
the program, r the proposition I will go to sleep early, and s the proposition I will wake up
feeling refreshed. Then the hypotheses are p q, p r, and r s . The desired conclusion
is q s . We need to give a valid argument with hypotheses p q, p r, and r s and
q s .
This argument form shows that the hypotheses p lead to the desired conclusion.
Step
Reason
1. p q
Hypothesis
2. q p
Contrapositive of (1)
3. p r
Hypothesis
4. q r
Hypothetical syllogism using (2) and (3)
5. r s
Hypothesis
6. q s
Hypothetical syllogism using (4) and (5)
Resolution
Rule of inference that based on the tautology.
Example 10
Use resolution to show that the hypotheses Jasmine is skiing or it is not snowing, and It is
snowing or Bart is playing hockey imply that Jasmine is skiing or Bart is playing hockey.
Solution 10
Let say p It is snowing
q Jasmine is skiing
r Bart is playing hockey
p q & p r using resolution: q r which follows that Jasmine is skiing or Bart is playing
hockey

Fallacies
Example 11
Is the following argument valid?
If you do every problem in this book, then you will learn discrete mathematics. You learned discrete
mathematics. Therefore, you did every problem in this book.
Solution 11
p You did every problem in this book, q You learned discrete mathematics Argument is in the
form of: If p q and q , then p (e.g. of incorrect argument using the fallacy of affirming the
conclusion)

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DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Rules of inference for quantified statements

Table 10.1: Rules of inference for quantified statement

Rules of inference
Name and explanation
xP( x)
Universal instantiation Used to conclude that P(c) is true, where c is a
particular member of the universe of discourse, given the
P(c)
premise xP(x) .
P(c) for an arbitrary c
Universal generalization States that xP( x) is true, given the premise
that P(c) is true for all elements c in the universe of discourse.
xP(x)
xP( x)
Existential instantiation Conclude that there is an element c in the
P(c) for some element c universe of discourse for which P(c) is true if we know that xP( x) is
true.
P(c) for some element c
Existential generalization Used to conclude that xP( x) is true when a
particular element c with P(c) true is known.
xP( x)

Example 12
Show that the premises Everyone in the discrete mathematics class has taken a course in computer
science and Marla is a student in this class imply the conclusion Marla has taken a course in
computer science
Solution 12
D( x) : x is in discrete mathematics class C ( x) : x has taken a course in computer science. Step
to establish conclusion:
Step
1. x( D( x) C ( x))
2. D(Marla) C(Marla)
3. D(Marla)
4. C(Marla)

Reason
Premise
Universal instantiation from Step 1
Premise
Modus ponens from step 2 & 3

Example 13
Show that the premises A student in this class has not read the book, and Everyone in this class
passed the first exam imply the conclusion Someone who passed the first exam has not read the
book.
Solution 13
Let C ( x) be x is this class, B( x) be x has read the book and P( x) be x passed the first
exam. The premises are x(C ( x) B( x)) and x(C ( x) P( x)) . The conclusion
is x( P( x) B( x)) . These steps can be used to establish the conclusion from the premises.
Step
1. x(C ( x) B( x))
2. C ( x) B( x)
3. C (a)
4. x(C ( x) P( x))

Reason
Premise
Existential instantiation from Step 1
Simplication
Premise

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DITI 1223 Discrete Mathematics

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

C ( a ) P( a )
P(a)
B(a)
P(a) B(a)
x( P( x) B( x))

Universal instantiation from Step 4

Modes ponens from Step 3 and Step 5
Simplication from Step 2
Conjunction from Step 6 and Step 7
Existential generalization from Step 8

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