BULK DENSITY AND PARTICLE

DENSITY LAB
(adapted from Laboratory Manual for Soil Science, Thien and Graveel)

I. Terminology:
Porosity
Macropores
Micropores
Bulk density
Particle density
II. Background:
Soil water and air occupy voids in the soil, called pore spaces. The pore
system in soil provides the conduits for air and water exchange and houses
roots and microbes. Soil porosity is the amount of pore volume (%age of
pore space). A medium textured, well-aggregated soil contains about 50%
pore space and is in good condition for plant growth when the pores hold an
equal distribution of air and water. Pore size affects pore activity. Big
pores, macropores, facilitate free-water drainage, aeration, evaporation, and
gas exchange. Mesopores, medium-size pores, are essential to capillary
water distribution, and micropores provide water storage sites. Macropores
are most prevalent in sandy soils and well-aggregated soils, but can be
converted tomicropores by compaction. Medium-textured soils have an
abundance of mesopores. Clays promote aggregation but can also be readily
compacted. Clays also increase water storage by providing an abundance of
micropores. Thus, texture and structure, plus the level of induced compaction,
are the main properties governing amount and type of pore space in the soil.
Organic matter affects porosity through its enhancement of soil aggregation.
Porosity can be calculated if bulk density and particle density are known.Bulk
density is soil mass divided by unit volume. In its natural state, a soil's volume
includes solids and pores, therefore, a sample must be taken without
compaction or crumbling to correctly determine bulk density.
Bulk density = Oven dry soil weight / volume of soil solids and pores
Bulk density of mineral soils commonly ranges from 1.1 to 1.5 g/cm3 in
surface horizons. It increases with depth and tends to be high in sands and

compacted pan horizons, and tends to be low in soils with abundant organic
matter. Tillage operations looen soils and temporarily lower bulk density, while
compaction processes raise bulk density. High bulk densities correspond to
low porosity.Natural soil-forming processes that increase aggregation reduce
bulk density, but excessive tillage and raindrop impact on bare soil destory
aggregation and increase bulk density.
Particle density is the volumetric mass of the solid soil. It differs from bulk
density because the volume used does not include pore spaces.
Particle density = oven-dry soil weight / volume of soil solids
Particle density represents the average density of all the minerals composing
the soil. For most soils, this value is very near 2.65 g/cm3 because quartz has
a density of 2.65 g/cm3 and quartz is usually the dominant mineral. Particle
density varies little between minerals and has little practical significance
except in the calculation of pore space.
Porosity is that portion of the soil volume occupied by pore spaces. This
property does not have to be measured directly since it can be calculated
using values determined for bulk density and particle density. Finding the ratio
of bulk density to particle density and multiplying by 100 calculates the
percent solid space, so subtracting it from 100 gives the % of soil volume that
is pore space.
% solid space = (bulk density / particle density) x 100
% porosity = 100 - (% solid space)
Sample Calculation of Porosity:
A 260 cm3 cylindrical container was used to collect an undisturbed soil
sample. The container and soil weighed 413 g when dried. When empty the
container weighed 75 g. What is the bulk density and porosity of the soil?
A. To determine bulk density:
Sample Volume = 260 cm3; Sample Weight = 413 - 75 = 338 g ; Bulk density
= 338 g/260 cm3= 1.3 g /cm3
B. To determine porosity:

Bulk density = 1.3 g /cm3; Particle density = 2.65 g /cm3; Porosity = 100 (1.3/2.65 x 100) = 51%
III. Procedure:
PART ONE: Bulk Density Sampling
Note: You will be sharing your bulk density, porosity, and field texture
results with the rest of the class. Please put your results on the board
when you have completed the calculations. These values are needed for
some of the questions at the end of the lab.
I. Sampling.
Choose sampling sites from several locations (at least three) and hypothesize
about the differences in bulk density you expect to find and WHY. Record
descriptions of the sampling locations in the data table. Determine the texture
of your samples, using the feel method. (Don't use your bulk density samples
for this! Collect a separate sample of each soil for this!) An accurate
determination of bulk density starts with proper sampling to ensure that the
collected sample represents the soil's natural condition! Follow the diagrams
on these links to use the bulk density sampler.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
II. Laboratory Analysis
1.Dry the soil sample to a constant weight (24 hours in a hot-air oven at 105
degrees C ).
2. Weigh the sample. Record the dry weight of the soil and calculate the
volume of the cylinder. (Volume of a cylinder is pi x radius squared x height).
Calculate the bulk density and porosity of the sample.
PART TWO: Particle Density

Particle density (as well as bulk density) of a sand can be easily approximated
in the laboratory by the following procedure.
1. Weigh 50 g of dry sand and use a funnel to quantitatively transfer to a 100mL graduated cylinder.
2. Carefully tap the cylinder 4 times to settle the sand. Read the volume and
record on your data sheet. Calculate the bulk density.
3. Transfer the sand to a container and save.
4. Add approximately 60 mL of water to the 100 mL graduated cylinder.
Record the exact water volume (assume the density of water is 1 g c/m3).
5. Transfer the 50 g of sand from step 3 back into the cylinder. Stir to remove
the trapped air.
6. Read and record the volume. Note the difference in the volume and that in
step 4, this is the volume of the sand particles.
7. Calculate the particle density by dividing the weight of the sand (50 g) by
the volume of the sand particles.
8. Calculate the pore space (% porosity).
IV. Data
Sampling Strategy
Describe your sampling sites, what differences in bulk density you expect to find, and
WHY.

Bulk Density Calculations

1. Volume of sampling cylinder, cm3 ____________
2. Weight of drying container,g ____________

3. Weight of oven-dry soil + container, g ____________

4. Weight of oven-dry soil, g ____________
5. Bulk density, g/ cm3 ____________
6. Porosity, % ____________ (Use 2.65 for particle density)
Record your values as well as those of the rest of the class on the table
below. You will need to increase the size of the table to accomodate class
results. (Indicate which values are your's).

Site
Description

Texture,
Bulk Density,
determined from
Feel Method

Porosity, %

g/cm3

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Particle Density Calculations

1. Weight dry sand, g ____________
2. Volume of dry sand, cm3 ____________
3. Bulk density of sand, g /cm3 ____________
4. Volume of water, cm3 ____________
5. Volume of water and sand solids, cm3 ____________

6. Volume of sand, cm3 ____________

7. Particle density of sand, g /cm3 ____________
8. Porosity, % ____________

V. Questions
1. What is the bulk density of a soil sample that weighs 360 g when dry and
occupies 300 cm3? What is the porosity of this sample?
2. Bulk density samples were collected from a wheeltracked zone and from
adjacent uncompacted soil. How do the bulk density and porosity differ at
these two sites?
Wheeltracked site
610
Sample volume, cm3
1300
Weight of container
and dry soil, g
250
Weight of container, g

Uncompacted site
545
900
17

3. To answer the following questions, From your results:

a. How does bulk density vary with the amount of clay in the soil?
b. How does the porosity vary with the amount of clay in the soil?
4. Why will bulk density vary between soils but it is valid to use a constant
value for particle density?
5. How are air exchange and water movement in soils related to the amount of
pore space? Include the role of pore size distribution in your answer.
6. How would total pore space and pore size distribution change with depth in
a soil that has a sandy loam surface texture and a silty clay loam subsoil?

3 TOTAL POROSITY
3.1 DEFINITION
The total porosity of a porous medium is the ratio of the pore volume to the total
volume of a representative sample of the medium. Assuming that the soil system is
composed of three phases -- solid, liquid (water), and gas (air) -- where Vs is the
volume of the solid phase, Vl is the volume of the liquid phase, Vg is the volume of the
gaseous phase, Vp = Vl + Vg is the volume of the pores, and Vt = Vs + Vl + Vg is the total
volume of the sample, then the total porosity of the soil sample, pt, is defined as
follows:

Porosity is a dimensionless quantity and can be reported either as a decimal fraction or

as a percentage. Table 3.1 lists representative total porosity ranges for various
geologic materials. A more detailed list of representative porosity values (total and
effective porosities) is provided in Table 3.2. In general, total porosity values for
unconsolidated materials lie in the range of 0.25-0.7 (25%-70%). Coarse-textured soil
materials such as gravel and sand tend to have a lower total porosity than fine-textured
soils such as silts and clays. The total porosity in soils is not a constant quantity
because the soil, particularly clayey soil, alternately swells, shrinks, compacts, and
cracks.
TABLE 3.1 Range of Porosity Values
Soil Type

Porosity, pt

Unconsolidated
deposits
Gravel

0.25 - 0.40

Sand

0.25 - 0.50

Silt

0.35 - 0.50

Clay

0.40 - 0.70

Rocks

Fractured basalt

0.05 - 0.50

Karst limestone

0.05 - 0.50

Sandstone

0.05 - 0.30

Limestone, dolomite

0.00 - 0.20

Shale

0.00 - 0.10

Fractured crystalline
rock

0.00 - 0.10

Dense crystalline rock

0.00 - 0.05

Source: Freeze and Cherry (1979).

TABLE 3.2 Representative Porosity Values

Effective Porosity,a pe

Total Porosity, pt
Material

Range

Arithmetic Mean

Range

ArithmeticMean

Sandstone
(fine)

-b

0.02 0.40

0.21

Sandstone
(medium)

0.14 0.49

0.34

0.12 0.41

0.27

Siltstone

0.21 0.41

0.35

0.01 0.33

0.12

Sand (fine)

0.25 0.53

0.43

0.01 0.46

0.33

Sand
(medium)

0.16 0.46

0.32

Sand (coarse) 0.31 0.46

0.39

0.18 0.43

0.30

Gravel (fine) 0.25 0.38

0.34

0.13 0.40

0.28

0.17 0.44

0.24

Gravel
(coarse)

0.24 0.36

0.28

0.13 0.25

0.21

Silt

0.34 0.51

0.45

0.01 0.39

0.20

Sedimentary
material

Gravel
(medium)

Clay

0.34 0.57

0.42

0.01 0.18

0.06

Limestone

0.07 0.56

0.30

~0 0.36

0.14

Loess

0.14 0.22

0.18

Eolian sand

0.32 0.47

0.38

Tuff

0.02 0.47

0.21

Weathered
granite

0.34 0.57

0.45

Weathered
gabbro

0.42 0.45

0.43

Basalt

0.03 0.35

0.17

0.04 0.49

0.38

0.22 0.33

0.26

Wind-laid
material

Igneous rock

Metamorphic
rock
Schist

Effective porosity is discussed in Section 4.

A hyphen indicates that no data are available.

Source: McWorter and Sunada (1977).

3.2 MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGY

The standard method used on FUSRAP sites for determining the total porosity of soil
materials is described in Appendix II of DOA (1970). Further discussion on this
methodology is also presented in Danielson and Sutherland (1986).
On the basis of the definition of total porosity, a soil sample could be evaluated for
total porosity by directly measuring the pore volume (Vp) and the total volume (Vt).
The total volume is easily obtained by measuring the total volume of the sample. The
pore volume can, in principle, be evaluated directly by measuring the volume of water
needed to completely saturate the sample. In practice, however, it is always difficult to
saturate the soil sample exactly and completely and, therefore, the total porosity of the
sample is rarely evaluated by a direct method. Usually, the total porosity is evaluated
indirectly by using the following expression (DOA 1970, Appendix II; Danielson and
Sutherland 1986):

where pt is given as a decimal fraction, Vs is the soil particle volume, Vt is the total
volume, s is the solid phase (soil particle) density, and b is the dry bulk density of the
sample. (Equation 3.2 can be obtained by rearranging Equation 2.3.) Under this
approach, the values of s and b are evaluated by laboratory or in-situ measurements
(Section 2.2) and are then used to calculate the total porosity pt.
3.3 RESRAD DATA INPUT REQUIREMENTS
To use RESRAD, the user is required to define or use the default values of the total
porosity of five materials: (1) cover material, (2) contaminated zone, (3) unsaturated
zone, (4) saturated zone, and (5) building foundation material (i.e., concrete). In
RESRAD, the total porosities are entered as decimal fractions rather than as
percentages. RESRAD adopts the following values as defaults: n = 0.4 for the first
four materials listed above and n = 0.1 for the building foundation (i.e., concrete).
These default values are provided for generic use of the RESRAD code. For more
accurate use of the code, site-specific data should be used.
If site-specific data are not available and the type of soil is known, Tables 3.1 and 3.2
can be used for estimating total porosity. However, if no information is available on
the type of soils, then the values for total porosity should be experimentally
determined according to the method presented in Section 3.2.
4 EFFECTIVE POROSITY

4.1 DEFINITION
The effective porosity, pe, also called the kinematic porosity, of a porous medium is
defined as the ratio of the part of the pore volume where the water can circulate to the
total volume of a representative sample of the medium. In naturally porous systems
such as subsurface soil, where the flow of water is caused by the composition of
capillary, molecular, and gravitational forces, the effective porosity can be
approximated by the specific yield, or drainage porosity, which is defined as the ratio
of the volume of water drained by gravity from a saturated representative sample of
the soil to the total volume of the sample.
The definition of effective (kinematic) porosity is linked to the concept of pore fluid
displacement rather than to the percentage of the volume occupied by the pore spaces.
The pore volume occupied by the pore fluid that can circulate through the porous
medium is smaller than the total pore space, and, consequently, the effective porosity
is always smaller than the total porosity. In a saturated soil system composed of two
phases (solid and liquid) where (1) Vs is the volume of the solid phase, (2) Vw =
(Viw + Vmw) is the volume of the liquid phase, (3) Viw is the volume of immobile pores
containing the water adsorbed onto the soil particle surfaces and the water in the deadend pores, (4) Vmw is the volume of the mobile pores containing water that is free to
move through the saturated system, and (5) Vt = (Vs + Viw + Vmw) is the total volume,
the effective porosity can be defined as follows:

Another soil parameter related to the effective soil porosity is the field capacity, r, also
called specific retention, irreducible volumetric water content, or residual water
content, which is defined as the ratio of the volume of water retained in the soil
sample, after all downward gravity drainage has ceased, to the total volume of the
sample. Considering the terms presented above for a saturated soil system, the total
porosity pt and the field capacity r can be expressed, respectively, as follows:

an
d

Therefore, the effective porosity is related to the total porosity and the field capacity
according to the following expression:

Several aspects of the soil system influence the value of its effective porosity: (1) the
adhesive water on minerals, (2) the absorbed water in the clay-mineral lattice, (3) the
existence of unconnected pores, and (4) the existence of dead-end pores. The adhesive
water in the soil is that part of the water present in the soil that is attached to the
surface of the soil grains through the forces of molecular attraction (Marsily 1988).
The sum of the volumes of the adhesive and absorbed water plus the water that fills
the unconnected and dead-end pores constitute the volume of the adsorbed
water, Viw, that is unable to move through the system.
A detailed list of representative porosity values (total porosity and effective porosity)
is presented in Table 3.2.
4.2 MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGY
Determination of the effective porosity, pe, of soils can be accomplished indirectly by
measuring the total porosity, pt, and the field capacity, r, and then calculating pe from
Equation 4.4. The total porosity is obtained indirectly by measuring the soil densities
according to the method described in Section 3.2. To determine the field capacity of
the soils, the soil sample is first saturated with water and is then allowed to drain
completely under the action of gravity until it gets to its irreducible saturation. The
value of r can then be obtained according to the methods used for measuring
volumetric water content (Section 6.2).
4.3 RESRAD DATA INPUT REQUIREMENTS
To use RESRAD, the user is required to define (or to use the default values) of the
effective porosity of three distinct materials: (1) contaminated zone, (2) saturated
zone, and (3) unsaturated zone. In RESRAD, the effective porosity values are entered
as decimal fractions rather than as percentages. As a default value, RESRAD adopts
the value of pe = 0.2 for all three materials. These default values are provided for
generic use of the RESRAD code. For more accurate utilization of the model, sitespecific data should be used.
If site-specific data are not available and the soil type is known, Table 3.2 can be used
for estimating effective porosity. However, if no information is available on soil type,
then the values of effective porosity should be experimentally determined according to

the method presented in Section 4.2. Effective porosity values should not be greater
than total porosity values. Total porosity is discussed in Section 3.