Articulo de Atletismo (IAF)

CONTENTS
by IAAF
20:2; 1, 2005
EDITORIAL
Special Topic
Managing Performance
Comparison of successful sport systems
by HELMUT DIGEL
The long term competition activity of the worlds top athletes

by VADIM ZELICHENOK
19
Abuse of androgenic-anabolic steroids and adverse

effects in athletes
by FUMIHIRO YAMASAWA
27
Weightlifting in training for athletics - Part II

by MARTIN ZAWIEJA-KOCH
38
NSA Specials
ATHLETICS WORLD
47
Documentation
SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY NO. 70:

Long Jump Part II
51
IAAF Academy Report
97
Studies
REVIEW
101
RSUMES/RESMENES
104
PREVIEW 3/2005
108
Volume Twenty, issue number 2; June 2005

New Studies in Athletics, printed by DMP Digitaldruck GmbH, Berlin
05
New Studies
in Athletics
2.2005
IAAF
NEW STUDIES IN ATHLETICS
The International Association of Athletics
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TECHNICAL RESEARCH
International Scientific Advisory Board

Prof. Helmut Digel (GER)
Prof. Tim Noakes (RSA)
Esa Peltola (AUS)
Prof. Eduardo De Rose (BRA)
Prof. Maijiu Tian (CHN)
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EDITORIAL
by IAAF
20:2; 3, 2005
Making it possible for athletes to realise their full potential in competition is a fundamental aim of an athletics federation and a key concern of many who work in the sport.
For elite athletes, the area of performance management is of critical importance. The
issues include meeting the physical, technical and psychological demands for high level
performance, the timing of specialisation and exposure to international competition,
and integrating lifestyle with the demands of the sport. These must be effectively
addressed within the context of the resources available in the athletes society. Coaches
are generally good at acquiring knowledge about the various technical aspects of their
work but sometimes they do not consider the question of performance and career management as much as they should.
With professionalism, our sport has also acquired Athlete Representatives or Managers
who partially meet the needs of selected athletes for performance management. But
managers are independent and have their own interests, which are not necessarily those
of the athlete or the federation or the sport as a whole. This system has always been
controversial and I believe it is a temporary solution at best. Athletics must find its own
way to meet the demand for performance management more effectively. In his classic
text The Art of War, written more than 2500 years ago, the much respected Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu emphasised the importance of planning and preparation in winning battles. The foundation of good planning is, of course, knowledge and one of the
most famous dictums from Sun Tzu is: know the other, know yourself. This lesson can
well be applied to our sport and our special topic for this issue of NSA can be seen as an
effort to follow this thinking and look to the others for ideas.
In the first article, IAAF Vice President Helmut Digel reports on a research project which
examined the sports systems of some of the countries whose athletes have achieved
competitive success at the highest levels. He shows us the various approaches that have
been taken and relates them to the different social and economic situations. In the second article, Vadim Zelichenok, the Director of the IAAF Regional Development Centre in
Moscow, summarises the results of his analysis of the careers of more than 1,500 top
athletes. Of great interest are his classification of the careers of many well known athletes and his conclusions about the extended careers of top performers.
I am sure that these articles will be of interest and value to our readers, both coaches
and federation leaders. However, they can be just a part of a longer term process of
obtaining the knowledge necessary to best serve athletes. I would like to see an increase
in the sharing of information and best practice in all areas of athletics, particularly
those which touch on the pathways that young people in our sport follow from their
earliest introduction to the sport to performing at senior level. If we expect that we, our
athletes and our sport will be successful we have to be prepared learn constantly and be
open to all ideas. Our battles may not be the same type as those Sun Tzu had in mind,
but they must be won all the same.
Elio Locatelli
Executive Editor
James Mcilroy of Great Britain and Northern Ireland / Photo: Getty Images
SPECIAL TOPIC
contents

by Helmut Digel
The long-term competition
activity of the worlds top athletes

by Vadim Zelichenok
SPECIAL TOPIC
by IAAF
Comparison of successful
sport systems
20:2; 7-18, 2005
Helmut Digel is a Professor

of Sport Science and Sport
Sociology and Director of the
Institute for Sport Science at
the University of Tbingen in
Germany.
He holds various positions
within the administration of
sport in Germany and is a
Vice President of the IAAF
and a member of the IAAF
Development Commission.
ABSTRACT
The possibility for success in any competitive endeavour is enhanced when

one has an understanding of the opponents strategy, tactics, means,
resources and will. In the case of highperformance sports, however, those
responsible for the national systems
required to produce top athletes and
performances have traditionally been
inward looking and insular. This article
reports on the preliminary findings of a
project, to reverse this tendency by
analysing conditions, structures and
work towards modernisation in eight
nations that were successful at the
1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta (Australia, China, Germany, France, Great
Britain, Italy, Russia, and the United
States of America). After starting with
an introduction to the phenomena of
modern high-performance sport, the
article moves on to describe the aims,
theoretical approach and methodological approach of the project. It then
gives selected results under the headings General social conditions, The
system of high-performance sport
and Selected system-environment
relationships. Taken together these
create a picture of the similarities and
differences between the examined systems. The article concludes with a discussion of the ways institutions associated with high-performance sport
work to reform and renew themselves
and the frequent discrepancies
between organisational talk and
action that were observed in the systems studied.
AUTHOR
By Helmut Digel
Introduction to the subject
he phenomenon of modern highperformance sport is marked by a

variety of interests, of which
economic interests cannot be overlooked.
While in earlier times you could find top
athletes who were primarily concerned
with recognition, self-realisation and
personal confirmation, these motives are
today displaced by financial considerations. All the interests and goals that
once predominated in sport continue to
exist but now they seem to fulfil ideological functions, covering up the benefit
calculations that have become more
characteristic. At the moment sport in
modern societies is subject to input-output analysis, it is prepared long beforehand and it is staged by experts. It has, in
fact, become an element of the global
communication system and a globalising
economy. Its survival and success depend
on the flow of funds, the lack of which
can also endanger it.
This makes the quest for an optimal solution

absolutely essential, and the search has long
since begun everywhere in the world. Whole
sports systems have been called into question
and new ones are being created on the drawing board or composed at the com-puter.
More and more, high-performance sport is
becoming an important political issue. In
Great Britain, the Labour administration
under Tony Blair trying to do everything
better than the Conservative governments of
the recent past has established totally new
sport institutions on the basis of new legislation. Australia made way for a modernisation
of its traditional sport structures by hosting
the 2000 Olympic Games. In Italy, the expensive national sport system, marked by CONI
(the centralised National Olympic Committee)
has been called into question. In the Federal
Republic of Germany, high-performance sport
is under close scrutiny and sports leaders have
been urged to present a top sports plan in
8
2000 that will be subject to evaluation after

Athens 2004. In Russia, the upheaval of the
last decade is clearly having its effect as a
formerly closed society focused on high-performance sport finds itself in a transformation process and the question of the appropriate forms for the sport system re-mains
unanswered. France, at least, seems to be relatively stable. However, even within its centralised system, which follows the ideas that
marked successful high-performance sport for
many years in the Eastern Bloc, one can find
new structures. In China, the Communist
Party still defines the matters and priorities of
sport politics but the opening up of the Chinese economy has had a parallel effects in the
field of sport: sponsors are offering new
financial possibilities to sport associations,
more efficient personnel structures are being
searched for and, increasingly, the various
sports are competing with each other. In the
USA, an intense internal discussion on
whether it is appropriate to leave all power
with regard to Olymic Sports to the USOC (the
National Olympic Committee) has long been
underway.
These things are not happening just for the
sake of activity. In sport there are few winners and many losers. Hence, one can find
nations that are on the road to success and
others that are in decline. The new ways of
thinking, the striving for change, and the
search for more effective structures all have
to do with the fact that the system of highperformance sport is increasingly dependent
on its environment. And more and more, one
can see sub-systems that are playing an
important role in the systems survival and
development.
For example, we can say that without television, high-performance sport is unthinkable. However, together with the internet, this
medium is itself in transformation and for
many people its configuration is no longer
recognisable. Likewise, high-performance
sport is unthinkable without sponsors. The
fundamental necessity of funding from these
sources means that high-performance sport is
dependent on and must work in cooperation
High-performance sport is marked by an

ever-increasing complexity. It is becoming
more and more confusing, begging the question as to whether it is controllable. It is not
surprising that the system is characterised by
continuous change and that there are ups and
downs, winners and losers, in both the sporting and economic senses. As in the rest of the
global economy, popular sports can become
marginal, traditionally strong areas can
become sporting fallow land, and leading
sport nations can suddenly find themselves
falling down the international rankings. We
have seen that strong sports sometimes lose
attractiveness while others succeed in renewing themselves; that some traditional European sports are under close scrutiny and pressure while sports imported from other continents and newly invented sports are just
around the corner from mass appeal. We have
also seen that some places formerly considered strongholds in the organisation of sports
events have lost some of their quality and
must now take a back seat. Nevertheless,
high-performance sport is a growth sector of
the first order and its future seems to be more
open than ever.
with the economy and this dependence makes

a new way of thinking, planning, deciding and
acting necessary. As a second example, we
can say that high-performance sport is
dependent on its own production machinery
and that the matter of finding and managing
the next generation of talents is vitally
important. Sport needs to guarantee that
young people continue to participate so that
they can be developed and the goods can be
offered to the entertainment industry. There
are few options in this field and, therefore,
high-performance sport needs to enter into
cooperation with the education system. But
in many countries, the education system is increasingly questioning such cooperation.
Considering the problems outlined above,
one wonders about the basis on which leaders in the system of high-performance sport
act, what knowledge they fall back on and
how well-founded their decisions are. One
may even wonder how it can be at all possible to take on responsibility in high-performance sport. The issue arises because in almost
all systems of high-performance sport
throughout the world, responsibility is split
between people working on a full-time basis
and those who hold honorary positions. In
nearly every case, the honorary personnel
have assumed overall responsibility for the
development of the system. Looking at various national systems, one finds that the decisions of the honorary post holders are very
often characterised by ignorance and a low
level of professional competence and, not
infrequently, by interests outside of sport. But
even those in full-time posts are not necessarily equipped with the desirable levels of
knowledge and skill. The lack of competence
cannot be blamed solely on personal weakness; at least part of the problem must be
attributed to the complexity of sport systems,
both national and international. This situation will tend to remain the same. Nevertheless, it is surprising how little the individuals
in charge know about the structures of their
competitors, how persistently their associations remain in traditional patterns of work,
and how rarely these associations are willing
to put their work under close scrutiny. The
deficits seen on the national level are multiplied on the international level. The persons in
charge of high-performance sport in Britain
know as little of the structures of Italian sport
as those in charge there know about French
sport, and those are likely to be uninformed
about the sport systems of their competitors
in Germany or Russia. When you ask the
persons in charge of successful Olympic
nations about their knowledge and experience concerning their competitors, extensive
ignorance is the predominant feature of their
responses.
It is quite obvious that success in is not
determined by accidental structures. This is
particularly true as high-performance sport is,
to a great extent, a precisely controllable
technological undertaking that can be compared to the manufacture of industrial products. Moreover, high-performance sport must
prove successful in the market. The hard indicators that have to be taken into account in
the analysis of sporting success are well
known. In 1970s and 1980s the studies by
NOVIKOV and MAKSIMENKO (1972), SEPPNEN (1972), COLWELL (1982), HEINIL (1982)
and others identified important empirical
evidence that suggests high-performance
sport should be defined as a complex organisational, economic and personal political
calculation.
Aims of the research project
In view of the introductory remarks above,

the idea behind the research project reported
here is both simple and obvious. If persons,
groups, businesses, associations or even societies are in a state of competition, the competing parties can be distinguished; one can
call them opponents. Each side strives to win
the contest and be better than the other or
others. In such a situation, there is value in
knowing as exactly as possible who is on the
other side, what they are capable of, and the
strategy and tactics they intend to use to prevail in the competition. In short, it is good to
know the methods the opponent employs.
9
On the grounds of this observation, it is an

obvious project for sociology to point out the
specific features of various high-performance
sports systems. The research in this case is
aimed at the following central question:
Which common features and which differences can be found in the high-performance
sport structures of eight selected countries?
The interest will lie in the various resources
available for high-performance sport systems.
Also of interest are the mechanisms of compensation ensuring success in case one or
more of the resources is missing. Hence, this
report is focussed on the analysis of the conditions of high-performance sport in eight
successful nations with the criterion success still to be specified more closely. Consequently, the equally relevant issue of structural features remains disregarded, as it is a
matter contributing to the success of a nation
in a certain sport on the organisational level.
With this restriction on the description of
structural similarities and differences, there
are predictions possible about so-called
functional equivalents ensuring success.
Therefore, the task of this project is to elaborate a resource model for successful highperformance sport in which all the above
mentioned aspects are considered.
Theoretical approach
The obvious thing to do, and not just from

a systematic point of view, would be to acknowledge the eight nations examined and
their specific sport systems in individual studies. It would be equally obvious to then compare the individual studies. However, individual study and systematic comparison require
developing a success-resources-model considering the necessary conditions for successful high-performance sport. Three resources
in particular move into the focus of attention
when working on the assumptions of the outlined preliminary considerations and on the
central question of the project. They can be
identified on the level of society, on the level
of sport organisation, and on the level of the
relationship of the top-sport system to its
environment.
10
Figure 1: The system of high-performance sport

On the second level the organisation of
high-performance sport one can differentiate a number of categories that are of
importance for success in international competitions For example, there are ideological
guidelines, established priorities, Olympic tradition, athletes, personnel, sport facilities,
financial, talent identification and talent
development, competition system, training,
organisation, reward systems, the fight
against doping, planned guidelines, current
trends.
The system of sport itself is ultimately
determined by interdependent relationships
to its environment. The following factors
On the first level of the suggested heuristics,

the social level, one has to investigate the
respective structure of the population, the
level of its differentiation and its level of modernisation. The structure of values is very
important in this context, as are the status of
top-sports and the status of top-athletes. Furthermore, the mechanisms of inclusion and
exclusion, and thus the dimension of social
inequality, are of interest. This first level has to
be seen conceptually as a background variable, as one has to work on the assumption
that the differently developed general conditions in each country have an independent
influence on the other two levels.
resource patterns will probably come into

being depending on the respective sport and
nation. This refers to those resources that
have been worked out on the three levels and
directly or indirectly linked with success. The
assignment will be to trace these models and
resource patterns in a comparative way and
to interpret them. On the basis of the
acquired knowledge, one may be able to offer
the desired advisory service.
Figure 2: The system of high-performance sport
Figure 3: The system of high-performance sport and its environment

seem to be of special influence for the development of sport systems in terms of quality
and quantity: politics, i.e. the particular
nation state, the economy, the spectators, the
system of mass media, the education system,
science, and the military. The analysis of system-environment relationships is intended to
reveal typical forms of networking and of
useful combinations, the costs of arising
transactions, and the systematic influence of
relevant environmental protagonists on the
structural conditions of high-performance
sport.
Summarising the decisive resources for
high-performance sport, various models or
Methodological
approach
The project is called

Organisation of high-performance sport a comparison of the most successful
nations of sport in the
Olympic Summer Games of
Atlanta 1996. It refers to
the high-performance sport
structures of Australia,
China, Germany, France,
Great Britain, Italy, Russia
and the United States of
America. These structures
have been registered and
typologically classified by
means of written and oral
interviews, as well as by
means of literature and
document analyses.
Particular emphasis has been put on athletics, swimming and volleyball, their national
associations, the NOCs (National Olympic
Committees) and the ministries responsible for
high-performance sport.
Selected results
5.1 General social conditions

The specific character of national highperformance sport systems can be best
grasped if the systems are explained primarily in relation to their society. The sport
systems in question are, of course, integrat11
5.2 The system of high-performance

sport
By identifying the characteristic features
inherent in the eight systems of high-performance sport in question, both the manifold aspects they have in common and the
differences that can be acknowledged in
the next step become clear.
All the studied nations show a long
Olympic tradition with intensive participation in recent Olympic Games. In all cases,
the Olympic sports are given priority support and have ideological guidelines. For
example, first place or Being the Best in
the World is the only goal of Great Britain,
the USA and China. For the Federal Republic of Germany the guideline is to medal
(places one to three). All the countries work
with yearly plans and special programmes
and have their athletes, who are increasing12
ly accompanied by professionally oriented

service personnel, structured into hierarchical pools. Performance is motivated by differentiated reward systems. In all the countries, centralised training seems to be an
essential prerequisite for success. This is
accompanied by year-round physiotherapy
and sports medicine care. To provide these
services, all the systems require steadily
growing budgets, which can only be
financed by a mixed income structure. In all
the nations, athletes have special sport
facilities for training and competition at
their disposal and in publicly accessible
sport facilities top athletes have privileged
rights of use. All eight nations face issues of
talent identification and talent development. By offering an extensive national
competition system to their athletes all year
round, all the studied nations strive to create favourable general conditions for international comparison. Finally, more or less
committed structures for the fight against
doping can be noted in all eight nations.
However, these common aspects cannot
conceal the fact that there are striking differences to some endogenous categories of
the respective systems. There is a department of serious sports within the DSB (German Sports Confederation) controlling German high-performance sport but one cannot find a comparable authority in any of
the other systems. The NOCs in both the
USA (USOC) and Italy (CONI, which has
1,200 employees) control the high-performance aspects of the Olympic disciplines
largely without governmental influence.
With regard to policy making, the most pronounced level of athlete participation is in
the USA, where it is legally enshrined as a
part of the system, but in all the other
nations studied, athletes are primarily the
recipients of orders. The reward systems for
athletes vary considerably from country to
country, and coaches are integrated into
these systems in only a very few cases, e.g.
in Australia. In some countries athletes
enjoy substantial privileges in school, job
and university, while in others these are
disputed or do not exist at all. In Australia
ed into very different social systems. For

example, the systems of values in the USA
and China contrast considerably while the
population structures in Russia and Italy are
certainly very different from the point of
view of age and family structures. Largely
open societies, in which vertical mobility is
not obstructed by barriers or closing mechanisms, are confronted with rather closed
and immobile societies, in which only certain groups find access to sought-after
positions. A very difficult employment situation can be found in Germany for an
increasingly larger part of society, while
there is full employment in e.g. China at
least according to the official information.
Countries with the pronounced social security systems of the welfare state are faced
with countries showing virtually neo-liberalistic economic concepts. The ethnic structures in France and Great Britain favour recruiting athletes while in Germany and Australia tighter immigration laws are being
discussed. Within the scope of this project,
these are only some of the indications of
why it is important to pay special attention
to social aspects.
and France, doping is fought against by

means of specific public laws, in others, like
Italy, such laws are planned, while in
Germany such laws have been rejected. The
number of doping control checks in training
and competition varies greatly from
country to country, and it has to be said
that, when required, sanctions are not
applied everywhere with the same level of
determination.
The list of differences could be continued.
Its length leads to the observation that
there is obviously pressure for modernisation in all the eight systems of high-performance sport studied. The interviewees
were unanimous in expressing that, almost
everything is under close scrutiny in their
respective systems. The agenda includes
increasing efficiency, examination of existing resources and the search for functional
equivalents.
5.3 Selected system-environment

relationships
The role of the state and politics

Success in high-performance sport
requires some degree of support from the
state. However, the forms of state influence
and the ways that states control or take
responsibility differ greatly. Except for the
USA, in all the countries in this study highperformance sport is directly supported by
state taxes, it is under an extensive degree of
political control and it is granted privileges
by the state that are not available to other
areas of society. The strongest governmental
control is found in China, although a loosening has been observed in the past ten years.
There, the administrative headquarters for
sport has the rank of a ministry, the director
is simultaneously president of the NOC, and
the countrys vice-prime minister is the
highest representative of sport. The state
also intervenes extensively in the development of sports in the cases of Russia, Australia and France. In Russia, all sports associations and the NOC were decreed inde-
pendent by President Boris Yeltsin in 1990

and a new sports law confirming that governmental interference was to be restricted
to the allocations of funds was passed in
1999. In practice, however, the degree of
governmental control is not limited by laws
or long-term principles, it is largely determined by the political personalities. It is,
therefore, somewhat unpredictable and difficult to perceive from the outside. In France,
the relationship is clearer as there has been
special legislation giving the ministry for
youth and sport direct influence over the
development of sport in place since 1984. In
Germany and Great Britain, the state takes
an intermediate position. In Italy and the
United States, as stated above, the influence
of the state is the least pronounced. However, the specific conditions for the development of sport in the USA were defined in the
Amateur Sports Act in 1978 and a law dating
from 1950 provides tax advantages for
sports organisations. In Italy, the state has
only a monitoring function for highperformance sport though it is responsible
for school and university sports. Nevertheless, it does have an indirect influence on
high-performance sport through the military
sport system. This situation is primarily the
creation of Andreotti who, as minister of
state in 1948, pushed through a law for the
financing of sports in 1948 under which the
Italian lotteries (Totocalcio, Totogol, Totosei)
became the main source of funding
for Italian high-performance sport and
CONI was declared the association of
associations.
The role of the economy
The role of the economy in the development of high-performance sport is extremely different in the eight examined nations. It
is conspicuous that though in many cases
there are company sports associations or
industrial teams, business directly produces
top sporting performances only in exceptional cases. The influence of business is
usually indirect, confined mainly to sponsorship arrangements. In this way, the
economy is co-financier of the system of
13
The role of the mass media

In all the eight nations studied, the most
important amplifier for the development of
the system of high-performance sport is
the media. In each case, the sporting press
plays an important role by providing news
coverage which complements sport programming, driven by viewing figures, on
manifold television stations, including specialist sport channels. In Italy, there is a
distinctive tradition of extensive coverage
that includes three daily sports newspapers, two specialist sports channels
(Streamsport and RAI Sport Sat) and a
large profession of sports journalists. The
Gazetta dello Sport reaches a circulation of
3.2 million compared to the best selling
daily newspaper, Corriera della Sera, at
merely 2.7 million. In France and in the
USA, sport also has a special status in the
mass media. On American television, there
are several sports channels, some of which
specialise on only one sport, and Sports
Illustrated is the highest circulation sports
14
magazine in the world. In Australia, Great

Britain and Germany the media show similar structures with reference to sport while
the Russian and Chinese sport media are
still in the early stages of such development. In all the countries studied, TV sport
is an important instrument of finance for
high-performance sport as it is a particularly attractive medium for sponsors. However, the chance to obtain funding through
the sale of broadcasting rights exists for
only a few sports. In Russia, for example,
only the most popular sports (football and
ice-hockey) can sell their rights while all
the other associations must pay for broadcasts in order to ensure sponsor funding
for their sport. Finally, the Internet is
becoming a new marketplace of high-performance sport in all countries.
The role of education
The public school system has an important role in development for all the systems
of high-performance sport studied. The
competition systems of schools and universities support the high-performance sport
systems, they are recruiting sources for personnel and they pro-vide partial links to the
system of science. The specific historical
development in each country has also led to
sports institutions that work in some
degree of cooperation with the school system. This is especially true for the club system in Germany but comparable structures
can be found in France, Italy and in Great
Britain. Universities can also play a critical
role but this mainly applies to Anglo-Saxon
universities and, particularly to the USA,
although the so-called sports universities
that can be found in Russia, China, France
and Germany are of importance. Seven of
the performance systems have special
schools for serious sport within the public
school system. The children and youth sport
schools of the former GDR and the comparable schools of the former Soviet Union are
reference points in this context. In Russia,
sport schools represent the central foundation of the system of high-performance
sport. The country has 3,000 sport schools,
high-performance sport. The American

economy has the biggest influence on the
financing of the sport system through a
comprehensive sponsoring and donation
system. Australia and Great Britain show
similar intensive sponsorship structures
while the engagement of sponsors in France
and Italy is slightly lower. Sport sponsorship
in Germany is still has somewhat subordinate to governmental support. Sponsorship
and patronage are least pronounced in
China and Russia. In China it is almost
exclusively US companies that support of
high-performance sport: General Motors,
General Electrics, Boeing, Delta Airlines. In
Russia sport sponsorship only works on the
highest level of sport and, again, it is primarily foreign companies like Reebok,
Adidas, Coca Cola, MTV-Inform (media) and
Red October (equipment) providing support. On a regional level, Russian governmental companies are still the most important supporters of local athletes and competitions, usually supplying non-monetary
services.
2,113 children and youth sport clubs, 860

children and youth sport schools of the
Olympic Reserve Supply, 73 youth sport
schools of higher proficiencies and 30 universities of the Olympic Reserve Supply. The
number of these sport schools exceeds the
totals in France and Germany by many
times and only in China can a comparable
number be found. About 80% of Russian
Olympic participants in the individual
sports hold a degree from a university of
the Olympic Reserve Supply. Despite the
countrys economic difficulties, one has to
assume that Russia will continue to hold its
position in international competition
because of the ongoing functioning of its
system of sport schools. In the USA,
intramural sport at both the school and
university levels plus interscholastic sport
and intercollegiate sport are the primary
mediums for the education systems contribution to sport. The major universities,
which are members of the National Collegiate Athletic Association, and some smaller universities and colleges grant scholarships to outstanding athletes, who are
required to maintain a minimum grade
average in their academic studies to remain
eligible. These scholarships support the
intercollegiate sport system and are a
central element for the development of
nations high-performance system.
The role of science

The systems of high-performance sport in
the eight examined nations are all scientifically supported. In each case, there are special research institutes and advice centres
to look after athletes and support their
coaches. All the nations are also equipped
with central research institutes, although
these show considerable differences in
respect to scientific orientation and number
of staff. The Federal Institute of Sports Science (BISp), the Institute of Adapted Training (IAT) and the National Institute of
Sports Equipment (FES) in Germany have a
special status. The INSEP (Institut National
du Sport et lEducation Physique) in France
and AIS (Australian Institute of Sport) in
Australia are central service institutes supporting pool athletes in the sports medicine
/ training scientific fields. But the INSEP is
also the central institution of education
with respect to high-performance sport and
in France, where sport science at the universities is not a strong feature, there is
only marginal research into high-performance sport. Otherwise, the universities of all
the examined countries participate in general research into high-performance sport.
Sport science is especially distinguished in
Russia, Australia and Germany. Russian
sports science plays a unique role in the
world. The academies of St. Petersburg and
Moscow are at the top of their field. In
China, there are five special research institutes and two university research institutes,
which split the research of high-performance sport between them. In the USA, sport
science work is carried out through the various university research structures but specific sport science institutes are of no
importance. In Italy and Great Britain, sport
science advice services are rather subordinate. In Great Britain, a network of research
institutes is established at the different
home countries. In Italy only one research
institute is occupied with high-performance
sport. The Instituto Scienze dello Sport in
Rome primarily conducts sports medicine
and training science research. Furthermore,
an effort is being made to build up an
extensive advice system in cooperation with
Italian universities. It is notable that only a
few branches of sport science and their
advice services are accepted by the systems
of high-performance sport studied. Sports
medicine, performance diagnostics, biomechanics and especially physiotherapy hold
an outstanding position in this context.
Only in the United States can sports psychology count on an equivalent response.
Sport sociological advice services are generally unknown.
The role of the military
The assessment of the role of the military
for the development of high-performance
sport in the systems studied varies from of
15
highest importance to without any relevance. It is striking that the military and
the police play virtually no role at all in the
Anglo-Saxon nations whereas in Germany
and Russia the military is of high importance. In the armed forces of these countries, there are special institutions for highperformance sport in which top athletes are
offered ideal conditions for training and
competition. The same is true for France,
particularly for winter sports.
High-performance sport
between Talk and Action
an interpreting outlook
The provisional look at the high-performance sport systems in eight countries, including their dependence on general social
conditions and the important relationships
to their environments, reveals anything but
a consistent rationality. The first analysis
focused primarily on the surface of the
sport systems and relationships to other
areas in society. When deeper structures are
observed and analysed some possibilities for
interpretation arise and patterns of communication that might not be noticed at
first sight become evident. As with societies
that are permanently under pressure for
modernisation, the institutions of high-performance sport also seem to be in a race for
continuous renewal. The economy, the market and competition seem to dictate the
rationalities of action. The pressure for
renewal that can be found in sport institutions indicates that they cannot be considered static. Instead, they are challenged
again and again by protagonists from many
systems and decisive changes are suggested
by the demands of acting economically,
demands whose influence on sport in
increasing continuously.
The concept of New Institutionalism
could be helpful in explaining this phenomenon. It was mainly MEYER/ROWAN
(1977) and DIMAGGIO/POWELL (1983) who
showed that organisations in a continuous
process of modernisation not only strive
16
for ever more efficient ways of dealing

with problems, they also strive to establish
legitimacy. The thought provoking thesis
reads that the formal structures of organisations express myths, which are institutionalised within their social environment.
Applied to high-performance sport, this
means that certain myths outside of sports
are taken up and are then copied in sport
organisations. In this way sports institutions seek ensure their survivability and
these patterns become more important
than a mere orientation towards technicalinstrumental criteria of dealing with problems. MEYER/ROWAN explain their thesis
by giving the example of the increasing
importance of professional management
consultancies. Some companies making use
of these services are not necessarily striving for an increase in efficiency in the
operation of the organisation, but want to
ensure an internal and external legitimacy.
Just like these companies, some institutions of high-performance sport seek
external advice without having an increase
in efficiency in mind. In this way, they
comply with the social myths of innovation
and rationality. Such a mythical role can at
least partly be assumed for sports science.
Organisations that are under pressure for
modernisation try to comply with the myth
by forming committees, passing guidelines,
calling transfer institutions into being, etc.
The activity structure of the organisation
itself, however, frequently remains
untouched. Thus, a separation takes place
between the formal structure visible to the
outside and the inner activity structure.
Within the formal structure, one behaves
as if one is ready for changes and adapts
almost ritually to the altered expectations
of the environment. In the inner activity
structure, however, one carries out
business as usual and remains unimpressed. The interviews conducted indicate,
in various ways, that a separation between
the outer formal structure and the inner
activity structure has taken place in
high-performance sport institutions and
that it is probably neces-sary for their
survivability.
An appropriate institutional-theoretical
and interpretative aid to understanding current trends in high-performance sport systems could be DIMAGGIOs isomorphism concept, which shows that competing companies
are in a relationship of mutual legitimisation.
DIMAGGIO states that it is possible to observe
adaptation processes among various companies and calls these adaptation processes
institutional isomorphism. He distinguishes
between three isomorphic mechanisms: compulsion (coercive isomorphism), imitation
(mimetic isomorphism) and normative pressure (normative isomorphism).
Isomorphism evoked by compulsion is

primarily the result of governmental guidelines and obligatory regulations. In high-performance sport such elements can be found,
for example, in the fight against doping.
Common action in the legal field leads to
structural adaptations of organisations. Such
an effect can presently be seen in the creation
of WADA (the World Anti-Doping Agency).
Within Europe isomorphisms in sports organisations that are created by compulsion, in
addition to the effects of social-institutional
value systems, can also be seen in other areas
such women, minorities and environmental
pollution. It is common to all organisations
that these systems find expression, amongst
others, through the creation of new jobs and
the appointment of delegates.
The second form of institutional isomorphism is evoked by imitation. Mimetic isomorphism is mostly the result of insecurity.
Unclear cause and effect structures, heterogeneous expectations of the environment and
a lack of straightforward problem-solving
technologies lead to processes of mutual
observation and copying. These circumstances
can be found in all the systems of high-performance sport studied. Successful models
are imitated relatively quickly and are adapted across the boundaries of organisations. The
innovation itself is in this way replicated, as is
the pattern that is at the root of the innovation. HASSE/KRCKEN point out that an
increasingly dense web of external consulting
firms promotes such processes and act as
agents of fusion. These firms are no longer

restricted to working with business organisations. The takeover of some institutions of the
former GDR sport system can be interpreted
as mimetic isomorphisms as can the purchase of a concept for detecting talents by
Britain or attempts to copy performance
diagnostic strategies.
The third form of institutional isomorphism,
namely normative isomorphism, is largely the
result of professions exerting a normative
pressure. They provide their members with a
framework of orientation, which develops
normative commitments and leads to the
preference and general application of certain
problem solving patterns. These patterns
become effective partly through personnel
selection and partly through professional
unions. The dominance of lawyers on the
management committees of sport organisations can be seen as an example of this tendency. Virtually everything calling itself
management or manager exerts this normative pressure. Institutional isomorphism
comes into being chiefly through a personnel
selection exerted on such professions.
A continuity of reform claims also can be
found in the examined high-performance
sport systems. BRUNSSON/OLSEN (1993) have
shown that in Sweden reforms are permanently expected and are therefore seen as
perfectly legitimate. As a result, reform
becomes routine. Presently a comparable
development seems to be taking place in
high-performance sport organisations. To
them, increasing efficiency is apparently of
special importance. But striving for efficiency
often results in reform for the sake of a
reform. A demystification of reforms in highperformance sport would hence be possible
by a neo-institutionalistic view. The expectations of a rational development of organisation and of a hierarchic control are put into
perspective by such observations. For the
institutions of high-performance sport one
can likewise assume that the lasting modernisation attempts will produce less specific and
intended results, but rather indirect effects
and, in contrast to the intention, partly coun17
One can therefore assume that for the

institutions of high-performance sport there
will be contradicting expectations, which will
lead to a situation in which some institutional guidelines will merely be followed symbolically. There is hardly a better example of the
difference between talk and action than in
the treatment of the doping problem. Some
systems of serious sport regard talk without
action as an appropriate functional equivalent to gain an advantage over the international competitors. Without any doubt, there
is a conflict between an anti-doping policy
and an orientation towards medals in modern
high-performance sport. The clash of interests
hints at a general social development, which
leads to an increasing disintegration of
straightforward and homogeneous expectation structures. Ambiguities, am-bivalence
and contradictions have long since replaced a
point-to-point equivalent of institutional
guideline and action in high-performance
sport. Potential and actual contradictions of
institutional guidelines have become a central
characteristic feature of modern societies.
High-performance sport between talk and
action, between compulsion, imitation and
normative pressure it will still have to be
proved whether these patterns of interpretation are acceptable.
Please send all correspondence to:
Prof. Dr. Helmut Digel
Email: Helmut.Digel@uni-tuebingen.de
18
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BRUNSSON, N.; OLSEN, J. P.: The Reforming Organization, Chichester: Wiley 1993.
COLWELL, J.: Sociocultural Determinants of International Sporting Success: A Test of a Con-ceptual Model. International Sociological Association
1982.
COLWELL, J.: konomische Bedingungen des
Erfolges im internationalen Spitzensport. In:
HEINEMANN, K. (Hrsg.): Texte zur konomie des
Sports. Schorndorf: Hofmann 1984, 91-100.
DIMAGGIO, P. J.; POWELL, W. W.: The Iron Cage
Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields. In:
American Sociological Review 48 (1983), 147160.
HEINIL, K.: The Totalization Process in International Sport. In: Sportwissenschaft 12 (1982),
235-254.
MEYER, J. W.; ROWAN, B.: Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structures as Myth and Ceremony. In: American Journal of Sociology 83 (1977),
340-363.
MEYER, M. W.; ZUCKER, L.G.: Permanently Failing
Organizations, Newbury Park: Sage 1989.
NOVIKOV, A. D.; MAKSIMENKO, M.: Soziale und
konomische Faktoren und das Niveau sportlicher Leistungen verschiedener Lnder. In:
Sportwissenschaft 2 (1972), 156-167.
SEPPNEN, P.: Die Rolle des Leistungssports in den
Gesellschaften der Welt. In: Sportwissenschaft 2
(1972), 133-155.
teracting effects. Therefore, BRUNSSON/

OLSEN differentiate between the terms talk
and action. More and more frequently, a discrepancy between organisational talk and
organisational action is manifested in the
eight systems of high-performance sport
studied. On the talk level one acts as if one
was ready for reforms and one makes rhetorical allowances for the fact that there are
altered ideas of appropriate and modern
organisational behaviour. On the action
level, however, unchanged patterns of behaviour continue to dominate in the organisation.
by IAAF
The long-term competition

activity of the worlds top athletes
20:2; 19-24, 2005
Vadim Zelichenok is the Director

of the IAAF Regional Development Centre in Moscow. From
1983 to 1990 he was the Chief
Coach of the Junior Athletics
Team of the USSR, from 1990 to
1992 of the Senior Athletics
Team of the USSR and from
1992 to 1998 of the Senior
Athletics Team of Russia.
ABSTRACT
With the aim of improving the

preparation of athletes, particularly the long-term planning of their
careers, the author examined the
competitive careers of more than
1500 elite athletes in all the disciplines of athletics. The objective
was to try to understand how they
have been affected by the introduction of international championships for the Youth (under 18)
and Junior (under 20) age groups
and by the increase in competition
opportunities and competition
intensity for senior athletes. A
general analysis produces a fourgroup classification of well-known
athletes based on their international performances in youth/junior championships and subsequent
senior championships. An analysis
by event group provides examples
of athletes who achieved international class results at a relatively
young age and athletes who continued to excel at relatively older
ages. The author concludes that (1)
good results achieved at a young
age do not have to compromise the
athletes career in terms of eventual level of success or duration, (2)
the average age of the winners and
medallists at the World Championships and Olympic Games has
been gradually increasing, (3) there
are quite a few examples of athletes who have remained in worlds
elite and even improved their
results after the age of thirty.
AUTHOR
By Vadim Zelichenok
Introduction
he design of a rational, scientifically
based long-term competition programme for elite performers is one of
the most difficult issues faced by coaches
and federation leaders in modern athletics.
The complexity and importance of the task
has increased over the last 20 years as the
sport has become more professional and the
international calendar of events for all age
categories has expanded. The number of
championship events has increased, as has
the amount of prize money on offer, and at
the same time the circuit of Grand Prix and
other commercial meetings has become more
and more financially attractive for top
athletes.
The increased financial incentives and the

growth of the sport into many new countries
have made the fight for the top places at
major competitions tougher and tougher. It is
19
The long-term competition activity of the worlds top athletes
In such a situation, even the most outstanding athletes face difficulties in repeating
their successes. Thus, only four champions
from the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta
could win again in Sydney in 2000 (Johnson
(USA), Gebrselassie (ETH), Zelezny (CZE) and
Korzeniowski (POL)) and only two champions
from Sydney could defend their titles in
Athens (Alekna (LAT) and Korzeniowski). Even
maintaining the highest level of success from
one year to the next is difficult. Eight winners
at the 2003 World Championships in Paris
went on to become Olympic Champions the
following year in Athens (El Guerrouj (MAR),
Bekele (ETH), Snchez (DMR), Phillips (USA),
Olsson (SWE), Klft (SWE) Alekna and
Korzeniowski) but 11 world champions failed
to win a medal and some were not even
selected for Athens.
A second, closely related issue it that of
planning the competition pathway of highly
talented young athletes. Is success in the
increasing number of international championships open to athletes in the youth (under
18), junior (under 20) and U23 (under 23)
categories a pre-requisite for success at the
senior level? Or does the intensity of the necessary preparation and competition in major
events at an early age have a detrimental
effect on an athletes prospects as a senior?
And what is the best way for a talented young
athlete to make the transition to the senior
ranks?
Until relatively recently those in the junior
category had, in most of the IAAF Area
Groups, the possibility to compete in a continental championship or Games every second
year. With the creation of the biennial IAAF
World Junior Championships in Athletics
starting in 1986, major international compe20
tition opportunities were increased for athletes of this age group. Then, in 1999, the
IAAF added the biennial IAAF World Youth
Championships. Between continental and
world events, young athletes can and do compete in a major international competition, or
more than one, every year starting at 16 or 17
years old. Morover, in Europe there is now a
biennial continental U23 championships,
which extends the possibilities.
Table 1: Athletes who won major junior championships
and later won medals at the World Championships in Athletics or Olympic Games.
Sprints and Hurdles

Ato Boldon (TRI), Grit Breuer (GER), Veronica Campbell
(JAM), Svetla Dimitrova (RUS), Monique Hennagan (USA),
Colin Jackson (GBR), Katrin Krabbe (GER), Natalya Nazarova (RUS), Francis Obikwelu (NGR-POR), Falilat Ogunkoya
(NGR), Jana Pittman (AUS), Jullian Russell (XXX), Quincy
Watts (USA), Lauryn Williams (USA)
Middle and Long Distance
Mathew Birir (KEN), Yuriy Borzakovskiy (RUS), Haile
Gebrselassie (ETH), Wang Junxia (CHN), Moses Kiptanui
(KEN), Daniel Komen (KEN), Peter Rono (KEN), Clodoaldo
Silva (XXX), Gabriela Szabo (ROM), Derartu Tulu (ETH)
Race Walks
Francisco Fernandez (ESP), Ilya Markov (RUS), Jefferson
Perez (ECU), Roman Rasskasov (RUS), Mikhail Shchennikov
(RUS), Irina Stankina (RUS)
Jumps
Jacques Freitag (RSA), Jean Galfione (FRA), Lyudmila Galkina (RUS), Elena Isinbayeva (RUS), Marina Kuptsova, Teresa Marinova, Fiona May (GBR-ITA), Yoelbi Quesada (CUB),
Maksim Tarasov (RUS), Artur Partyka (POL), Javier
Sotomayor (CUB)
Throws
Juriy Belonog (UKR), Marius Corbett (RSA), Tanya Damaske
(GER), Natalya Sadova (RUS), Osleidys Mndez (CUB), Ilke
Wyludda (GER)
Combined Events
Natalya Sazanovich (BLR), Carolina Klft (SWE).
not surprising that more than 20 countries

supplied winners in the four biggest events
between 2000 and 2004 (Olympic Games in
2000 and 2004 and the World Championships
in 2001 and 2003), that the medallists represented more than 40 countries and that the
finalists (top 8) represented more than 60
countries.
General analysis
For more that 20 years I was closely
involved in the preparation of the national
teams of the USSR and then of Russia, starting with youth and junior teams and then
moving to the senior national team. During
this period, I was fortunate to witness the
development of a whole galaxy of athletic
stars. I was able to follow the careers of
many of them from the age of 15-16 years,
watch their performances in the junior competitions and see many of them join the
worlds elite. I have also been able to make
detailed analyses of the careers of about
1,500 top athletes.
Table 2: Athletes who performed well at but did not win
major junior championships and later won medals at the
World Championships in Athletics or Olympic Games.
Sprints and Hurdles

Chioma Ajunwa (NGR), Cathy Freeman (AUS), Marion Jones
(USA), Kostas Kenteris (GRE), Samuel Matete (ZAM), Irina
Privalova (RUS), Obadele Thompson (BAR), Tonique
Williams (BAH)
Middle and Long Distance
Kenenisa Bekele (ETH), Fermin Cacho (ESP), Hicham El
Guerrouj (MAR), Wilson Kipketer (DEN), Svetlana Masterkova (RUS), Noureddine Morceli (ALG), Venuste Nyongabo
(BUR), Sonya OSullivan (IRL), Fernanda Ribeiro (POR),
Carla Sacramento (POR), Tatyana Tomasheva (RUS)
Race Walks
Anna Sidoti (ITA)
Jumps
Stefan Holm (SWE), Nick Hysong (USA), Sergey Klyugin
(RUS), Tatyana Lebedeva (RUS, Ivan Pedroso (CUB), Irina
Simagina (RUS),Yelena Slesarenko (RUS), Kirill Sosunov
(RUS)
Throws
Steve Backley (GBR), Yumileidi Cumba (CUB), Beatris Faumina (NZL), Svetlana Kriveleva (RUS), Yipsi Moreno (CUB),
Lars Riedel (GER), Andreas Thorkildsen (NOR)
Combined Events
Robert Zmelik (CZE)
My analysis of the careers of top athletes

reveals that 75 Olympic champions (42 Men
and 33 Women) since 1986 had previously
taken part in the World Junior Championships
in Athletics. The recent Games in Athens significantly expanded this list, adding 19 new
names. On the surface, this seems a great
endorsement for the junior events role in the
preparation of senior level performers.
Looking at all the athletes I have tracked,
four groups with similar career patterns can
be identified.
The first group comprises athletes whose
careers could be defined as ideal: they all won
either European or World junior championships
and then went on to become winners or
medallists at the World Championships in Athletics or Olympic Games. We can see from the
sample of names in the group given in Table 1
that it contains athletes in all the event groups.
The second group (Table 2) is made up of
athletes who did not win a major youth or
junior championship but did play a prominent role at that level (finalist or minor
medallist) and later became bright stars in
the world of athletics. Very often, these athletes managed to surpass the results of the
athletes who were ahead of them at the junior championships. Again, we can see from
the sample of names that most of the events
are covered.
The third group represents athletes, who
did not achieve notable success in the youth
Table 3: Athletes who did not achieve significant success in
major junior championships but later won medals at the
World Championships in Athletics or Olympic Games.
Virgilijus Alekna (LAT), Ivano Brugnetti (ITA), Fani
Chalkia (GRE), Shawn Crawford (USA), Svetlana Feofanova (RUS), Justin Gatlin (USA), Kelly Holmes
(GBR), Anastas_a Keles_dou (XXX), _imothy Mack
(USA), Sergey Makarov (RUS), Andrei Mikhnevich
(BLR) Felix Sanchez (DMR), Ivan Tikhon (BLR), Jeremy Wariner (USA),
21
And, finally, the fourth group represents

athletes, who were very bright as youths and
or as juniors and then either disappeared or
became athletes of an average level. I shall
not list any names because in many cases
even the experts have managed to forget
about these athletes. However, I have to tell
you with regret that this list is very long. My
analysis of the results of all the World Junior
Championships in Athletics to date shows
that 60-70% of the winners and medallists do
not go on to achieve any serious success at
the senior level.
It seems to me that two conclusions can be
drawn. The first relates to the fact that the
study of the results of the major championships and Games of recent years shows that
almost 70% of all the medallists at the senior
level achieved high level performances at a
young age, medalling and sometimes winning
at world and continental junior championships. This is consistent across all events.
However, the career achievement of the stars
of the sport at senior level is not dependent
on their actual place in the junior championships first or second or eighth or tenth.
The second conclusion is that elite athletes,
having successfully started to compete internationally at youth and junior level, can in
some cases continue as winners of the major
senior level competitions during two or even
three Olympic cycles, often having a training
and competition period of over 20 years.
Analysis by event group

I would now like to look at the long-term
competition activity of leading world athletes
in the different event groups of athletics.
Sprints and Hurdles
My analysis shows that most of the
worlds current top 100m sprinters recorded
22
times in the range of 10.8 to 11.0 (men) and

11.7 to 12.0 (women) when they were 15 to
16 years old. To achieve this level of performance it is necessary to have trained for
two to three years in athletics (or in other
sports) and to be prepared to undergo large
training loads. In normal cases, the athletes
studied started to show results of international standard sometime between the ages
of 20 to 21 years. There are, of course, some
exceptions. Marion Jones, for example, was
much faster earlier on, having run 11.17 at
the age of 16 (this refutes a widely held
belief that this athlete, after playing basketball as a youngster, started to practice athletics only at the age of 20 and then with
just six months training became a world
leader).
At the other end of the career, we can see
that some of the worlds elite sprinters compete successfully until 30 years of age, and,
frequently, even longer. For example, Bruni
Surin (CAN) ran 9.89 at the age of 32, Linford Christie (GBR) did 9.97 at the age of 35
and Merlene Ottey (JAM - SLO) did10.74 at
the age of 37 and 11.09 at the age of 44!
A great age range of best results can be
seen in the 400m as well. On the one hand,
you have Steve Lewis (USA) and Jeremy
Wariner (USA) who became Olympic Champions at the ages of 19 and 20 respectively.
On the other hand, there are a number of
athletes who have achieved world class
results after the age of 30, including Tatiana
Alekseeva (RUS), Pauline Davis (BAH), Antonio Pettigrew (USA), Butch Reynolds (USA),
and, of course, Michael Johnson (USA) who
set the current mens world record at the
age of 32.
A similar picture emerges in both the
sprint and 400m hurdles. We see athletes
achieving world class marks at or before 20
years old, including Glory Alozie (NGR),
Llewellyn Herbert (RSA), Colin Jackson
(GBR), Xaing Liu (CHN), Aliuska Lopez (CUB),
Heike Meissner (GER), Stanislavs Olijars
(LAT) and Jana Pittman (AUS), and we see
world leaders setting personal bests in the
or junior categories but eventually became

top performers. Table 3 contains a sample of
the names that have been included in this
group in recent years
30 to 35 age range, including Mark Crear

(USA), Gail Devers (USA), Ludmilla Engqvist
(RUS-SWE), Deon Hemmings (JAM), Allen
Johnson (USA) and Roger Kingdom (USA).
Middle and Long Distances
If only recently, 10 to 15 years ago, it was
considered that success in middle and long
distance running was a privilege of relatively old athletes (2628 years). However, we
have seen the situation change and runners
under 20 are now proving successful at the
highest level. Along with the African runners, whose biological age is sometimes
somewhat higher than their chronological
age, this list includes quite a few Europeans.
Names that can be mentioned here include
Kenesisa Bekele (ETH), Yuriy Borzakovskiy
(RUS), Fermin Cacho (ESP), Tirunesh Dibaba
(ETH), Haile Gebrselassie (ETH), Japheth
Kimutai (KEN), Daniel Komen (KEN), Maria
Mutola (MOZ), Paula Radcliffe (GBR) and
Gabriela Szabo (ROM).
In fact, the average age of the elite athletes in these events is not decreasing
because of the balancing effect of world
class results being achieved by athletes over
30. For example, Dieter Baumann (GER) set
his personal record at 32, William Tanui
(KEN) set his at 33, Anna Quirot (CUB)
equalled hers at the age of 34 as did Kelly
Holmes (GBR), not to mention becoming a
double Olympic Champion. It would be
incorrect not highlight the case of Ekaterina
Podkopaeva (RUS) who became World
Champion at 44 after a career of more than
20 years, 10 of which were at top international level.
Jumps
It is not surprising that world class marks
are frequently achieved by athletes under
20 years old. Names that stand out in this
category include Alina Astafei (GER), James
Beckford (USA), Sergey Bubka (UKR), Heike
Drechsler (GER), Jacques Freitag (RSA),
Elena Isinbaeva (RUS), Marina Kuptsova
(RUS), Carl Lewis (USA), Christian Olsson
(SWE), Ivan Pedroso (CUB), Yoelbi Quesada

(CUB), Steve Smith (GBR), Javier Sotomayor
CUB), Maksim Tarasov (RUS) and Dragutin
Topic (SCG). A significant number of these
athletes continued as elite performers for
period of 12 to 15 years. Standouts among
these include Bubka, Drechsler, Stefka
Kostadinova (BUL), Lewis, Sotomayor, Yelena
Yelesina (RUS). I do not think that I will be
mistaken if I suggest that this list will be
expanded as time goes by.
At the same time I want to mention a
group of athletes who started to demonstrate world class results in the jumping
events at a relatively late age and continued
improving their performances practically
annually, setting personal (and, sometimes,
world) records at the ages of 30 to 34. This
group includes Iolanda Chen (RUS), Mike
Conley (USA), Jonathan Edwards (GBR), Jeff
Hartwig (USA) and Niurka Montalvo (CUB).
Throws
As with the middle and long distance runners, modern throwers have started to
demonstrate world level results 3 to 4 years
earlier than was the norm in the 1970s and
1980s. However, the average age of elite
athletes is not decreasing here either, as a
relatively large group is still among the
world leaders at the ages of 32 to 34. The
group of athletes who entered the worlds
elite at the age of 20 to 21 and remained at
a high level for 12 to 15 years includes
Andrey Abduvaliev (RUS), Franka Dietzsch
(GER), Tibor Gicsek (HUN), Trine Hattestad
(NOR), Svetlana Krivelyova (RUS), Astrid
Kumbernuss (GER), Lars Riedel (GER),
Natalia Sadova (RUS), Irina Yatchenko (BLR)
and Jan Zelezny (CZE).
Combined Events
It is all but natural that world class performances in the combined events are
almost always achieved by relatively experienced athletes. In recent years, the average
age of the top performers here increased
from 24 to 25 up to 28 to 30 years old. The
23
Main Conclusions
1. Despite the significant expansion of the
calendar of international junior and senior
championships, a large group of athletes
has managed to achieve high level performances as juniors and then to stay among the
world leaders for 10 to 15 years, and sometimes even longer. At the same time, athletes who have achieved their first significant success at a relatively mature age keep
their place among the elite not longer than
5 to 6 years. It is obvious that with correctly organised work on selection, well planned
long-term preparation and rationally organised competition activity, high level results
achieved at a young age do not have to
compromise the athletes career in terms of
level of success or duration.
2. In recent years, the average age of the
winners and medallists at the World Championships and Olympic Games has been
increasing slowly but steadily. At present, it
does not exceed 26 years. The results of the
2004 Olympic Games in Athens have only
confirmed this tendency: the average age of
the champions in the individual events was
26.6 years (27 years men and 26.2 years
women). On one hand, there was a large
group of athletes who became Olympic
Champions at the age of 20 to 22 Kenenisa Bekele (EYH), Yuriy Borzakovskiy
(RUS), Veronica Campbell (JAM), Meseret
Defar (ETH), Justin Gatlin (USA), Xing Huina
(CHN), Yelena Isinbayeva (RUS), Ezekiel
Kemboi (KEN), Carolina Klft (SWE), Xiang
Liu (CHN), Yelena Slesarenko (RUS), Andreas
Thorkildsen (NOR) and Jeremy Wariner
(USA). On the other hand, many veterans
who had already celebrated their 30th
birthdays also became winners in Athens Virgilijus Alekna (LAT), Stefano Baldini (ITA),
Hicham El Guerrouj (MAR), Kelly Holmes
(GBR), Robert Korzeniowski (POL), Olga
24
Kuzenkova (RUS), Timothy Mack (USA) and

Natalia Sadova (RUS). We see a similar picture if we analyse the ages of the medallists
in Athens.
3. Though, as already mentioned, winners
and medallists change rapidly in the major
competitions, there are quite a few examples, of athletes who remain in worlds elite
and even improve their results into their
thirties. A number of the most convincing
examples are: Olga Kuzenkova (RUS) was
second at the age of 28 in at the Olympics
in Sydney and at 32 won in Athens; Natalia
Sadova was second in Atlanta at 24, failed
to get any medal in Sydney and at 32 won
in Athens; Kelly Holmes was fourth in
Atlanta at 26, third in Sydney at 30 and at
34 she became a double Olympic Champion
in Athens.
In any case, the submitted data are of an
average character. Experts working with
young athletes should consider them as a
model but they should not be seen as
dogma. I am confident that in your experience you have met or will meet outstanding
athletes who do not fit in the set frames
outlined here. But this does not make their
career experience any less significant.
Please send all correspondence to:

Vadim Zelichenok
Email: vadim@iaaf.ru
exception to this trend is, of course, Carolina Klft (SWE), who starting from the age
of19 has been the world leader in the heptathlon for the last three years.
STUDIES
contents
Abuse of androgenic-anabolic steroids
and adverse effects in athletes

by Fumihiro Yamasawa
Weightlifting in training for athletics
Part II
by Martin Zawieja-Koch
STUDIES
by IAAF
Abuse of androgenic-anabolic
steroids and adverse effects in athletes
20:2; 27-37, 2005
Introduction
ndrogenic-anabolic steroids (AASs) are
variants of the endogenous androgen
testosterone, many of which have
been synthesised since the 1950s. While AASs
have been prescribed ethically for delayed
puberty, hematological disorders, catabolic diseases and some kinds of cancer, athletes have,
unfortunately, misused them to try to improve
their performances. In fact, AASs have been a
major element of doping in sports for about 50
years. The history of AAS abuse is practically
Fumihiro Yamasawa MD, DMSc is

the Director of the Maubeni Clinic
in Tokyo, Japan. He serves as the
Director the Medical Committee
of the Japan Amateur Athletic
Federation and a member of the
IAAF Medical and Anti-Doping
Commission.
AUTHOR
Androgenic-anabolic
steroids
(AASs) have been a major element
in doping in sports for 50 years and
they are the most abused substances in athletics. While it is true
that AASs can contribute to
improved performance in several
sports, there are numerous reports
of negative side effects, especially
in the cardiovascular, hepatobiliary, reproductive and psychiatric
systems. This article includes
overviews of the abuse of AASs in
sport and the techniques used in
the practice as well as a detailed
explanation of how AASs work on
users. Its main focus, however, is
on a long list of reported negative
side effects, some of which can be
fatal. The author concludes by
stressing the importance of the
fight against doping and the need
to educate athletes and those
around them, stressing the dangers involved AAS abuse.
ABSTRACT
By Fumihiro Yamasawa
the history of doping, and sports or competitions where AAS abuse seems prevalent are
sometimes referred to as Chemical Games.
According to the annual reports of the IOC
Medical Commission, AASs have been the
substances most abused by athletes. Over the
past 20 years, the IAAF has conducted more
than 33,000 doping tests and 37% of the
approximately 1,200 positive cases were for
AASs. Perhaps the most notorious recent
scandal in sports involved many top performers in athletics and several other sports in the
United States who illegally used tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), an AAS distributed by the
BALCO company that was designed to avoid
detection in ordinary doping control tests.
The World Anti-Doping Code and its associated international standards, including the
Prohibited List and the Therapeutic Use
Exemption, have been in effect since 1 January
2004. Together, these will harmonise and promote the worldwide fight against doping. The
27
Abuse of androgenic-anabolic steroids and adverse effects in athletes
Abuse of AASs is not limited to top athletes. They are well known across a range of
sports. It has been reported that many
weightlifters have used 20 to 100 times the
amount of a normal therapeutic prescription
of AAS. AAS use is also known to be a common practice of many amateur and even
young sportsmen and sportswomen. Moreover, many of the people who use one or
more of the commercially available dietary
supplements may unwittingly be taking AASs
or precursors of testosterone as some of
these products have been intentionally or
unintentionally contaminated.
It is well known that sportsmen and sportswomen abusing AASs indicate disturbances of
their mental and physical status1,2,3,4,5,6. As an
extreme example, an increased incidence of
premature mortality among powerlifters has
been shown7. However, the adverse effects
cannot be determined scientifically for all
cases because many are only described in
individual case reports4,5,6. Moreover, the critical dose of any AAS that causes health troubles has yet to be identified and it may
depend on the individual taking the drug.
Though randomised, double blind, placebocontrolled studies are scientifically preferable
for the investigation of the effects of any
drug, there are ethical considerations when
working with sportsmen and sportswomen. It
is hardly acceptable to expose healthy young
athletes to potentially hazardous drugs in
supra-physiological dosages to determine
whether these drugs improve performance or
to confirm the adverse effects that may occur.
Accepting these limitations in investigations,
28
this article will, after introductory explanations of how AASs are used in doping practice
and the nature and mechanism of action of
naturally occurring testosterone and synthetic AASs, focus on the adverse effects on the
health of AAS abuser-athletes.
The author fully supports current anti-doping regulations. It is the hoped that the provision of the information contained in this
article will help athletes, coaches and medical
personnel to make morally and ethically
sound decisions and that it will contribute to
the greater efforts ensure that sport on all
levels is both fair and safe.
Techniques of AAS abuse

Athletes abusing AASs often use more than
one type at a time, combining oral and
pareteral preparations, a practice known as
stacking1.
In another, very common practice, called
cycling, periods (6 to 16 weeks in length) of
high-dose use of AASs are alternated with
periods of low-dose use or no drug at all.
These intermittent discontinuations are
believed by AAS abusers to allow the endogenous testosterone levels, sperm count and
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis to
return to normal. Abusers also believe that
cycling prevents detection and insures peak
performance during competition2.
Some AAS abusers slowly escalate their
steroid use (numbers, dose and frequency),
reach a peak amount at mid-cycle and gradually taper the dose toward the end of the
cycle. This practice is called pyramiding.
Athletes may take AASs for a limited period
in order to achieve a particular goal while
others, such as bodybuilders and bodyguards,
may take them for extended periods.
AASs stay in the body for anywhere from a
couple of days to more than 12 months,
depending on the characteristics of the particular AAS2.
2004 Olympic Games in Athens were the first

held under the code and many measures were
taken before and during the Games both
inside and outside of the competition areas.
Unfortunately, Athens has been called the
Doping Olympics because the number of positive cases was the highest in the history of
the Games. Twenty-four athletes, including
seven medallists, tested positive for prohibited substances. AASs were detected in several,
including one gold medallist.
Testosterone and AASs

The testicular hormone testosterone was
isolated in crystalline form in 1935. Its chemical structure was soon elucidated and the hormone was synthesised in the same year8. After
that, many laboratory investigations were conducted to study the effects of testosterone.
There are four other endogenous androgenic
steroids. Except for dihydrotestosterone (DHT),
which is a strong intracellular androgen, they
are weak androgens that are transformed into
testosterone in peripheral tissue and are
thought to be precursors of testosterone.
Testosterone promotes masculine characteristics and virilisation, including acne, body hair,
low voice, growth of the penis, alopecia (baldness) and an oily face. Its anabolic action
results in hypertrophy and strengthening of
muscles, enhancement of tissue repair and erythropoiesis8. The most prevalent reason for
athletes to initiate AAS abuse is to enhance
muscle mass and strength. Recent studies have
shown that gains in muscle mass are greater
when testosterone is administered in combination with a strength training programme9.
Endogenous testosterone is mainly synthesised in the Leydig cells of the testes in males
and in the ovaries in females8. The production
and secretion of endogenous testosterone is
stimulated and regulated by the luteinising
hormone (LH). LH is also called interstitial cell
stimulating hormone (ICSH) and the Leydig cell
is an interstitial cell. LH is secreted from the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland under the
control of the hypothalamus. When the serum
concentration of androgen is high, the release
of LH is suppressed by a feedback mechanism.
A normal adult male produces testosterone at
a rate of 2.5 to 11mg/day and a normal adult
female produces only 0.25mg/day8. Serum
testosterone concentration depends on sex and
age; approximately 20ng/dl in pre-adolescent
boys, 30 to 50ng/dl in normal adult females
and 500 to 700ng/dl in normal adult males. The
great difference in serum testosterone concentrations in adult males and females is reflected
in the muscular body contours and aggressiveness in males. Serum testosterone concentration shows an elevated value during pre-ovu-
lation and luteinising phases because there are

LH surges during the menstrual cycle.
Anabolic steroids are synthetically produced
variants of testosterone. They have androgenic
effects (promoting masculine characteristics)
and anabolic effects (tissue building). The
androgenic effect cannot be separated from
the anabolic effect. Therefore, the most appropriate name for this class of medicine is androgenic-anabolic steroids. Many AASs have been
designed to strengthen their anabolic actions.
It may be possible to create an AAS with 100%
anabolic action in vitro, but in practice, the
androgenic effect cannot be separated from
the anabolic effect. No pure anabolic steroid
without androgenic effect has ever been
described and any kind of AAS has both anabolic and androgenic action. Most health problems come from the androgenic action of an
AAS. The virilisation of a female AAS abuser is
caused by the androgenic action of an AAS and
low LH release. The low LH release accompanies low oestrogen release, and then the
androgen/oestrogen balance becomes disturbed in the peripheral tissues.
Approximately 98% of testosterone in plasma is bound to the sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), albumin and other proteins in
serum and only 2% exists in the free form8. The
anabolic action of an AAS depends on the concentration of plasma free form because AASs
enter the target cells by a diffusion mechanism. While an AAS decreases the rate of
hepatic synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin, oestrogens inversely increase the hepatic
synthesis of the globulin. So, the concentration
of the globulin in women is usually twice as
high as that in men. The globulin concentration
will be reduced if female athletes begin to
abuse AASs and the free concentration of the
AAS will be increased. It can, therefore, be said
that females are more susceptible to AASs than
males.
After diffusion into the target cells, testosterone binds directly or after conversion to the
more active compound DHT, to specific receptors for androgens. The DHT-specific receptor
protein complex has a 10 time higher affinity
29
As with testosterone, an AAS will bind to

intracellular androgen receptor proteins and
make AAS-androgen receptor protein complexes in the cytoplasm. The affinity between
an AAS and intracellular androgen binding
receptor protein depends on the type of
steroid, the individual, sex and age11,12. With
respect to binding with high affinity androgen
receptors, 19-nortestosterone and metenolone
are recognised as strong androgens. It is also
recognised that stanozolol and fluoxymesterone are weak androgens because they have
low affinity to androgen receptors11,12.
The anabolic action in muscle cells is
dependent on the concentration of intracellular androgen receptor proteins. Androgen
receptor proteins exist more in the upper trunk
muscles (chest wall, neck, shoulder girdle and
upper extremities) than in the lower trunk
muscles13. Therefore, AASs are more effective
for muscular hypertrophy in the upper trunk.
30
This is apparent in normal males but not in

females who do not use AASs. As there is a limitation of available intracellular receptor proteins, when a supra-physiological level of an
AAS is administered, intracellular receptor proteins will be fully saturated with testosterone
and androgen. When many an AAS abusers use
a lot of AAS, as in the practice of stacking, the
AAS cannot combine with the receptor proteins any further and may not stimulate additional protein synthesis due to the regional differences in the body14. This phenomenon is
dependent on each individual. With large
dosages of an AAS, the possibility of side
effects increase in other AAS target organs.
Testosterone (but not DHT) is also converted
to the female sex hormones such as oestradiol and oestrone inside the cell8,15. This conversion is carried out under the aromatase activity. Female sex hormones bind to the oestrogen receptor protein and form an oestrogenreceptor protein complex. Fat tissue, Leydig
cells and Sertoli cells are the main target cells
of the female sex hormone. This mechanism
will be activated when the androgen receptor
system is saturated by testosterone and an
AAS. When supra-physiological doses of AAS
are given, the androgen receptor protein will
be saturated, which will lead to conversion of
an AAS to female sex hormone. Activated protein synthesis occurs in fat tissue and the
breasts and induces fat deposition and breast
development, or gynecomastia1,2,3,15.
Three therapeutic preparations of AAS are
clinically useful8. The first preparation is the
parenteral injection type. Esterification of the
17 beta-hydroxyl group decreases the polarity
of molecule and makes it more soluble in the
lipid vehicles used for injection. AASs with
esterification are effective when given at one
or two-week intervals. The second type is
administered orally. Alkylation at the 17-alpha
position allows androgens to be effective orally. Oral types of AAS should be taken several
times a day to obtain satisfactory effects. They
are catabolised by the liver, but the alkyl group
is not removed metabolically. Hence, the alkylated derivatives converted by 5-alpha reductase mediate the action of the hormone with-
to the DNA binding site than the testosteronespecific receptor protein complex. Binding to
the receptor is followed by dissociation of
heat shock proteins in the cytoplasm, accompanied simultaneously by a conformational
change of the receptor protein, resulting in a
transformation and a translation to the nucleus. Upon binding in the nucleus to specific
DNA-sequences, the receptor dimerises with a
second molecule and the homodimer entity
recruits additional proteins (e.g. co-activators,
general transcription factors, RNA-polymerase
II) resulting in specific activation of transcription at discrete sites on the chromatin10. The
conversion of testosterone to DHT is catalysed
by the microsomal enzyme 5-alpha reductase
and is NADPH dependent and irreversible. The
enzyme 5-alpha reductase is the key enzyme
that converts testosterone into DHT. The most
important organ systems with high 5-alpha
reductase activity are the male accessory sex
glands, the skin, the prostate, the lungs, the
brain, fat cells, and bone4. Therefore, these
organs possess a high affinity to androgenic
rather than anabolic compounds. Conversely,
heart and skeletal muscles have a low 5-alpha
reductase activity and exert a stronger
response to anabolic substances.
in cells. Alkylation of androgens at the 17alpha position markedly retards their hepatic
metabolism and can cause hepatotixicity. The
third type is a transdermal application, which
avoids the destructive first pass action in the
liver. Forms of gels and creams of native
testosterone are also clinically available8.
AAS related health troubles
There are many reports covering both the

adverse effects found in athletes taking
physiological dosages for longer periods and
athletes taking supra-physiological dosages
for relatively short courses1,2,3. However, the
sources of some case reports are not reliable.
Thus, the disputes over the adverse effects of
AAS abuse in athletes are complicated. The
adverse effects of AAS abuse depend on the
age and sex of the individual, the duration
and total dose of exposure, and the type of
steroid used. Prolonged AAS use can be
accompanied by minor or serious internal and
external side effects. External side effects are
relatively mild, but the internal side effects of
prolonged AAS use are often much more substantial and serious.
The most thorough investigation of the
devastating effects of AAS abuse was the
report by German researchers, one a former
German Democratic Republic (GDR) athlete
who had been doped for several years16. The
report disclosed the circumstances of intentional administrations of AASs to thousands
of GDR athletes over 30 years. It revealed that
minors of both sexes were given AASs to
enhance their performances. The AAS administrations obviously caused many side effects,
including serious liver dysfunction, gynecomastia, polycystic ovarian syndrome, failure
of growth in adolescence, infertility, birth
defects, and premature deaths. Three cases of
AAS-related deaths are covered in the report,
including one were the person died of liver
dysfunction and intra-hepatic cholestasis.
In the following sections current knowledge
of the health risks associated with AAS abuse
are summarised:
1. Cardiovascular disorders
The occurrence of serious cardiovascular
events in healthy young athletes is associated
with the abuse of AASs. These events include
coronary artery disease, acute myocardial
infarction, atrial fibrillation, QT dispersion,
development of cardiomyopathy, cerebro-vascular accident, systemic thrombosis and cardiac sudden death6,17,18,19. However, it is quite
difficult to prove the relation between AAS
abuse and these events.
It is certain that AASs strongly affect the
risk factors of cardiovascular diseases. Serum
cholesterol metabolism is affected by AAS
use20. High-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol is an independent risk factor for the
occurrence of cardiovascular disease. There is
strong evidence that HDL-cholesterol level is
suppressed remarkably by AAS use. This suppression is more than 50% dependent on the
steroids used and dosage. The reduction can
be observed within a few days of AAS administration. On the other hand, low-density
lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol levels generally
increase with AAS administration. LDL-cholesterol is an independent risk factor for generalised arteriosclerosis, which is characterised by the thickening of arterial walls and
narrowing of arterial internal diameters. Most
AASs cause water and electrolytes storage in
the muscles. Several studies have shown an
elevation of systolic or diastolic pressure
results from high doses of AAS21. High blood
pressure is related to water and sodium
retention in the body. Edema may occur when
large doses of AASs are used. Elevated blood
pressure normalises within six to eight weeks
of abstinence from AAS.
Use of AAS may lead to structural changes
in the heart. Some echocardiography studies
report mild hypertrophy of the left ventricle
and thickening of the left ventricular posterior wall and interventricular septum in AASabusing bodybuilders22. However, the reports
of structural changes relating to AAS abuse
are still controversial, and are based upon the
results of published prospective studies23.
In summary, AAS abusers who take large
31
2.
Hepatic side effects
Hepatic side effects due to AAS abuse are

hazardous and have been a great concern for
athletes. As the 17-alpha alkylated AASs are
taken orally, they are absorbed in the small
intestine and catabolised by the liver. Alkylation of androgens at the 17-alpha position
markedly retards their hepatic metabolism
and can cause hepatotixicity. Hepatic side
effects include intra-hepatic cholestasis,
peliosis hepatis and hepatocellular carcinoma24. Fluoxymesterone, methyltestosterone,
methandrostenolone, oxandrolone, stanozolol
and oxymetholone are substances of the 17alpha alkylated AAS group. Parenterally
administered AASs seem to have less serious
side effects on the liver.
Cholestatic hepatitis has been reported
developing after two to five months of 17alpha AAS use. The initial symptoms are
prominent jaundice and itch. Increases in
plasma activity of liver enzymes such as
aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine
aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase
(ALP) and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase
(GGT) are often associated with hyperbilirubinemia. Peliosis hepatis is a hemorrhagic
cystic degeneration of the liver, which may
lead to fibrosis and portal hypertension25.
Intra-abdominal hemorrhage and rupture of
the cyst may lead to fatal bleeding. Recent
studies suggest that individuals with abnormal liver functions before AAS use appear to
be at risk for liver diseases. Persons who have
used large amounts of a 17-alpha alkylated
AAS for prolonged periods may develop hepatocellular carcinoma26, but AAS associated
liver cancers have been reported in only a few
athletes.
32
3.
Adverse effects on female reproductive system and female athletes
Daily production and plasma concentration

of testosterone is less than 10% in females
compared males8. Therefore, intra-cellular
androgen receptors are not saturated with
testosterone in females and exogenous AASs
can have strong effects both anabolic and
androgenic when used in females. Female AAS
abusers may show male muscularity and masculine facial characteristics1,2,3,4,5,6.
AASs affect the hypothalamic-pituitarygonadal axis. An increase of plasma androgens
will inhibit the production and release of LH and
follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) from the
anterior pituitary lobe, a process that is known
as the endogenous negative feed back mechanism. This results in a decline in serum levels of
oestrogen and progesterone. These changes of
female hormones inhibit follicle formation and
ovulation and thus lead to irregularities of the
menstrual cycle. However, there exists an interindividual difference in response to AASs.
Other side effects of AAS abuse in female
athletes are acne, coarsening of the skin, hair
loss, recession of the frontal hairline, deepening of the voice, increased facial hair growth,
increased sexual desire, breast atrophy and
hypertrophy of the clitoris. The breast atrophy,
lowering of the voice and hypertrophy of the
clitoris are generally irreversible. The severity of
the side effects, which occur in female AAS
abusers, is related to the type of AAS, dosage
and duration of use.
4.
Feminising side effects and other

adverse effects on male athletes
AAS administered to healthy males work as

relatively weak androgens because plasma
concentrations of testosterone are already at a
naturally high level. As the androgen-receptor
proteins are almost saturated with testosterone and DHT, exogenous AAS cannot have
as strong an effect on peripheral cells. So, AASs
can work as relatively weak androgens and
large anabolic effects may not be obtained in
muscle cells even if the athletes use doses of
AASs that are 20-100 times larger than the
doses for longer periods will have serious disturbances of lipoprotein metabolism and high
blood pressure, which are strong risk factors
for generalised arteriosclerosis. These can lead
to coronary artery diseases, cerebro-vascular
disease and peripheral arterial occlusions in
AAS abusers. Hence, AAS can present significant cardiovascular risks to the users.
therapeutic dose. In fact, the administration of

supra-physiological doses of AASs may not
result in any more growth of muscle than is
afforded by the normal concentrations of
testosterone. Further, much of the AAS will be
converted to estrogens in peripheral tissues
(aromatisation) and so the administration of
testosterone esters causes an increase in plasma concentration of oestrogen8,27. The androgen/oestrogen imbalance will result in gynecomastia, fat deposit, water retention and erectile dysfunction. There is a great deal of difference in what percentage of each AAS will be
aromatised to oestrogen. For example, it is
reported that 20% of methandrostenolone and
40% of oxymetholone will be aromatised.
LH and FSH are responsible for regulating spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis in the testis8,27,28.
When AAS is administered to male athletes, the
production and secretion of LH and FSH will be
reduced within 24 hours in the same manner as
in the female athletes, and then testosterone
secretion will be decreased. The decline of plasma
concentration of LH, FSH and testosterone will
result in oligospermia, azoospermia and shrinkage
of the testicles. The practice of stacking will
strongly suppress the male gonadal function for a
long period. The recovery of the male gonadal
function will take from several months to one
year after interruption of AAS abuse.
One of the most well known side effects of
AAS abuse is gynecomastia in male athletes15.
Gynecomastia is the abnormal enlargement of
one or both breasts, an effect sometimes
referred to as bitch tits. It is a great concern for
some athletes because of the cosmetic problem.
They may experience swelling of the breasts
and painful nodular tissues. Gynecomastia in
males is caused by increased levels of plasma
oestrogens, which are formed by aromatisation
and conversion of large amounts of AAS in
peripheral tissues. Gynecomastia is generally
irreversible and some athletes have to have surgical procedures to remove the soft tissues29.
Some AAS abusing athletes use human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), anti-oestrogens
(clomiphen citrate, tamoxifen) and aromatase
inhibitors (testolactone) at the same time to
stimulate steroidogenesis in the testis and overcome increased oestrogen activities. These
processes are thought to be effective in preventing the formation of gynecomastia. This seems to
be theoretically true, but the response is different in each individual. In fact, some cases have
shown a worsening of the gynecomastia with
these preventive processes. The best treatment
for gynecomastia is to quit AAS use completely.
Additionally, long-term AAS use may result
in prostate cancer in males6.
5.
Psychological effects
AAS abuse (generally with high doses) can

cause adverse psychological effects. These
include irritability, hostility, aggression, euphoria, increased anxiety, and increased sexual
desire30,31. With prolonged high dosage, abusers
come to have a dependency on AASs and
develop extremely aggressive behaviour. This
mental state results in inability to control
behaviour, loss of friendship and depression,
sometimes with suicide. Other side effects are
schizophrenic and manic-depressive disturbances, pathological anxiety, sleep disturbances and acute neurosis, such as hallucinations and paranoia. The occurrence and seriousness of AAS associated mood disturbances
are thought to be dose dependent.
6.
Infectious complications
As AASs are often obtained on the black

market, contamination can be a serious problem, especially in cases where they are administered parenterally. Skin infections and dermal
abscesses at injection sites have been reported.
Abusers can also develop infective endocarditis. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and
hepatitis B and C virus infections have also
been reported among people who shared contaminated needles to inject AASs3.
7.
Adverse effects in musculo-skeletal

system
Idiopathic ruptures of the tendons are strongly related to AAS abuse. Though AASs may cause
hypertrophy of muscles, they will not strength33
en the tendons and may even cause tendon

degeneration. Tendons, therefore, may be damaged by the contraction of hypertrophied muscles and the risk of tendon rupture will be
increased. It may be reasonable to assume that
tendon injuries are mostly associated with highdoses of AAS abuse over a long period.
8.
Adverse effects in pre-pubertal boys
When androgens and AASs are given in prepubertal boys, the effect will be precocious
sexual development; penis enlargement and
increased frequency of penile erections. AASs
will cause the premature closure of the growth
plates in the long bones and result in a
decrease in the total height achieved32.
Conclusion
AASs have been a major element of doping
in sports for about 50 years and they remain
the most abused doping substances. Abuse of
AASs is not limited to top athletes, as it is also
known to be a common practice of many amateur and even young athletes.
It is true that AASs contribute (unfairly) to

sports performance and that their negative
effects on the health abusers have not been scientifically proven yet, however there are
numerous reports that AASs are associated
with very serious and even fatal side effects.
These dangers have been best shown in relation
to the cardiovascular system, hepatobiliary system, reproductive system and psychiatric system but other problems have also been noted
It is vitally important that all athletes as well
as their support personnel, families, coaches,
medical and paramedical staffs understand
more thoroughly how serious the health risks
of AAS abuse are. Success in the fight against
doping will only be achieved if this information
is communicated effectively throughout the
whole of the sporting community.
Please sent all correspondence to:

Fumihiro YAMASAWA, MD, DMSc
Email: Yamasawa-F@marubeni.com
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www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/pubs/
brochures/steroids/professionals/
3. National Institute on Drug Abuse: Anabolic steroid
abuse. Research Report Series, http://
www.nida.nih.gov/PDF/RRSteroid.pdf
4. HARTGENS, F; KUIPERS, H: Effects of AndrogenicAnabolic Steroids in Athletes. Sports Med 2004;
34:513-554
5. KUTSCHER, E. C.; LUND, B. C.; PERRY, P. J: Anabolic steroids-A review for the clinician. Sports
Med 2002; 32: 285-296
6. PARSSINEN, M.; SEPPALA, T.: Steroid use and
34
long-term health risks in former athletes. Sports

Med 2002; 32: 83-94
7. PARSSINEN, M.; KUJALA, U; VARTIAINEN, E., et
al: Increased premature mortality of competitive
power lifters suspected to have used anabolic
agents. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 225-227
8. WILSON, J.: Androgen. In: Hardman, J.; Limbird,
L. eds: Goodman and Gilmans the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1996: 1441-1457
9. BHASIN, S.; STORER, T. W.; BERMAN, N.; et al:
The effects of supraphysiological doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal
men. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1-7
10. BRINKMANN, A. O.: Androgen physiology: receptor and metabolic disorders. Endotext.com August
4. 2003 http://www.endotext.org/male/male3/
male3.htm
1. KUIPERS, H.: Anabolic steroid; Side effects. In:

Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine and Science, 7
March 1998. http://www.sportsci.org/encyc/
anabstereff/ anabstereff.html
11. SAARTOK, T.; DAHLBERG, E.; GUSTAFSSON, J. A.:

Relative binding affinity of anabolic-androgenic
steroids: comparison of the binding to the androgen receptors in skeletal muscle and in prostate,
as well as to sex hormone-binding globulin.
Endocrinology 1984; 114: 2100-2106
12. TOTH, M.; ZAKAR, T.: Relative binding affinities of
testosterone, 19-nortestosterone and their 5alpha-reduced derivatives to the androgen receptor and to androgen-binding proteins: a suggested role of 5-alpha-reductive steroid metabolism in
the dissociation of myotropic and androgenic
activities of 19-nortestosterone. J Steroid Biochem
1982; 17: 653-660
13. KADI, F.; BONNERUD, P.; ERIKSSON, A.; et al: The
expression of androgen receptors in human neck
and limb muscles: effects of training and selfadministration of androgenic-anabolic steroids.
Histochem Cell Biol 2000; 113: 25-29
14. HARTGENS, F.; VAN STRAATEN, H.; FIDELDIJ, S.;
et al: Misuse of androgenic anabolic steroids and
human deltoid muscle fibers: differences between
polydrug regimens and single drug administration. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 86: 233-239
15. SWERDLOFF, R.S.; NG, J.; PALIMENO, G. E.:
Gynecomastia: Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment.
Endotext.com March 1, 2004 http://www.endotext.org/ male/ male14/male14.htm
16. FRANKE, W. W.; BERENDONK, E.: Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 1262-1279
21. GRACE, F.; SCULPTHORNE, N.; BAKER, J.; et al:

Blood pressure and rate pressure response in
males using high-dose anabolic androgenic
steroids (AAS). J Sci Med Sports 2003; 6: 307-312
22. SALKE, R.C.; ROWLAND, T. W.; BURKE, E. J.: Left ventricular size and function in body builders using anabolic ateroids. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17: 701-704
23. HARTGENS, F.; CHERIEX, E.; KUIPERS, H.:
Prospective echocardiographic assessment of
androgenic-anabolic steroids effects on cardiac
structure and function in strength athletes. Int J
Sports Med 2003; 24: 344-351
24. SOE, K. L.; SOE, M.; GLUUD, C.: Liver pathology
associated with the use of anabolic-androgenic
steroids. Liver 1992; 12: 73-79
25. CABASSO, A.: Peliosis hepatis in a young adult
bodybuilder. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 2-4
26. KOSAKA, A.; TAKAHASHI, H.; YAJIMA, Y.; et al:
Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with anabolic steroid therapy: report of a case and review of
the Japanese literature. J Gastroenterol 1996; 31:
450-454
27. MAUSS, J.; BORSCH, G.; BORMACHER, K.; et al:
Effects of long-term testosterone oenanthate
administration on male reproductive function: clinical evaluation, serum FSH, LH, testosterone, seminal fluid analyses in normal men. Acta Endocrinol
1975; 78-378-384
28. ALEN, M.; RAHKILA, P.: Anabolic-androgenic
steroid effects on endocrinology and lipid metabolism in athletes. Sports Med 1988; 6:327-332
17. MELCHERT, R. B.; WELDER, A. A.: Cardiovascular

effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids. Med Sci
Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1252-1262
29. REYES, R. J.; ZICCHI, S.; HAMED, H.; et al: Surgical correction of gynecomastia in bodybuilders. Br
J Clin Pract 1995; 49:177-179
18. FERENCHICK, G. S.; ADELMAN, S.: Myocardial

infarction associated with anabolic steroid use in a
previously healthy 37-year-old weight lifter. Am
Heart J 1992; 124:507-508
30. BAHRKE, M. S.; YESALIS, C. R.; WRIGHT, J. E.: Psychological and behaviour effects of endogenous
testosterone and anabolic-androgenic steroids: an
update. Sports Med 1996; 22:367-390
19. MOCHIZUKI, R.M.; RICHTER, K. J.: Cardiomyopathy and cerebrovascular accident associated with
anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Phys Sportsmed
1988; 16: 109-114
31. MOSS, H.; PANAZAK, G.; TARTER, R.: Personality,

mood, psychiatric symptoms among anabolic
steroid users. Am J Addict 1992; 1: 315-324
20. GLAZER, G.: Atherogenic effects of anabolic

steroids on serum lipid level; a literature review.
Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 1925-33
32. Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness, American Academy of Pediatrics: Adolescents and Anabolic Steroids: A Subject Review. Pediatrics 1997;
99: 904-908
35
Anthony Famiglietti / Photo: Getty Images
36
by IAAF
Weightlifting in training
for athletics Part II
20:2; 38-43, 2005
Martin Zawieja-Koch is a German

National Coach in weightlifting
responsible for the national
womens team, the national junior
team and the national coach education programme. He has collaborated with the coach education
programme of the German athletics federation (DLV) in the area of
strength training by giving
numerous seminars for athletics
coaches. A two-time Olympian in
weightlifting, he won a bronze
medal in the Super Heavyweight
class at the 1988 Games in Seoul.
AUTHOR
Top performance in most disciplines in athletics requires the

athlete to optimise his/her
strength capacity. The same, of
course, is true in the sport of
weightlifting. There, the relatively closed movements and controllable environment that characterise the sport facilitate the
study of both biomechanics and
training principles and thus the
science of the sport is quite
advanced. As one result, successful weightlifters recognise the
importance of correct technique
and focus on this aspect in their
training. In this article, the author,
an Olympic medallist in weightlifting who now coaches, seeks to
make the connection between the
contemporary forms of training in
weightlifting and athletics, particularly in the area of general
strength development. In part I of
this article, published in NSA
1/2005 he identified the application of specific exercises and their
variations as used by weightlifters
to the general strength requirements of the event groups, and
even specific events, in athletics.
In part II he discusses the application of key training principles and
the planning of the training programme.
ABSTRACT
By Martin Zawieja-Koch
Application of training principles

raining principles are generally called
a guideline and are only meant as an
orientation basis for training (SCHNABEL/MLLER 1988). In the following, I will
highlight some of the more specific principles
from the sport of weightlifting that should be
considered in the application to athletics.
In weightlifting, special emphasis is put on

the principle of cyclic arrangement of the
training load (MARTIN et al. 1991). A decisive
pre-requisite for the purposeful and progressive development of performance is the division of the year into stages or periods of training. A multiple periodisation arrangement over
the course of the year has been shown to be
successful in achieving a high rate of development (ZAWIEJA 1994). This principle is, of
course, also well known in athletics.
37
Weigth-lifting in training for athletics part II
For younger athletes the cycles have to be

accomplished in shorter time periods, so that:
Main competitions can identified and
planned
Competitions can be classified and hence
carried out well-prepared
Stimuli can be altered at shorter intervals
Athletes can set new personal best performances in a planned way
Further training means can be arranged
more effectively
(GAMELIN, SPITZ, ZAWIEJA 1999)
A second fundamental principle is that of
continuous load demand (HARRE 1979).
For weightlifters in the youth age group
who have completed a planned main competition, the transitions between the completed macrocycle and the beginning of basic
training part of the next macrocycle are used
to blunt or reduce the competition readiness
or shape that the athlete has achieved in
order to let the new training take effect. This
means an athlete moves away from the competition phase by means of high volume and
general conditioning training (ZAWIEJA
1994).
For junior age group and senior weightlifters, inserting a general basic training
phase has also proven to be very effective
prior to the start of barbell training. In this
case, a load block with weight-training
machines (high repetitions for about 4 weeks)
is carried out before barbell training.
Other principles derived from training the38
ory that are important components of the

training methods in weightlifting and of value
for the effective organisation of a long-term
performance build-up in athletics are:
1) Continuous application of training
exercises
Explanation: The selected training exercises should be applied continuously throughout
a macrocycle.
2) Progressive loading (HARRE 1982)
Explanation: In a long-term performance
build-up the continuous increase of the load
components volume and intensity forms
the foundation of progressive development.
Within the scope of performance development, a continuous increase of training units
must also be organised.
3) Rhythmic load distribution
Explanation: The distribution of the load
placed on the individual needs to contain
periods of higher stress and periods of relief
or lower stress. Confirmed findings from the
training of elite weightlifters show that a
rhythm of 2:1 has gained acceptance. This
means that after two weeks of high load
there has to be a week of relief. The arrangement of training activities in the week of
relief can vary. In the beginning of the macrocyle only the volume is reduced while the
intensity continues to rise. Towards the end of
a macrocycle, in the specific preparation for
performance and competition, both components, volume (c.30%) and intensity (c.10%),
are reduced in the week of relief.
4) Change in stimulus within a macrocycle
(dependency between the load
components volume and intensity)
Explanation: The change in stimulus
between volume and intensity plays an
important role in the formation of sport performance in strength training. The dependency of these two load components to each
other is illustrated in the following diagram.
After the seventh training week, a further
increase in the component volume would
inevitably mean an overload and hence overtraining.
Elite and serious weightlifters and athletes,

both male and female, are normally prepared
using a double periodisation (two cycles per
calendar year) plan. The two main cycles, are
known as macrocycles. A macrocycle is a
period of time consisting of several mesocycles. This period begins and ends within a
long-term training process and is continuously recurring (THIES/SCHNABEL 1985).
Mesocycles are closed preparatory cycles for
main competitions and are normally between
three and six weeks in duration.
Construction of a macrocycle
The construction of a macrocycle can be
called fundamental, as it is a first step in
setting up a training plan. Having analysed
the training data at hand together with the
athlete, the design of the macrocycle in
terms of contents becomes one of the
coachs most important tasks.
volume
The structure of a macrocycle is of decisive importance if one is very demanding in

terms of the quality of a focussed performance development. The macrocycle structure comprises all features of load arrangement and load components, plans for all
training weeks and plans for the application of training exercises.
intensity
Figure 1: Pattern of change in load within a macrocycle (ZAWIEJA 2002)

Table 1: A model macrocycle
Athlete:
Elite pool:
tr.-we. date
cal.wee.
loa LG/WK
1.
A 2.
B 3.
P 4.
5.
19.11-25.11
26.11-02.12
03.12-09.12
10.12-17.12
18.12-24.12
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
m
h
l
h
H
12.
L 13.
A 14.
P 15.
16.
17.
18.
04.02-10.02
11.02-17.02
18.02-24.02
25.02-03.03
04.03-10.04
11.04-17.04
18.04-24.04
06.
07.
07.
07.
07.
07.
08.
H
L
H
H
L
H
l
volume snatch clean pull

total
broad
pull
narrow
squat
back
squat
front
recovery
JEC
39
The elaboration of a macrocycle is carried

out in the following sequence:
Fixing of all main and minor competitions
including target performance
Identification of all training exercises to
be used
Distribution of load blocks (high, medium,
low)
Consideration of training camps
Calculation of target values (personal bests
per week) in the various training exercises
Planning of intensities, starting from the
target value backwards to the beginning
of the macrocycle, for a steady and systematic performance development
Fixing of the total volume per training
week
Determining the equivalent volumes of
the training exercises per training week
Future developments in
training practice
From a certain level of performance, the
preparation of weightlifters is focussed on
improving technique in the competition exercises and improving the maximum strength in
the decisive muscle groups. In athletics, the
latter should be a vital component in the further development of strength training. Apart
from the confirmed findings and principles of
training for maximum strength already
described, the following aspects and focuses
40
are currently being examined and dealt with

in the scientific analysis and evaluation of
strength training:
Loading and relief within the training process
The question of loading and relief has been
dealt with as a central topic in the research
of weightlifting in recent years. In training
management, this factor is given growing
importance. The more individually planned
the training planning the more realistic it is
for achieving set goals (STARISCHKA 1988).
But this is not supposed to mean that
already developed training standards, based
on longstanding experience from serious
sport, are not applied. In other words, it is of
decisive importance that the athlete
attempts new load demands in the next
training unit in a state of good psychic and
physical regeneration. These load demands
have to be arranged very individually and
require a close co-ordination between the
coach and athlete.
This has the following consequences on the
rhythmic distribution of intensity:
The athlete has to be prepared for a high
load demand. Referring to the design of
a microcycle (weekly plan): in the case
of a high load in the pull-to-chest exercise on Monday, i.e. a high speed
strength effect on the buttocks and leg
extension muscles, as well as highly
stressed back muscles, reduced pulling
training has to be carried out in the next
training unit, where the load focuses
could be set on the development of leg
strength (squats).
In each training unit the focus should be
on one or at the most two training
exercises.
If a training exercise is carried out only
once per microcycle, it should be carried
out with a continuous slight increase of
intensities.
Within the weekly plan and within each
training unit the trainining exercises have
to be well-ascribed and well-classified
and they have to be fixed according to a
microcycle and mesocycle.
Load blocks can be classified as high (h),

medium (m) and low (l). In a macrocycle
plan, the training methodology course for
the equivalent training section is clearly
marked. All applied training exercises
should be listed and described in terms of
intensity and volume. Of course, due to
unforeseeable reasons (injuries), it is possible to deviate from this course. However,
this requires a modification of the plan. As
an effective and simplified version this
macrocycle can, for example, be set up on
club level within the scope of a group training plan. The pre-requisite for this is that
the whole group is preparing for the same
competitions.
Load Tolerability
In the experience of weightlifters, the topic
of load tolerability in maximum strength
training shows a relatively wide range. We
know from experience that in the anthropometric view, favourable conditions are usually found in those athletes who visually show
a wide joint diameter and a small, stocky
stature. Over the last 10 years, however, one
can see an increase in the body height of athletes. These athletes are no less qualified for a
sport, which sees maximum strength as main
load factor. This means that even taller athletes with a visually slim muscle and joint
structure and high muscle qualities show
good aptitude for maximum strength training.
Recent findings show that with this group
of athletes load tolerability has to be built up
from an early age (13-14 years). The adaptation of this process has to be developed over
a period of at least 3 years. This early adaptation partly contradicts the idea of a longtermed performance build-up and seems to
indicate an early specialisation. It is, however,
necessary not only so that the muscles can
adapt, but so the still developing supporting
and connective tissue can as well.
To meet medical objections, the use of

maximum strength training at this age has to
be seen in a differentiated way. This means
that in the age group up to 16 years of age
there is a performance-oriented training
applied without final intensity loads, merely with high volume loads. The necessary load
tolerability and increase in strength are
achieved step by step by:
Increased applications (more training
units in strength training)
High volumes (no less than 3 repetitions
per set)
Intensity is only slightly adapted to the
improved level.
Summary
In the two parts of this article, I have present
an update of the current thinking on strength
training with the barbell in athletics. My aim

was to give a very practical oriented reference.
Apart from personal practical experience with
serious athletes and observations in training,
the ideas expressed are based on conversations
with colleagues from athletics coaching and I
purposely did not focus on scientific research or
strive to present the latest research results.
As experts in the field of strength training,
my colleagues and I still take the view that
there is acceptance and willingness within
the sport of athletics to use the barbell as a
main training mean to increase strength.
However, we find that in addition to application problems, basic principles are not always
followed consistently and therefore the success of such training is not always fully guaranteed. Two striking aspects are:
1 Execution of training exercises (cf. Part I)
As I see it, the execution of training exercises is paid too little attention. The acceleration phase has to be emphasised, especially
the second pulling phase in the pull- and
snatch movement. Apart from a biomechanically correct path of the barbell, maximum
acceleration (not below 180 cm/s in the
snatch) plays the dominant role.
The shortcomings and mistakes described in
Part I of this article, as well as the advice and
corrections for the execution of the training
exercises, have been tested over a long period
and are applied continuously in weightlifting
and other sports. In my work, we make use of
biomechanical parameters and a special
measuring system (which can be purchased as
soft- and hardware through the German
Weight Lifting Association) is used in technique training to analyse those movement
errors that cannot be detected with the naked
eye. Those unable to make use of such a system should at least include video analysis
with slow motion in their programme as a
method to improve movements.
In this context, it is important to mention
that children (10-12 years of age) learn and
understand of the movement these lifting
41
Fig. 2: Biomechanical target graphs (IAT Leipzig 1991)
2 Planning of training (cf. Part II)

In weightlifting, training planning (including periodisation) is described clearly and
unambiguously. As the sport is largely a matter of predicable numbers and stereotypic
movements, outside influences are minimal.
The planning of maximum strength training
has the improvement of the strength values in
the training exercises (c.10 kg per exercise
and cycle) as its obvious main target. Sport
specific demands should not be allowed to
42
water down this target at any point in the

athletes preparation.
The progressive and continuous course of
strength training has to be documented and
analysed weekly. Without such an analysis
proper organisation of the next weeks training
is hardly possible. One issue to be addressed is
the discrepancy the plans for a mesocycle and
a possible non-fulfilment of those plans in the
elapsed training week. In these cases, the
experience and the feel of the coach are in
demand and the challenge is to apply the components of a mesocycle, planning and training
condition in a performance supporting way.
After completion of the mesocycle and the
fulfilment of the targets, strength training
with the barbell should be continued. The
training in the course of the season and the
compensation of the strength abilities connected to it, play a dominant role in this context. We see that trust in successfully applied
strength training is often lacking but we stress
techniques very quickly. Therefore, we say that

the basics of strength training (learning the
snatch and the clean) have to be integrated
into the training process early. It goes without
saying that this approach to barbell training
has to be carried out with very low loads
(wooden stick 10kg bar bell). The load and
assessment criteria here are technique (coach
allocates assessment points from 1-10) and
the volume (high repetition numbers 5-10).
that the positive effects should be considered

even while sport specific demands are increasing. In my view, maximum strength training
should be continued throughout competition
programme in a reduced, suitable form.
Once again, the already described need for
great care in planning is of importance. The
pattern of load change finds the same application here as in the preparation phase. The
question of de-training and tapering and the
compensation of maximum strength and speed
strength connected with it have specific implications in terms of time. However, the effects
cannot be compared with the scientific findings from the field of research (SCHLUMBERGER/SCHMIDTBLEICHER, 1998). The selection of
the training exercises is the reason for the low
correlation. While science merely focuses on
maximum strength tests in exercises such as
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BTTCHER, J., DEUTSCHER, E.: Technikbersicht
Gewichtheben in Abstimmung mit dem IAT Leipzig Dr.
Lippmann, 2004.
GAMELIN, O., SPITZ, E. & ZAWIEJA, M.: Trainingsgestaltung und Trainingsplanung im Nachwuchsbereich, Gewichtheben, 1999.
HARRE, D. (ed.): Trainingslehre, 8. Aufl. Sportverlag.
Berlin, 1979.
HARRE, D. (ed.): Trainingslehre, 9. Aufl. Sportverlag.
Berlin, 1982.
LIPPMANN, J. & KEINE, S.: Der neue Trainingsmittelkatalog. Athletik, 9, 18-21, 1991.
LIPPMANN, J.: Auszge aus dem Vortrag: Positionen

zur Periodisierung und Belastungsgestaltung in der
Sportart Gewichtheben, 1995.
bench press and leg press (very simple movements), the experience of weightlifters is based
on complex movements like the pull to chest,
snatch or squats. In our experience, the desired
effects of maximum strength training
(improvement of strength abilities in the main
muscle groups and improvement of speed
strength) can be detected in their optimal
development individually c. 7 to 14 days after
the last maximal stimulus. Experience has also
shown that the strength level can afterwards
be compensated for c.10 to 14 days on a high
level. After that a pause in training, as well as
a new cycle have to be planned.
Please sent all correspondence to:
Martin Zawieja-Koch
Email: martinzawieja@web.de
perkultur 37, 95-101, 1988.
GAMELIN, O., SPITZ, E. & ZAWIEJA, M.: Trainingsgestaltung und Trainingsplanung im Nachwuchsbereich, Gewichtheben, 1999.
SCHLUMBERGER, A., SCHMIDTBLEICHER, D.: Zeitlich
verzgerte Trainingseffekte im Krafttraining, Artikel
aus der Zeitschrift Leistungssport, 1998.
STARISCHKA, S.: Trainingsplanung. Hofmann Verlag.
Schorndorf, 1988.
THIE, G. & SCHNABEL, G.: Leistungsfaktoren in
Training und Wettkampf. Sportverlag. Berlin, 1987.
ZAWIEJA, M.: Studienbegleitende Arbeit Trainerakademie, Planmige Leistungsentwicklung in der
Gewichtheber Bundesliga, 1994.
MARTIN, D., CARL, K. & LEHNERTZ, K.: Handbuch

Trainingslehre. Hofmann Verlag. Schorndorf, 1991.
ZAWIEJA, M.: 1. Serie, Ausfhrung von Trainingsbungen des Trainingmittelkataloges. In: Athletik 04/200101/2002. Sport & Trainings Verlags GmbH. Baunatal,
2001/2002.
SCHNABEL, G. & MLLER, C.: Wesen, Funktion und

Eigenschaften der methodischen Prinzipien im
sportlichen Training. Theorie und Praxis der Kr-
ZAWIEJA, M.: 2. Serie, Trainingsmethodik. In: Athletik

04/2002-12/2002. Sport & Trainings Verlags GmbH.
Baunatal, 2002.
43
Dana Buller / Photo: Getty Images
44
NSA SPECIALS
contents
Athletics World
NSA SPECIALS
ATHLETICS WORLD
by IAAF
20:2; 47-48, 2005
Injuries and late damages in former elite

athletes in the jumping events of athletics
By Friebe, C.; Lemke, J.M.; Sabo, D.; Schmitt, H.;
Schneider, S.; Thiele, J.
Deutsche Zeitschrift fr Sportmedizin 56 (2005), 2, pp. 34-38
The object of this study was to find what

injuries and long term damage are present
in elite athletes from the different jumping
disciplines of track and field. Former athletes (40 high jumpers, 29 long and triple
jumpers, 24 pole vaulters) who featured in
the German athletic federations lists of top
performers between 1972 and 1986 were
interviewed about their injuries and physi-
Release parameters in javelin throw. The

reciprocal correlation of release velocity and
release angle in javelin throw and their
influence on the throwing distance
By Adamczewski, H.; Perlt, B.
Leichtathletiktraining 15 (2004), pp. S. 22-26
The authors investigated how much the initial distance limiting parameters of the
javelin throw (release velocity and release
angle) affected the throwing distance positively or negatively. They also went into the
questions of if and how these parameters
can be influenced by the thrower. Based on
extensive data (on athletes up to elite level)
they concluded that the length of the
acceleration path, and therefore the release
velocity, are in a close correlation with the
cal complaints during and after their competitive careers. It was found that during
their careers high jumpers suffer mainly
from problems in ankle (32 of 40) and knee
(26 of 40) of the takeoff leg; long and triple
jumpers suffer from sprains of the hamstring muscles (20 of 29); pole vaulters suffer from complaints of the lumbar spine (20
of 24). After their careers athletes from all
the jumping disciplines suffer primarily
from complaints of the lumbar spine. It was
also found that biomechanical loading patterns specific to each jumping discipline
lead to specific patterns of injury and complaints. A thorough knowledge of such patterns is highly important for prophylaxis
and sport medical care.
angle of attack. They found that there is no

optimal release angle independent from the
release velocity. Their results show that trying to gain distance by increasing the
release angle above 35 is difficult because
of the necessity to maintain the release
velocity, although in theory with consistent
release velocity and steeper release angles
(up to 45) the throwing distances should
increase. This explains the apparent contradiction between documented release angles
for long throws (and even some record
throws) of 35 and less and the maximum
distances achieved by the javelin gun
using angles up to 45. They consider the
orientations given in the literature of an
ideal release angle of 36 as a too cramped
and one-sided. They suggest an angle-range
of 35 3 better meets the needs of practice and necessary variations.
47
Athletics world
Physiological, biochemical and psychological

markers of strenuous training-induced fatigue
By Adam, J.J.; Breda, E. van; Hamont, D. van; Keizer,
H.A.; Kuipers, H.; Rietjens, G.J.W.M.; Saris, W.H.M.
International Journal of Sports Medicine 26 (2005), 1, pp. 16-26
The aim of this study was to investigate

whether severe fatigue and over-training
could be diagnosed at an early stage using
a combination of parameters. Seven welltrained male subjects increased their training load by doubling their training volume
and increasing the intensity by 15 % over a
period of two weeks. Before and after this
intensified training period the subjects
underwent a series of tests. The intensified
training resulted in significant increases of
the training load (p<0.01), training monotony (p<0.01), training strain (p<0.01) and
RPE (rate of perceived exertion) during
training (p<0.01). The total mood score
obtained from the POMS (profile of mood
state) tended to increase (p=0.06), reflecting a worsening mood state. After the
intensified training period, neither changes
in exercise induced plasma hormone values,

nor SITT (short insulin tolerance test) values
were observed. Hemoglobin showed a significant decrease whereas hematocrit, red
blood cell count (RBC) and MCV tended to
decrease. In the CAPT (combined anterior
pituitary test) only cortisol showed a significant decrease after the intensified training
period. The intensified training had no
effect on physical performance (Wmax
measured in a maximal incremental cycle
ergometer test or time trial), maximal blood
lactate, maximal heart rate and white blood
cell profile. A novel finding was that reaction times increased significantly, indicating that over-training might adversely
affect the speed of information processing
by the brain, especially under the most difficult conditions. The other most sensitive
parameters of over-training identified were
RPE and to a lesser extent the POMS. This
strongly suggests that central fatigue precedes peripheral fatigue. All other systems,
including the neuro-endocrine, are more
robust and react most likely at a later stage
in exhaustive training periods.
48
D O C U M E N TAT I O N
contents
Selected and annotated
bibliography 70
Long jump Part II
IAAF Academy Report

Review
Rsumes/Resmenes
Preview
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SELECTED
AND ANNOTATED
BIBLIGRAPHY
by IAAF
20:2; 51-96, 2005
No. 70
Long jump Part II
by Jrgen Schiffer
Introduction
The second part of this bibliography contains 457 articles and books about the long
jump from the years 1950 to the present. This
means that also an attempt has been made at
filling the gaps in the bibliographies already
published (see introduction to the Part I in
NSA 1/2005).
This part is subdivided into nine chapters:
1 Training, conditioning and coaching
aspects of the long jump (142 documents)
2 Teaching and learning the long jump
(including novice technique, training, and
related problems) (89 documents)
3 Talent identification in the long jump (6
document)
4 History of the long jump, performance
development and prognosis (16 documents)
5 Psychological aspects of the long jump
(21 documents)
6 Medical (i. e., traumatological, preventive,
morphological and anthropometric)
aspects of the long jump (15 documents)
7 Womens long jump (33 documents)
8 Interviews with and profiles of prominent
long jumpers (66 documents)
9 Comprehensive and general articles about
the long jump (69 documents).
The divisions, particularly between the first
two chapters, are only approximate because
there are fluent transitions between them. As
it was not possible to get hold of all the articles listed in this bibliography (the absence of
an abstract being an indication of this) it is
possible that some of the articles included in
the first and last chapter actually ought to
have been allocated to one of the other nine
chapters.
This bibliography has been compiled by
using
SPOLIT, the sports literature database of
the Federal Institute of Sport Science
(BISp) in Cologne, Germany (www.bisp.de,
free access), and
SPORTdiscus, the database of the Sport
Research and Information Centre in
Ottawa, Canada (www.sirc.ca, no free
access).
However, a lot of articles were found by
free search in the Central Library of Sports
Science of the German Sports University in
Cologne and some stem from the private
library of the author of this bibliography. This
is why readers of this bibliography who are
interested in obtaining the one or other article should contact Dr. Jrgen Schiffer, Email:
j.schiffer@dshs-koeln.de.
Although this bibliography is rather extensive it does not claim to be complete. Publications from before the seventies have not been
searched systematically because they are not
documented by the available sports literature
databases.
51
Selected and annotated bibliography: Long jump
II
Bibliography
Badon, T.
Constructing and utilizing the ultimate
jump ramp
Training, conditioning and

coaching aspects of the long
jump
Adamczewski, H.; Wiedner, H.

Zur Entwicklung der Laufschnelligkeit und
der Anlaufgeschwindigkeit bei leichtathletischen Springern [About the development of
running speed and run-up velocity in athletics jumpers]
Theorie und Praxis Leistungssport, Berlin, 26 (1988), 1,
pp. 3-15
Adams, G.
Ramp jumping in the long jump
Athletics Coach, Halesowen (Eng.), 14 (December 1980),
4, p. 12
The advantages of long jumping after running down
a ramp are as follows: 1. Maximum take-off speed can
be achieved very quickly (in about 9-11 strides). 2. It
increases the number of maximum relevant effort
jumps possible in a training session up to 30+ in a
well conditioned athlete. 3. It may have positive beneficial effects upon the athletes take-off speed in the
attack phase of the run-up (last 5 strides). The exercise has been developed in reverse i.e. running up the
ramp, and taking off from a height. Advantages: (1)
More time in the air to perform slight technique
movements. (2) Useful as a form of resistance training. Disadvantages: (1) Possible tendency to lean
backward at take-off and, therefore, initiate backward rotation during jump. (2) Strong likelihood of
deceleration at take-off. (3) More tiring, therefore less
repetitions per unit. The disadvantage would seem to
outweigh the advantages.
Arrighi, C.
[Long jump training]
The use of ramps as training aids for jumpers and

high jumpers is nothing new. Types of jump ramp
devices have been around for a number of years and
many of the worlds greatest jumpers use them to
alleviate some of the stress placed on their jump
legs during particularly important training periods.
These ramps or boxes have come in assortment of
shapes, sizes, heights, textures and materials. Some
(most in fact) are not safe, nor are they substantially better for a jumpers legs than jumping off regular ground. Most are hard, uneven, resistant and, at
times, even slippery or too steep. But there is an
effective alternative. By using a few safe, simple
construction procedures these invaluable training
tools can be made resilient and springy, with a texture easy on the legs and coarse enough for training flats to be used for jumping. This ultimate
jump ramp can be easily and efficiently constructed
with little or no prior construction experience.
Bequer, P. J.
Investigacion de la construccion de la etapa
de preparacion directa a la competencia en
los saltadores de longitud y alto rendimiento
[A study on the development of the mediumterm competition preparation of long jumpers
of a high performance level]
Boletin cientifco tcnico INDER Cuba, La Habana
(Cuba), 17 (1979), 1, pp. 33-40
Bequer, P. J.
Investigacion sobre los tests y ejercicios de
control diario en la etapa de preparacion
directa a la competencia en los saltadores de
longitud cubanos [A study of daily control
tests and exercises during the medium-term
competition preparation of Cuban long
jumpers]
Bibliografia sportiva, 3 (January/February 1977), 1,16,

pp. 19-22
Boletin cientifco tcnico INDER Cuba, La Habana

(Cuba), 17 (1979), 2, pp. 35-40
Assenmacher, J.; Baumert, A.; Palm, U.
Bercaru, N.
Zusammenarbeit von Trainern und Athleten

im Proze der mehrjhrigen Leistungsoptimierung [Cooperation between coaches and
athletes in the process of multi-year performance optimization]]
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (September 1971), 45,

pp. 1440-1441
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, 33 (19 October 1982), 33,

pp. 1407-1410
52
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (Winter 1988), 106,

pp. 3378-3380
Using the examples of the two German long jumpers

Joakim Assenmacher (7.70m) and Uwe Palm (7.67m), it
is shown how the long-term training process must be
planned to guarantee a fluent transition from basic
and build-up training to national top-level training.
New ideas for the high jump, long jump and

steeplechase
In the long jump, the new idea is for the jumper to
begin his run-up using starting blocks as in the
sprints and hurdles. The speed of the run-up in the
long jump is one of the most important factors. In
the sprints and hurdles, athletes obtain maximum
speed quickly by starting from starting blocks. The
use of starting blocks in the long jump has other
advantages: (1) It permits reduction in the length of
the run-up, simplifying to some extent the problem

of hitting check marks. (2) Starting from blocks gives
a precise, well-defined form to the event that clears
away the confused psychological and physical states
which may result from a standing position with an
imprecise place of departure. (3) The position is more
relaxing. (4) This position permits a better nervous
concentration, due also to the limited field of vision.
(5) It permits a more rapid muscle sensing of the
rhythm of the jump in a more favorable condition
for release of the effort. (6) It assures better consistency in striking the board, which helps the growth
of self-confidence which, in turn, determines a
relaxed and top-speed jumping effort. (7) It requires
jumpers to train on starts which will improve their
speed, spring, power and coordination. Finally, and
perhaps most important, the jumper will be in better
condition to exploit his performance potential.
Bianco, E.; Lease, D.; Locatelli, E.; Muraki,

Y,; Pfaff, D.; Shuravetzky, E.; Velez, M.
NSA roundtable 31: speed in the jumping
events
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 11 (1996), 2/3, pp. 919
The following questions are dealt with: 1. What particular sort of speed ability would you look for in a
potential high, long, triple jumper or pole vaulter? 2.
What sort of training do you consider most beneficial in the development of speed in the various jumping events? 3. In your opinion, what is the relationship between the various forms of strength and
speed in the jumping events? a) For beginners, b) for
advanced athletes, c) for top athletes. 4. What tests
would you recommend for the monitoring of speed
development in the jumps? 5. In your experience,
have you found that plyometric exercises, using a
double foot take-off, have an appreciable, beneficial
effect on the explosive effort used in the single foot
take-off for the jumping events? 6. What methods
would you use for the development of the specific
speed/rhythm required in the approach runs for the
high, long, triple jumps or the pole vault?
Bielik, E.
Long jump analysis and in-weightroom
speed-strength program
National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal, Lincoln (Neb.), 7 (June/July 1985), 3, pp. 4-6, 75-77,
78-80
The long jump is one of the most natural, but certainly not simple, events in track and field. Running
down a runway at full speed and taking off from an
eight-inch board has its difficulties. The long
jumper needs to be a skilled sprinter, very precise in
sprinting control and able to generate great explosive strength at take-off. Starting from these general remarks, the author gives a detailed kinesiologically oriented overview of the technique of the
long jump (run-up, take-off, flight phase, landing)
and presents a speed-strength training program
which can be carried out in the strength room
(including information about training contents, volume and intensity).
Boase, G.
Long jump and triple jump
Sydney: Australian Track and Field Coaches Association,
1983, 14 pp.
The paper aims to: (1) examine the physiological
veracity of elastic strength (fast strength or plyometric strength); (2) look at the practical application of
explosive reactive ballistic exercises in the training program; (3) consider a variety of tests that are
relevant to bounding and depth jumping.
Booth, D.
Horizontal jumping
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Kalamazoo (Mich.), 93
(1993), 4, pp. 2-4
This article includes basic advice on the planning and
organization of long jump training as well as on the
technique of the hitch kick.
Bosse, T.; Dickwach, H.

Ergebnisse aus dem experimentellen Einsatz
eines Zuguntersttzungsgertes bei Weitsprngen aus mittlerem Anlauf [Results from
the experimental use of training equipment
in the long jump]
pp. 69-83
Bosse, T.; Wiedner, H.

Die Entwicklung der Laufschnelligkeit in der
Disziplin Weitsprung im Trainings- und Wettkampfjahr 1978/79 [Development of speed
in long jump in the 1978/79 season]
Theorie und Praxis Leistungssport, Berlin, 18 (1980),
suppl. 5, pp. 20-27
Bourne, G.
Building specific strength for horizontal
jumpers
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 32 (1994),
4, pp. 3-6
This article discusses the problems involved in
achieving selective muscular hypertrophy in the
strength training of horizontal jumpers in order to
maintain an effective power to weight ratio.
Bourne, G.
Building the foundations for strength in
young horizontal jumpers
3, pp. 29-32
The authors cover aspects to be taken into consideration
in the development of young horizontal jumpers and
the need to improve running action by avoiding overstriding and learning the basic concavity technique.
Bourne, G.
Specificity of horizontal jumping performance
3, pp. 3-6
53
Bowerman, W. J.
The long jump
In: W. J. Bowerman & W. H. Freeman (Ed.), Coaching
track and field, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1974, pp. 185-205
This chapter consists of three sections: [1] Analysis of
long jump sequences (Bob Beamon, U.S.A., Olympic
gold medallist; Ralph Boston, U.S.A., demonstrating
the hitck-kick style). [2] Comments on the long
jump and training. [3] The long jump training schedules interpreted.
Bowerman, W. J. & Freeman, W. H.

The long jump
In: W. J. Bowerman & W. Freeman, High-performance
training for track and field (2nd ed.), Champaign (Ill.):
Leisure Press, 1991, pp. 139-148
Section headings: [1] Training theory for the long
jump. [2] Applying the theory. [3] Technique considerations. [4] The training schedules: Special fundamentals for the long jump. [5] Long jump training
schedule.
Brauman, K.
Developing a consistent long jumper
Athletic Journal, Evanston (Ill.), 59 (January 1979), 5,
pp. 30, 32, 77-79
The major objective of every athlete, in any sport, is
to develop consistency in performance. Once a consistent performance level has been attained, then an
improvement in marks and performance will follow.
In order to develop a consistently good long jumper,
there are five key points that must be emphasized in
the training program: 1) Flexibility, 2) endurance, 3)
strength, 4) power, and 5) speed. Only when these five
points are emphasized in a well-planned program can
the coach and athlete be assured of consistent performances with a minimum risk of injury. A consistent
long jumper does not just happen but is made.
54
Scholastic Coach, New York, 48 (February 1979), 7, pp.

82, 84
The best way for high school long and triple jumpers
to achieve maximum efficiency and consistency is
through a progressive strength-training program
based on the following principles: 1. For endurance,
use light resistance and many reps. 2. For strength,
use heavy resistance and few reps. You must overload
the muscle and work through the full range of
motion. 3. For increasing total strength, the weight
must be lifted slowly and continuously so that the
nerve impulses will reach the entire muscle group
simultaneously. 4. The muscle system is composed of
white and red cells. The white cells are designed for
speed and produce rapid, powerful contractions. The
red cells are slower and are designed for endurance.
Since the jumper is concerned primarily with the
white fibers, the exercise should be adapted accordingly. 5. Specificity for training is important. The
exercises should simulate the movements used in the
event and should be performed through the range of
motion. 6. For maximum strength gain, the athlete
should lift 60-80% of his maximum. 7. The rate of
strength gain will decelerate as the muscle approaches maximum strength. 8. For optimal results, 4 or 5
sets of 5 to 6 reps should be performed. 9. Weight
training must be performed regularly. For any program to work (1) it must be interesting and enjoyable
for the athlete, and (2) it should enable him to see his
progress. With these factors in mind, the author has
developed a progressive strength-training program
based on a percentage system of lifting.
Bush, J.; Weiskopf, D.

Long jump
In: J. Bush & D. Weiskopf, Dynamic track and field,
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1978, pp. 173-191
Main section headings: [1] Background. [2] Basic
qualities. [3] Styles of jumping: Hitch-kick; hang
style; straightaway, leg extension; somersault long
jump. [4] Technique: Approach run; the gather; hitting the board; take-off; the flight; the landing. [5]
Training program. [6] Four phases of training: Foundation phase (pre-season to early season); early season phase; competition phase; championship phase;
fall program; pre-season training. [7] Pre-season
schedule. [8] During the season: Daily practice; day
of competition; strength training; learning technique
drills. [6] Safety precautions. This chapter also
includes photo sequences of jump by Theo Hamilton
(hitch-kick style), Randy Williams (hitch-kick style),
and Danny Seay (hang style technique).
Cieszkowski, S.
Skutecznosc szkolenia juniorow w skoku w dal
w Polsce w latach 1955-1970 [The effectiveness of the training of young long jumpers in
Poland between 1955 and 1970]
Sport wyczynowy, Warsaw, 16 (1978), 4, pp. 29-35
Brauman, K.
Clayton, J.
Weight training for high school long and

triple jumpers
Power development for the long jump

The development of strength in horizontal jumpers

requires different approaches at different stages of
maturity of the jumper. Ensuring that young athletes
achieve their long-term potential requires an intelligent and patient approach to training, especially
with regard to skill development and other aspects of
neural adaptation. This approach is vital because of
the very large forces which may be encountered during the take-off phases of these events, with the
resultant potential for injury. Research which has
been conducted in the areas of muscle fiber development and neural adaptation underlines the importance of specificity when designing strength training
programs for mature horizontal jumpers. It is important that the mature horizontal jumpers training
program is designed to elicit specific muscular and
neural adaptations which will build into the athlete
the capability to meet the performance demands for
elite level athletes.
(Winter 1987), 4, pp. 17-19

The author presents charts showing the jumpers
power continuum, general conditioning circuits and
power circuits.
Crane, J.
The value of video photography as an aid to
coaching long jump
s. n.: J. Crane, 1989, 1 v. (unpaged)
Culbert, D.
Great leaps forward: the components and
conditioning required for a successful long
jump athlete
Australian Runner, Melbourne (Aust.), 13
(November/December 1993), 4, pp. 54-55
DeGarmo, R.
University of Nebraska in-season resistance
training for horizontal jumpers
Strength and Conditioning Journal, Colorado Springs
(Col.), 22 (2000), 3, pp. 23-26
During the season at the University of Nebraska, the
athletes maintain explosive muscular power by using
jump-specific exercises, such as split jerks and squat
jumps. Strength, being a component of power, must
also be maintained during the season by using parallel squats, barbell step-ups, split squats, and lunges.
Barbell step-ups with a high knee drive from various
heights allow long and triple jumpers to strengthen
the lower body in a multiple-joint, ground-based,
single-leg fashion. Lunges and split squats performed
with various foot placements are also jump specific.
These exercises are performed in a slow and controlled manner for sets of 4 to 8 repetitions early in
the competitive season, progressing to explosive sets
of 5 or fewer repetitions at the end of the indoor and
outdoor seasons.
Dickwach, H.
Zur Sicherung einer hheren Komplexitt der
Leistungsfhigkeit leichtathletischer Springer
[On the securing of a higher complexity of
the performance ability of jumpers]
pp. 23-37
Ernst, H.; Geese, R.

Trainingspraktische Diagnose- und Optimierungsverfahren bei Anlauf und Absprung
leichtathletischer Sprnge [Training-practical
diagnosis and optimization procedures for the
run-up and take-off in track-and-field
jumps]
Leichtathletik-Magazin, Ahrensbk, 3 (1983), 16,
Lehrbeilage, 60, pp. 17-19
Feng, B. Y.
[A practical research on the method of training the jumping ability of long jumpers]
Journal of Xian Institute of Physical Education, Xian

(P. R. China), 18 (2001), 4, pp. 62-64
Based on a study of the available literature and a survey conducted among experts, a great number of
training methods for developing the jumping ability
of long jumpers was collected and analyzed using
methods of fuzzy mathematics. Seven optimized
methods were finally selected and used with professional athletic teams. It was proven that the optimized training methods were more effective and led
to an all-round improvement of jumping ability of
long jumpers.
Fowler, N.
The relationship between strength and performance in elite long and triple jumpers
In: J. Viitasalo & U. Kujala (Eds.), The way to win: proceedings of the International Congress on Applied
Research in Sports held in Helsinki, Finland, on 9-11
August 1994, Helsinki: Finnish Society for Research in
Sport and Physical Education, 1995, pp. 163-166
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship
between strength and performance for elite British
long and triple jumpers. Performance and strength
data were collected from 17 long and 18 triple
jumpers during the period July 1991 to November
1993. All athletes were ranked in the top 10 in Britain
for their discipline at the time of testing. Although
during this period repeated measures were taken for
a number of the subjects only data pertaining to
their best performance were considered for analysis.
The strongest relationships found in this study were
between the concentric strength tests and the distance jumped and take-off speed. These strength
parameters are associated most strongly with the
actions of knee extension and hip flexion, motions
involved in the drive-off phase of the jump. This may
suggest that the difference between athletes, at the
elite level, is determined more by the ability to generate velocity during the drive-off phase of the takeoff than to resist knee flexion during the compression phase. Most interestingly, no relationship was
found between the eccentric strength and any of the
performance variables. There are no clear mechanical
reasons to explain the absence of this relationship.
The angle at maximum knee flexion shows no relationship to any of the strength data. This contradicts
the suggestion of Lees et al. that an athlete must
possess a strong leg that will resist yielding. It is possible that the athletes rather than trying to minimize
the degree of knee flexion during the compression
phase are allowing the knee to bend and concentrating upon knee extension during the drive-off phase.
This technique would mask the relationship between
strength and knee angle. Such a strategy would limit
the ability to mechanically generate vertical velocity
during the jump and hence force the greater reliance
upon the concentric muscle action. This conclusion
would be supported by the findings from the concentric tests as these parameters are associated with
the drive-off phase. In general, the findings of this
study suggest that the use of strength testing has
only limited value for elite athletes. The use of concentric quadriceps exercises provide the strongest
55
Freeman, W. H.
Long jump
In: W. H. Freeman (Ed.), Peak when it counts: periodization for American track and field (4th ed.). Los Altos,
Calif.: Tafnews Press, 2001, pp. 123-124
An analysis of world class women long jumpers
reveals that despite the American edge in pure talent
(seen in sprint performances), that edge does not
exist in the long jump. Instead, better planned, more
thorough training in Eastern Europe and elsewhere
has overcome much of the American advantage.
Besides their more intensive training, many European
athletes are tested regularly on a battery of control
tests designed to assess the specific conditioning and
progress in training, with the records kept for yearto-year comparisons of performance and reaction in
training. Elio Locatelli describes six areas of speed
training for the improvement of Italian long jumpers:
[1] Aerobic endurance: circuit training, cross country,
and interval training (6 weeks, October to November). [2] Anaerobic-alactic capacity: repetition runs
of 60-80m at 90-93% maximum (6 weeks, November
to mid-December). [3] Anaerobic alactic speed
strength: repetitions or series sprints of 30-80m at
95-97% (4 weeks, January). [4] Anaerobic-lactic
capacity: speed-endurance-oriented repetitions of
100-300m at 80-90% (6 weeks, April to May). [5]
Anaerobic-lactic speed strength. [6] Maximal speed:
flying sprints, ins-and-outs, downhill sprints, harness
runs, approach and take-off exercises (4 weeks, July).
Gajdarska, P.; Siris, P.; Giris, V.

Fiziceskata podgotovka na mladite skacaci na
skok na dalzina [Strength training of young
long jumpers]
Vaprosi na fiziceskata Kultura, Sofia, 19 (1974), 3, pp.
81-83
Gaonkar, G. V.
The development of the extension phase of
take off and improvement of jumps performance
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 41 (October 2003), 4, pp. 23-24; also in: Track Coach, Mountain
View (Calif.) (Summer 2003), 164, pp. 5238-5240
The author describes strengthening exercises for the
improvement of the extension phase of the take-off.
Garin, J. M.
Recherche dune nouvelle stimulation dentranement pour amliorer la performance en
saut en longueur [A search for a new training
stimulus to improve long jump performance]
Sport, Brussels (French version) (1992), 139, pp. 185187
Gilbert, N.; Walker, J.

56
Letters to the editor
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 18 (June 2003), 2, p. 4

Provides feedback from readers concerning the publication of back issues and speed assisted training for
the long jump.
Gracelli, G.
Efeitos do treinamento pliometrico e treinamento isotomico com sobrecarga sobre variaveis componentes do salto em extensao
[Effects of plyometric training and isotonic
training in the long jump]
Santa Maria, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria,
1983, 80 pp.
The purpose of this study was to verify if the effects
of plyometric training were superior to those of isotonic training in the long jump. The tucked jumping style was selected for these tests. Interest in
this subject was aroused by a report entitled Plyometric Training and written by Vern Gambetta in
1978, and after that an extensive bibliography was
collected which offered an excellent foundation for
this study. Tests were carried out with students from
the Police Sergeants Course at The Centro de
Formacao e Aperfeicoamento de Pracas of the Sao
Paulo Police Force. In the beginning two groups of
45 students each were tested and finally were
reduced to two groups of 21. Each group after a
period of basic training and familiarization underwent the pre-test followed by specific training and
finally the post-test. The group formed from the
sixth unit practized plyometric training whilst those
from the fifth unit were submitted to isotonic
training with overload. The instruments which were
used to evaluate the variable components of the
long jump (physical aptitude test, standing broad
jump, Sargent jump test and 30 meters with a 20
meters running start) and the basic long jump, are
often used in athletic and physical education
research and are extremely effective and reliable.
The results obtained were subjected to the student
t test. These results showed that within each group
the plyometric training produced a favorable effect
in all of the alternative variations practized, unlike
the isotonic training method which resulted in only
2 improvements (HIT and 30 meters). The analysis
showed that only the basic long jump improved, in
this case when using the plyometric training
method. As a result of this research it can be
deduced that plyometric training when used as in
this work could be utilized by trainers of long and
triple jump and also by those in other areas where
multi-jumps are used for training purposes.
Guo, Y. Q.
[Research on means of power training in long
jumpers]
Journal of Beijing University of Physical Education, Beijing (P. R. China), 23 (2000), 2, pp. 252-253
The traditional barbell exercises were replaced by
various sorts of jumping exercises. They were used as
the means of strength building to develop the power
of long jumpers. After one year of training practice,
it was proved that this method was feasible. Apply-
indication of performance. Eccentric strength, tested

as in this study cannot predict performance.

ing this method, the specific jumping ability and the
running speed of the jumpers were improved, and
their results were improved as well.
Herzfeld, D.
Die Entwicklung von Wettkampfleistung und
Leistungsvoraussetzungen im Weit- und
Dreisprung fr das Anschlusstraining [The
development of competition performance and
performance prerequisites in the long and
triple jump for follow-up training]
pp. 41-53
Holzamer, H.
Weitsprung Aspekte der Leistung [Long
jump aspects of performance]
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 31 (July 1, 1980), 30,
pp. 891-894; (July 8, 1980), 31, pp. 923-926; (July 17,
1980) 32, pp. 971, 974
Homenkova, L. S.
Running training in jumping events
2, pp. 15-17
The approach run is a decisive performance factor in
most jumping events. In this text the author takes a
look at the basic principles applied to the development of a fast and accurate run-up and presents
ways and means to improve run-up speed with a
controlled stride length and stride frequency.
Hortobagyi, T.; Sio, A.; Fodor, T.; Merkely,

B.
Effects of targeted skill development and
plyometric conditioning on long jump performance in 16-year-old boys
Journal of Human Movement Studies, London, 21

(1991), 1, pp. 1-17
To improve performance in the running long jump,
we compared the effectiveness of stretch-shortening
training versus targeted skill development in 16year-old boys. The bounding group (N = 11) used 7
kinds of plyometric exercises, totaling 2280 jumps
and the targeted skill group (N = 11) did 7 kinds of
target technical skill exercises, totaling 820 long
jumps over the 10-wk training period. A control
group (N = 8) did not train. Before and after training,
testing included: maximal isometric strength, vertical
jumping with body mass plus 20, 30, and 40 kg extra
loads (load-velocity relationship), 30 m dash, standing five jump, running long jump, and the time for
the last 5 m of the long jump. Improvements in long
jump, standing five jump, 30 m dash, and the loadvelocity relationship were significant (p < 0.05) but
not different (p > 0.05) between the two experimental groups. Because targeted skill practice, as compared to plyometric power training, resulted in similar improvements, these data emphasize the importance of skill development in preparation of young
athletes for the field events. Future studies should
compare the individual and combined effects of

weight lifting, plyometrics, and skill development.
Hcklekemkes, J.
Hilfe, mein Athlet tritt stndig ber!
[Help, my athlete fouls all the time!]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 9 (1998), 7, pp. 33
A common error during the long-jump run-up is that
the athlete looks at the board shortly before the
take-off. This behavior leads to changes of the runup and the board is hit wrongly or not at all. By
drawing the jumpers attention to this error it is in
most cases possible to remove this problem.
Humphrey, S.
Conditioning and training programs for
jumpers
(Winter 1980), 4, pp. 52-55
The jumping events of track and field require all
phases of conditioning; such as, aerobic, anaerobic,
strength, flexibility, and agility. The long jump and
high jump are mosty anaerobic, but some aerobic
conditioning comes into action when the jumper is
involved in long competitions over several hours. Of
course, these different phases have different priorities during the year.
Humphrey, S.
Strength training for jumpers
(Winter 1989), 4, pp. 35; also in: Athletics Coach, Halesowen (Eng.), 24 (December 1990), 4, p. 5
Basically there should be a 5% gain of strength each
week, a 50% gain in 7 weeks, and a 100% gain in 13
weeks according to researchers E. A. Mller and T. L.
Hettinger. The greater strength gains come when the
athlete is just starting and is weaker. As the muscles
get stronger, strength gains are usually slower. It is
undetermined by scientists just how fast strength is
lost. Usually, one quality lifting day per week late in
the season can maintain a given level of strength.
Specificity of training is important after a general
conditioning base is developed. This means the best
way to train and strengthen a muscle is to train it
through the range of motion used in the activity.
Ivancevic, V.
O razvoju snage skakaca udalj [About development of power in long jumpers]
Fizicka kultura, Beograd, 35 (1981), 4, pp. 383-386
Iversen, M.
Betydningen af grundtraening for laengdespringese [Significance of basic training for
long jumpers]
Dansk Atletik, Holstebro (November 1981), 11, pp. II-IV
Jacoby, E.; Fraley, B.

Long jump
In: E. Jacoby & B. Fraley, Complete book of jumps,
Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1995, pp. 43-65
57
Jesse, J. P.
Weight training for long and triple jumpers
(October 1966), 3, pp. 44-50
Kalomiris, M.
Eksperimentirane na metodika za razpredelenie na sredstvata za silova i skorostno silova
podgotovka v godisnija cikal priskacaci na
dalzina v etapa na sportna specializacija
[Experimenting with the methodology of distributing the forms of strength and speedstrength training in the yearly cycle with long
jumpers during the phase of sports specialization]
Sport i nauka, Sofia, 46 (2002), 2, pp. 150-155
Kalomiris, M.
Izsledavane na zavisimostite mezdu sportnoto
postizenie i silovite vazmoznosti na razlicni
muskulni grupi na junosi skacaci na dalzina
[A study of the relationship between the athletic performance and strength possibilities of
different muscle groups of young long jumpers]
Sport i nauka, Sofia (2001), 5, pp. 104-109
Klepsch, W.
Views and ideas on long jump training
2, pp. 37-39; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training (3rd ed.), Los
Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1988, pp. 100-102; and
once again in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training (4th ed.), Mountain
View, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1994, pp. 100-102; German
original in: Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 33 (5
October 1982), 32, pp. 1341-1342
58
The author presents a summary of the ideas and

training philosophy of the German coach Gerd Osenberg on long jump training. In addition to general
remarks and recommendations for coaches and athletes (e. g. thoroughness is the key to success) the
warm-up, jump-strength, sprint, strength and tech-
nique training as well as training planning and performance tests are dealt with.
Kolciter, J.
Intraindividualny
vykonnostny
efekt
treningoveho zatazenia v pripravnom obdobi
v skoku do dialky [Intra-individual performance effect of the training load during the
preparation period in the long jump]
TVS, Telesna vychova & sport, Bratislava, 3 (1993), 4, pp.
16-19
Kurbatov V
Przok v dlinu [Long jump]
Legkaja atletika, Moscow (1986), 7, p. 7
The author presents four special exercises for long
jumpers who want to improve the most important
and technically most complex element of the jumping technique: the take-off.
Kurelic, N.
Metodika obucavanja skoka udalj (koracna
tehnika) [Method of long jump training
step technique]
Fizicka kultura, Beograd, 34(5), 1980, pp. 408-412
Kutsar, K.
Optimal strength development in jumping
events
3, pp. 21-24
Strength capacities of jumpers are movement qualities required to overcome large external resistances
at speed. In this text, the author discusses shortly the
physiological background of strength development in
jumping events with generalized suggested training
methods and means for optimal results.
Larkins, C.
Una metodologia di allenamento per lo stacco nel salto in lungo (A method of training
the take-off in long jump)
Nuova Atletica, Udine (Italy), 18 (July/August/September/Octonber 1990), 103-104, pp. 145-149; English original in: Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (1989), 107, pp.
3415-3418, 3427; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training (4th ed.),
Mountain View, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1994, pp. 95-99
A specific methodology for teaching a proper takeoff action in horizontal athletics jumps is described.
The author remarks that very little attention is given
to the take-off. All the drills stressing the specific
take -off coordination and rhythm are be helpful to
the developing athlete.
Lasota, A.
Atlas cwiczen skoczka w dal i trojskoczka
[The world atlas of exercises for the long and
triple jump]
[Poland?], s. n., 1990, 136 pp.
The long jump is the most neglected jumping event.

Too few coaches teach and monitor correct jumping
technique, just as too few athletes work at the event.
Its as if everyone assumes that the fastest athlete
will be the best long jumper. Although relatively simple, the long jump should be broken into components
that can be developed individually. These ingredients
are the keys to the effectiveness of the total long
jump: (1) Achieve maximum speed in the approach.
(2) Lower the hips in the penultimate stride and allow
them to rise to maximum height at take-off while
maintaining speed. (3) Move the hips forward and up
for maximum distance from board contact to foot
release. (4) Prevent or neutralize forward rotation
during flight. (5) Position the feet horizontally at
maximum distance from the hips at landing.
Lease, D.
Speed training an aid to jumping and vaulting
Athletics Coach, Halesowen (Eng.), 23 (1989), 2, p. 2
The author presents exercises for the improvement of
speed and thus the run-up for the jumping events.
The improvement of elastic strength, which is also
necessary in this context, is also dealt with.
Levchenko, A.; Matveev, A.
The author stresses the importance of exploiting the

run-up speed potential for high level long jump performances and outlines the principles of speed training employed by Italian athletes.
Locatelli, E.; Arx, F. von
Coaching the horizontal jumps: the runway

and approach run
Die Entwicklung des Weitsprungs und Dreisprungs in den letzten Jahren bei den italienischen Springern und Darstellung eines exemplarischen Mikrozyklus [The development of
long jump and triple jump over the last years
with Italian jumpers and the description of a
microcycle]
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 56 (4 December 2002), 49, pp. 30-31
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 33 (14 December

1982), 41, pp. 1671-1672
Speed-strength training for jumpers

Soviet Sports Review, Escondido (Calif.), 24 (1989), 4,
pp. 172-175
Lewis, N.
Nigel Lewis, event coach for long jump in Wales, outlined the principles of the run-up which underly horizontal jumping.
The author describes the plyometric jumping

strength training of Italian long and triple jumpers. A
model training week is presented.
Li, H. T.; Zheng, S. P.
Lu, J. D.
[Analysis and study of dynamic tests of elite

collegiate male long jumpers]
[Study on practice method of male long

jumper take-off legs depth long jump]
Journal of Shanghai Physical Education Institute,

Shanghai (P. R. China), 24 (2000), 1, pp. 53-58
By applying three-dimensional strength-testing consoles and dynamic strainometers, dynamic tests and
studies concerning the specific skills of elite collegiate
male long jumpers were conducted. Simultaneously
with the analysis of the run-up speed, the threedimensional contact force and its transmission features between the feet and the ground when contacting the board were determined. The focus was also on
the jumpers frequency of limb movements, the relationship between the stride length and stride rate and
their variation as well as the dynamic effects related to
this. The results of the tests showed that concerning
the dynamic indexes there are distinct differences
between the Chinese elite collegiate male long
jumpers and the elite athletes from other countries.
Li, J.; Wang, Z. Q.

[On the supervision and control process of
international sports master Li Jings long
jump]
Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education,
Wuhan (P. R. China), 33 (1999), 6, pp. 46-50

3, pp. 14-16; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training (4th ed.), Mountain View, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1994, pp. 89-91
The quantitative control of training is one of the

most important elements of modern scientific training in track and field. This study discusses the quantitative control of Li Jings approach speed, take-off
technique and ability as well as her level of physical
condition. The purpose of the article is to present a
summary of her way of scientific long-jump training.
Locatelli, E.
Sprinting speed the foundation of the long
jump
Using high-speed film cameras and three-dimensional synchronic measurement, the author examines the
change of the athletes take-off components and the
effect of the different landing techniques on the
force working on the athletes body when practicing
the depth long jump from platforms of various
heights. The rational distances from the platform to
the take-off point with athletes of different training
levels are dealt with in this paper.
Lu, J. D.
[Summary on study of take-off strength
training in long jump]
On the basis of reviewing and summing up the results
of studies conducted so far, the author presents the
laws and principles of long-jump training, take-off
techniques, methods of take-off strength training, as
well as research methods concerning take-off
strength training with the goal of determining the
direction of future studies.
Lu, J.; Long, Y.

[A comparatively kinetic study on take-off of
depth-long-jump and long jump]
Based on literature studies and kinetic tests in the
lab, the authors conduct a comparative analysis of
the similar and different points of the form and content between depth-long-jump practice and long
jump takeoff. The results of the comparison show
59
Lundin, P.; Berg, W.

Developing the approach in the jumps
New Studies in Athletics, London, 8 (1993), 1, pp. 45-50
This article proposes strategies to develop a consistent and fast approach in the jumping events. After
reviewing the existing literature, the authors stress
the importance of visual control during the
approach. They then explain how to establish and use
a coaching mark, discuss means of developing each
section of the approach and suggest practical drills
for improving an athletes visual control ability.
Marks, B. T.
Long jump: too much or too little coaching?
Athletic Journal, Evanston (Ill.), 63 (February 1983), 7,
pp. 22-23, 25
Of the jumping events, the long jump may be the
most difficult to coach. Coaches frequently claim little credit for an excellent long jumper or lament the
fact that this year we dont seem to have a good long
jumper. One of the biggest problems in working with
long jumpers is a failure to observe progress. There is
a tendency to wonder whether one is overcoaching or
undercoaching the athletes. The author believes that
difficulties are more likely to result from what aspects
of the jump are emphasized over others and in what
sequence those aspects are taught.
Martinon, J. C.
Rapport qualit quantit dans la prparation en longueur, en triple saut [Quality and
quantity in the long-term preparation for the
triple jump]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (July/August 1981), 73, pp. 35-38
McFarlane, B.
Jumping exercises
(1982), 4, pp. 54-55
Without question, coaches and scientists are devoting much more time to the areas of specialized
strength preparation notably to leg power exercises through the use of multiple jumps. The research
indicates that differences between sheer strength
and power (elastic or explosive) are attributable to
the type of muscle fiber, speed of contraction, metabolic characteristic of the muscle and the neuromuscular reactions. The authors purpose is to look at the
application of these methods.
60
can be eliminated by employing a jumping power

development program, recommended to begin in the
9 to 11 years age range. This text represents a series
of exercises extracted from the authors power development program.
Miek, E.; Wiedner, H.

Die mikrozyklische Gestaltung des Trainings
in den leichtathletischen Sprungdisziplinen
unter
dem
Aspekt
der
Belastungsvertrglichkeit des Binde- und
Sttzgewebes [The microcyclic organisation
of the training in the track-and-field jumping events from the point of view of the load
tolerance of the connective and supportive
tissue]
pp. 32-40
Miladinov, O.
Izsledvane na metodika za prilagane na specialni upraznenija za vzrivna sila pri sastezateli na skok na dalzina [Investigation of the
methods of using special exercises for the
development of explosive strength in long
jumpers]
Sport i nauka, Sofia, 40 (1996), 3-4, pp. 11-17
Miladinov, O.
Specialni upraznenija za razvitie na vzrivna
sila pri skakaci na dalzina [Special exercises
for the development of the explosive strength
in long jumpers]
Miladinov, O.; Jonov, J.

Izsledvane zavisimostta na sportnoto postizenie v skoka na dalzina ot obema na sredstvata za skorostno-silova podgotovka v mnogogodisen aspekt [Investigation of the
dependence of the long-jump performance
on the amount of training means for the
development of speed strength from the
point of view of several years]
Sport i nauka, Sofia (2001), 3, pp. 3-7
Miladinov, O.; Jonov, J.; Miladinova, K.
Mekhonoshin, S. A.
Klasifikacija na sredstvata za skorostno-silova podgotovka v skoka na dalzina [Classification of the forms of speed-strength training
in the long jump]
Jumping power for the young
Sport i nauka, Sofia, 40 (1996), 10-12, pp. 10-16

2, pp. 31-32
Miller, L.
Young athletes are often disadvantaged through lack

of insufficient physical preparation to execute an
effective take-off in jumping events. This problem
Long jump analyzed

pp. 30, 76-77
that the depth-long-jump may be used as a specific

means of strength training for improving the long
jump takeoff.

In order to be a great long jumper, an athlete must
be an outstanding sprinter. Therefore, the basis for
training should be a quality sprint training program
in the fall. Along with controlled speed there must be
strength strength to convert horizontal force to
vertical force. In this event the athlete can benefit
from speed only to the extent that he can handle the
stress of conversion at the board. To train the neuromuscular systems (nervous and muscle) for jumping,
as well as build stamina and work on technique, box
drills are an important facet of training. These drills
should be utilized at least once a week for at least six
months a year. The box drills should not be done on
two consecutive days. Resistance training is mandatory for improvement in the long jump. An athletes
overall body strength determines his ability to convert and be fundamentally sound at the board. Long
jumpers should lift weights three days a week during
the off-season and twice a week during the in-season. Some key points to remember regarding technique are. 1. Speed must be accelerated through the
board. The length of the athletes approach should be
adjusted according to his ability to sustain optimum
speed. The last three strides are critical. 2. There must
be a heel-toe placement of the take-off foot at the
board in order to prevent the center of gravity from
accelerating past the take-off foot, causing overrotation and killing height. 3. For maximum utilization of the lead leg and arms at take-off, the athlete
must come off the board tall and chesty, allowing the
pelvis to come through. 4. The hitch-kick enables the
jumper to have the most efficient landing. This technique can be best learned off a box. 5. If the arms
come forward too soon in landing, they cause a dropping of the legs and subsequent loss of distance.
Morriss, C. J.; Tolfrey, K.; Coppack, R. J.

Effects of short-term isokinetic training on
standing long-jump performance in untrained
men
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,

Lawrence (Kan.), 15 (November 2001), 4, pp. 498-502
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects
of a 6-week isokinetic training program on quadriceps and hamstrings peak torque (PT) and standing
long-jump (SLJ) performance. Twelve untrained men
(age 31.4 plus or minus 4.2 years, mean plus or minus
SD) were tested at a velocity of 1.75 rad/sec (100
degrees/sec), before and after a 6-week control period and on completion of a 6-week training program.
Training consisted of 3 sets of 10 repetitions, 3 days
per week, for 6 weeks. Repeated-measures analysisof-variance analyses revealed that quadriceps PT
increased, on average, by 10.5 % as a result of training (p < 0.01). No significant changes in hamstrings
PT (p = 0.062) and SLJ performance occurred as a
result of training (p > 0.05). The major finding of this
study was that PT gains subsequent to isokinetic
resistance training did not influence functional performance. That open-chain training did not affect
the performance of a closed-chain activity is unsurprising, but on these grounds of nonfunctionality,
the use of moderate velocity isokinetic dynamometry
in rehabilitation and performance assessment for
closed-chain sports needs addressing in future

research.
Muraki, Y.
A case study of the selected prominent
jumpers: on their concepts of specific motion
and training
(1978), 2, pp. 32-45
The purpose of this survey is to take note of some of
the techniques and concepts of training which were
created and constantly improved through great
effort and dedication by jumping athletes and
coaches over many years personal, subjective
observations by successful performers, apart from
more scientific investigation in the same field.
Muthiah, C. M.
Long jump & triple jump preparation & planning
In: G. G. Dales (Ed.), Proceedings of the International
Track & Field Coaches Association IX Congress, Santa
Monica, California, July 30-August 2, 1984, Kalamazoo,
Mich., N.C.A.A. Division 1 Track Coaches Association,
1984?, pp. 60-64
Muthiah, C. M.
Training aspects in jumps
(1982), 4, pp. 49-50
Even though power training has been involved with
the training events, but for the last over 20 years it
has been disputed as far as the jumping events are
concerned. In recent times it is seen that not only
strength training is required for almost all the
jumpers, but a super-strength training program is
being advocated in the present-day training programs.
Myers, L.
The jumping events
(1986), 4, pp. 19-21
Cerutty had the athletes in the jumping events do
essentially the same type of training program the
throwers follow during the year, concentrating on
individual differences and doing more gymnastics,
thus improving the jumpers agility, balance and
overall coordination. Along with an intensive program of power lifting with the Olympic lifts, the
jumper surges on the spot every day after a workout
for quick bursts of 10-20 seconds, as the thrower
does sharpening his natural, inborn reflexes for a
fast approach run that transfers power and momentum into the take-off for achieving maximum height
and distance.
Nicklas, D.
Ergebnisse und Probleme bei der Entwicklung
und Ausprgung der speziellen Leistungsfhigkeit in leichtathletischen Sprungdisziplinen im Olympiazyklus 1977/80 [Results
61

suppl. 5, pp. 3-19
Pepin, G.
No author

(Winter 1991), 4, pp. 12-15
Come si allena Giovanni Evangelisti [How

does Giovanni Evangelisti train?]
Atleticastudi, Rome, 22 (January-April 1991), 1-2, pp.
43-51
This is an outline of the yearly periodization of the
Italian long jumper Giovanni Evangelisti.
No author
Long-jump arm action drill
Physical Education Digest, Sudbury (Ont.), 20 (Summer
2004), 4, p. 13
Describes drills for helping long jumpers work on
their arm action without much involvement from
their legs.
Nulton, J. E.
Specialized conditioning for long and triple
jumpers
14-16, 84, 86, 88-89
While the author does not feel that long and triple
jumpers should double, he does believe that they can
follow parallel courses in much of their early conditioning and training. Success is predicated on long,
hard, demanding work, and the athlete must be
intense and dedicated, patient and persistent. His
training program must have a year-round orientation
consisting of four quarters: a first quarter from midSeptember through November; a second quarter
from December through February; a third quarter
from March through mid-June, and a fourth quarter
from the end of formal competition until mid-September.
Pagani, T.
Drills for jumpers
(1986), 4, pp. 44-46
The author presents a selection of jumping exercises
for triple and long jumpers as well as for pole
vaulters.
Pate, W.
Bounding and hopping drills for long jump
and high jump
(Winter 1992), 4, pp. 48-49
This is a selection of 26 exercises.
Pate, W.
The long jump
62
This is a very short article dealing with finding long

jumpers and drills for the improvement of the four
phases of the long jump (approach, take-off, flight,
and landing).

(Winter 1992), 4, p. 21
Developing a long jump approach

With long jumpers an adequate amount of time and
effort must be directed towards developing an
approach in which the jumper has full confidence, an
approach which is (1) consistent, (2) workable, and
(3) appropriate. The ultimate goal of the approach is
to have the jumper 1. develop maximum controlled
horizontal velocity, 2. lose as little horizontal velocity as possible in preparing for a proper take-off, and
3. utilize all of the take-off board, without fouling.
Frequently the question is posed by young long
jumpers and/or their coaches, How do you begin to
develop an approach for long jumpers? There are, of
course, lots of ways to skin the cat. The author presents a method that has worked well with University
of Nebraska long jumpers.
Pepin, G.
The long jump
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Kalamazoo (Mich.) 76
(1976), 3, pp. 16-22
The author describes the optimal movement process
of the long jump. From this he develops training
emphases and presents a training program.
Pepin, G.
Weight training an asset to jumpers
pp. 8, 12, 62, 64
University of Kansas jumpers participate in a threephase weight-training program. Goals, lifts, and
poundages used vary between individuals. Each athletes weight-training program is developed around
his specific strengths and weaknesses as related to
the event or events he will compete in during the
year. Phase one of the weight-training program
begins in early August. During this period, normally
the athletes lift three day per week Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday. The Olympic lifts are popular,
because the men feel they are a challenge in that
they not only require strength in order to be successful, but also many of the same qualities that are
needed to be a great jumper such as concentration,
power, flexibility, agility, and courage. Phase two (or
the power phase) of the weight training begins in
late October with peaks and valleys of intensity, to
allow for competition. This phase lasts (at the latest)
until the first outdoor competition in late March.
Phase three is the imitative phase. This is the time of
year when the athletes are engaging in very explosive
weight training in which the majority of exercises or
lifts being used are imitative of the specific movements of the athletes event. During this phase the
athletes begin to prepare for major meet competition. This competition usually begins sometime during late March or early April. Several of the major
and problems with the development and

refinement of the spezial performance ability
in the track-and-field jumping events during
the Olympic cycle 1977/80]

lifts employed earlier in the season are still used.
Throughout the year, the coach and the athlete revise
the weight-lifting program, establish new goals and
map out those lifts that are essential for progression
toward future achievement.
Pino, J. B.
Investigacion de la construccion de la etapa
de preparacion directa a la competencia en
los saltadores de longitud y alto rendimiento
[Investigation about the development of the
direct preparatory stage prior to the competition among top-level long jumpers]
Boletin cientifco tcnico INDER, Cuba, La Habana
(Cuba), 17 (March 1979), 1, pp. 33-40
This paper deals with the physical fitness of competitive athletes in relation to their performance during
competition. Different training methods for long
jumpers were analyzed from a practical standpoint
under natural conditions during competitive stages,
and for this purpose a series of trials and surveys was
made every day among the athletes, before and after
each workout. For these trials, statistical mathematical calculations were used, which confirm the accuracy of the data obtained. The data can serve as a
guideline to long-jump coaches in order to be successful in competition.
Pino, J. B.
Investigacion sobre los tests y ejercicios de
control diario en la etapa de preparacion
directa a la competencia en los saltadores de
longitud cubanos [Investigation about daily
control tests and exercises at the preparatory stage prior to the competition among
Cuban long jumpers]
Boletin cientifco tcnico INDER, Cuba, La Habana

(Cuba), 17 (June 1979), 2, pp. 35-40
The author compiled control tests and exercises
which supply objective information about the functional and athletic conditions of the sportsman.
Because of their simplicity, these tests can be used in
the field during daily training but at the same time,
should not take any extra time from the coach. This
research was undertaken during the competitive season: i.e., at the preparatory stage prior to the competition. The figures and data obtained were processed
at the Mathematical Statistical Center (CEMA) of the
National Institute of Sports, Physical Education and
Recreation. The conclusions drawn from this work
were tested in practice. The author includes some
well-founded and fruitful experiences of investigations carried out in this area by outstanding Soviet
scientists in other athletic events, and on an objective basis he succeded in determining the daily control tests for this stage among Cuban long jumpers.
Popov, G.
Department of Sports Science and Physical Education,

The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000, pp. 976977
Popov, V. B.
Pryzok v dlinu [Long jump]
Moscow: FiS, 1977, 95 pp.
The author deals with the general and special training of long jumpers (training planning and model
exercises).
Popov, V.
Power training for long jumpers
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 21 (1983), 3, pp.
34-36; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary
theory, technique and training (3rd ed.), Los Altos, Calif.:
Tafnews Press, 1988, pp. 90-92
Changing of direction at close to maximum speed
during the take-off places great demands on explosive power in the long jump. This article looks at different exercise categories and presents a series of
exercises suitable for power development of long
jumpers.
Popov, V.
Specific exercises in the long jump
In: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory,
technique and training (3rd ed.), Los Altos, Calif.:
Specific exercises and jumps from different length
run-ups play an important part in long jump training.
This article looks in detail at these aspects, covering
imitation, takeoff and flight exercises, as well as an
efficient use of short and medium length run-ups.
Popov, V.
The organization of training processes in the
long jump
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 27 (January 1989), 1, pp. 11-14; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps:
Contemporary theory, technique and training (4th ed.),
Mountain View, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1994, pp. 80-82
The author outlines basic principles applicable to the
organization of long jump training in a double periodized year and presents model training tasks for the
different phases and periods.
Popov, V.
How to improve run-up speed and precision
2, pp. 18-21; Russian original in: Legkaja Atletika,
Moscow (1995), 4, pp. 20-21
The run-up plays an extremely important role in the
performance of horizontal jumps. In this text, Russian coach Vladimir Popov looks in detail into the
length, velocity and precision of the run-ups and
makes recommendations for the development of an
optimal approach run.
Pneumatic support in long and triple jumps
Popow, G. I.; Ljach, W. I.
In: Y. Hong (Ed.), Proceedings of XVIII International

Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, Hong Kong:
Long and triple jump training on pneumatic

run-up surfaces
63
The attainment of a sports performance is always

dependent on the stabilization of movement skills
(technique). However, at the same time this stabilization impairs the further increase of performance in
athletes. That is why variability in training organization is sought after. This applies to the long and triple
jump, too. An excellent means to enable variable
training in these two events is a new surface for the
run-up: the pneumatic surface, which consists of
rubber and air cells. This surface allows athletes to
carry out more run-ups of maximum length without
fatigue symptoms of note. This is made possible
through the reduction of impact loads and the
increase in muscular work efficiency. The reduction
of impact loads creates favorable conditions for the
active work of the support and movement apparatus
during the push-off with maximal intensity. At the
same time this enables the athletes to increase the
amount of jumping exercises with an increased
intensity. In an experiment the influence of the
pneumatic surface on the effectiveness of the muscle activity was examined. It turned out that this surface enables the jumper to utilize his or her power
potential to the maximum. The athletes noticed that
the reduction of the impact load on the support and
movement apparatus facilitated the interaction with
the support area. At the same time the athletes had
the subjective feeling of reduced fatigue. Most
importantly, the athletes did not suffer from pain in
the hip and knee joints during high-intensity jumps.
The result shows that the reduction of the impact
load and the recuperative characteristics of the
pneumatic surface enables athletes to perform a
higher number of jumps from a full run-up. The
greater number of jumps enables a reliable development of jumping technique for jumping distances
that are even beyond the respective athletes personal best performance. The pneumatic surface can also
be used for the training of athletes with light injuries
of the support and movement apparatus or for training during the rehabilitation phase after an injury. In
this way top form can be maintained and the time
needed for regeneration can be shortened.
Popow, W.
Die Aufgaben der Technikschulung im Dreiund Weitsprung [The tasks of technical training in the triple and long jump]
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 29 (July 4, 978), 28,
p. 936; (11 July 1978), 29, p. 972
Popow, W. P.
Spezielle Vorbereitung von Weitspringern
[Specific preparation of long jumpers]
64
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 24 (December 4,

1973), 49, p. 1745; (December 11, 1973), 50, pp. 17811784; (December 18, 1973), 51/52, p. 1829; also in:
Technical Bulletin Ontario Track and Field Coaches
Association, Toronto, 3 (Spring 1975), 2, pp. 3-7, under
the title: Specific long jump conditioning
Porcari, J. P.; Pethan, S. M.; Ward, K.;

Fater, D.; Terry, L.
Effects of training in strength shoes on 40yard dash time, jumping ability, and calf girth
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, Champaign (Ill.), 10 (May 1996), 2, pp. 120-123
This study was done to determine the effectiveness
of training in Strength Shoes. Seventy-two collegeage men were randomized into either a control group
(CG), a Strength Shoe group (SSG), or a regular shoe
group (RSG). SSG and RSG trained 3 times a week for
10 weeks and followed identical programs as prescribed by the manufacturer. SSG wore the Strength
Shoe while RSG wore their own shoes. All subjects
were pre- and post-tested for 40-yd dash time, vertical jump, standing broad jump, and right and left
calf girth. Of the 72 subjects, 52 completed the
study: 22 CG, 14 SSG, and 16 RSG. Seven SSG and 1
RSG dropped out due to injury. Repeated measures
ANOVA revealed that SSG had significant increases in
girth, but these changes were not significantly different from either CG or RSG. There were no withinor between-group differences for the other variables
as a result of training. These results indicate there
was a tendency for the type of training used in the
present study to improve performance; however,
these improvements were independent of the type of
training in Strength Shoes resulted in an increased
rate of injury compared to training in regular athletic shoes.
Prost, R.
Lentranement des sauteurs en longueur et
des triple-sauteurs en altitude [Long and
triple jump training at altitude]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (October-December 1984), 89, pp. 19-21
Randolph J.
Developing long jumpers
(1980), 4, pp. 13-14
This article presents (I) training objectives, (II) a
teaching progression and coaching points, (III) drills
and power exercises for the long jump, (IV) a sample
weight training program, (V) a sample weekly training schedule.
Rash, D. G.
An investigation comparing the effect of different resistance levels on power production
Eugene, Oreg.: Microform Publications, University of
Oregon, 2000, 1 microfiche (46 fr.)
The purpose of this study was to compare the effect
of light-resistance, high-repetition weight lifting to
the effect of heavy-resistance low-repetition weight
lifting on vertical jump and broad jump improvement. The subjects were 29 college age football players participating at the NCAA Division II level. All
subjects had been strength training for at least one
year. The subjects were divided into two groups, consisting of a light group who weight lifted with light
New Studies in Athletics, Aachen, 17 (September/October 2002), 3/4, pp. 55-60; German version in: Leistungssport, Mnster, 31 (November 2001), 6, pp. 13-16

resistance and high repetitions, and a heavy group
who weight lifted with heavy resistance and low repetitions. Groups were determined by overall strength
of the subject. All subjects participated in a 6-week
training program. The light group trained at a lightresistance level. They completed 6-10 repetitions per
set. The heavy group trained at a heavy resistance
level. Repetitions for this group were between 2-5
per set. Subjects performed four sets of the core lifts.
Subjects performed a 1 RM pre-test and post-test on
the Push Press, Squat, Clean, and Split Jerk. Vertical
jumps were measured using a VERTEC Vertical Jump
apparatus. Subjects were also tested on a three jump
broad jump. There was no significant, p < 0.05, difference between light and heavy groups, pre- or
post-test, on vertical jump and three jump broad
jump. There was a significant, p < 0.05, change in
power with resistance training when pre-training
vertical jump was compared to post-training for all
subjects. There was no significant, p < 0.05, change in
power, as measured by the three jump broad jump,
when pre-training three jump broad jump was compared to post-training for all subjects.
Reilly, T.; Atkinson, G.; Coldwells, A.

Isokinetic strength and standing broad jump
performance
Perceptual and Motor Skills, Missoula (Mont.), 72 (June
1991), 3/Part 2, p. 1346
For 26 men anthropometric measures were not significantly correlated with broad jump performance.
Broad jump performance, however, was correlated
.56 with peak torque during fast isokinetic action but
not at all with slow action.
Rogers, J.
The long jump
(Winter 1994), 4, pp. 15-19
The long jump is an event which requires speed and
powerful jumping ability. Speed is self-evident but
power needs to be defined as a very fast application
of force, in other words a combination of speed and
strength. The long jumper is required to generate
maximum controllable speed on the runway to
achieve the best results. The maximum controllable
speed is determined by the athletes sprint speed and
how quickly maximum force can be applied into the
ground at the take-off board. Therefore, the training
emphasis will focus upon the development of: (1)
Sprint speed, (2) muscular strength, and (3) power.
Rubin, S.
Increasing accuracy in the horizontal jumps
approach
Track Coach, Mountain View (Calif.) (2000), 152, pp.
4846-4848
Horizontal jumpers must optimize their speed and
posture while maximizing accuracy in the approach.
While repetition of approach running is a common
training element, coaches often fall into a pattern
of only analyzing on vs. off or fast vs. slow.
Merely gauging speed and foot placement at take-
off does not provide adequate information to

determine whether adjustments are appropriate. An
approach is a dynamic, evolving process and any
attempt at improvement or problem solving must
address it as a whole. Approach rehearsal reflecting
competition conditions is valuable for both athlete
and coach as it both reinforces the model and provides practice for making in-competition adjustments which are inevitable due to training state,
psychological state and environmental conditions.
Through short- and medium-approach jumping, all
aspects of correct approaches can be reinforced to
a degree. Step counting, postural transition and
visual adjustment can and should always be
involved, though speed values will be markedly
lower. Rhythmic and spatial differences are profound, however, and coaches should be careful of
employing too much short approach jumping during main competition periods. Conflicting rhythmic
and spatial signals in practice may inhibit proper
execution in competition.
Schmidt, G.
Trainingsbuch Weitsprung [Training catalogue for the long jump]
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 27 (November 23,
1976), 45, pp. 1665-1668; 46, pp. 1701-1804
This training catalogue for the long jump includes
general and special training forms. When using these
training forms the athletes individual performance
ability must be considered and care should be taken
that the exercises are done in a technically correct
form.
Schneider, B. M.
Trainingseinheit: Kraftzuwachs Weitsprung
[A training session for the development of
strength for the long jump]
Turnen und Sport, Celle (Germany), 54 (1980), 2, pp. 3738
Sidorenko, S.
The sprint and the jump
pp. 182-184; also in: Athletic Asia/Asia International,
Patiala (India), 14 (March 1985), 1, pp. 36-38
Investigations have shown that long and triple
jumpers can only produce world-class performances
if their approach velocity is about 11 m/sec. The focus
of sprint training for long and triple jumpers should
therefore be on the effective selection and variation
of sprint loads with the running velocity always
being controlled electronically.
Smirnov, N.
Varied speed training for long jumpers
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 14 (January 1976), 1, pp. 12-13; also in: Yessis Review, Fullerton
(Calif.), 11 (March 1976), 1, pp. 14-16, under the title
Speed-strength training of long jumpers; German
version in: Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 26 (June
10, 1975), 23, pp. 809-810
65
Solcany, J.
[Year round training cycle of Pavel Tolnay]
Trener, Bratislava, 21 (1977), 8, pp. 357-360
Solcany, J.
Rozbor rocneho cyklu pripavy Petra Pitrona
cs. juniorskeho reprezentanta v skoku do
dialky [Analysis of the training year cycle of
Peter Pitrona the Czechoslovac junior representative in long jump]
Trener, Bratislava (1981), 9, pp. 416-419
Tellez, T.
Sorensen, H.; Simonsen, E. B.; Van-DenBogert, A. J.
The approach in the long and triple jumps
Effect of muscle strength on long jump performance

In: R. H. Sanders & B. J. Gibson (Eds.), Scientific proceedings: ISBS 99: XVII International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, June 30-July 6, 1999, Edith Cowan
University, Perth, Western Australia: Perth School of
Biomedical and Sports Science, Edith Cowan University,
1999, pp. 249-252; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps:
Contemporary theory, technique and training (5th ed.),
Mountain View, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 2000, pp. 107-110,
under the title: Effect of muscular strength on long
jump performance
This is a study investigating how strength gains combined with corresponding body mass gains influence
long jump performances, coming to the conclusion
that after an initial increase in jumping distance, further strength and body mass increases do not
improve performance.
Strishak, A. et al.
Secrets of long jumping
technique and training (4th ed.), Mountain View, Calif.:
The authors look at run-up speed and evaluate the
correlations of several parameters of common specific long jumping training exercises with competition
jumps.
Taranov, V.; Mironenko, I.; Sergejev, V.

A cyclic blocks system for jumping events
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 33 (October 1995), 4, pp. 28-30
This text presents a three-year long study into the
effectiveness of a cyclic blocks system in a years
training plan of highly qualified athletes in jumping
events.
Tellez, K.; James, K.

Long jump
In: J. L. Rogers (Ed.), USA track & field coaching manual,
Champaign, Ill.: USA Track & Field, Human Kinetics,
2000, pp. 141-157
66
strong relation between the execution of the

approach run and take-off and the performance of a
jump. The more consistent and more technically correct the approach run and take-off, the better the
jump performance. Most world-record performances
in the jumping events in track and field have resulted from a successful approach run and take-off.
When a long jumper breaks contact with the ground,
the center of gravity forms a parabolic curve. Once in
the air, there is nothing that can be done to change
this predetermined flight path. Therefore, the majority of coaching time in the long jump should be spent
developing a technically sound approach run and
take-off.
In all the jumping events in track and field, there is a
In: V. Gambetta (Ed.), Track Technique Annual 83, Los

Altos, Calif.: Tafnews, 1983, p. 8
The author discusses methods and mechanics of
developing consistent acceleration patterns in the
jump approaches.
Tenke, Z.
The primary importance of speed and technique in preparation for the jumps
Track and Field Journal, Vanier City (Ont.) (August
1982), 16, pp. 27-28
In the authors view, the most important factors
determining the final result in the jumping events
are the take-off velocity and the take-off angle. During the take-off, the goal has to be to minimize the
loss of velocity, at the same time reaching the optimal take-off angle. Many jumpers are losing far too
much in this area. One of the most difficult coaching
tasks is to find the reason for this loss of velocity. This
should not be written off as a mere slow take-off.
The author is convinced that a long take-off time is
the outcome of technical mistakes.
Terovanesyan, I.
Long jump fundamentals
In: J. W. Alford & F. W. Dick (Eds.), The jumps XIII Congress of the European Athletics Coaches Association, s.
l., s. n., 1985?, pp. 57-59; French version in: Rvue de
lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris
(January/February/March 1985), 90, pp. 32-33
The abilities which are most important for long
jumpers are according to the author: explosive
strength, speed, jumping and relaxation abilities and
intermuscular coordination.
Ter-Ovanesyan, I.
Ter-Ovanesyan on the long jump
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (March 1967), 27, pp.
858-860
The world-class long jumper Igor Ter-Ovanesyan
states that his training is based on four principles: 1.
The principle of analysis, 2. the principle of changes
in effort and training conditions, 3. the principle of
heavy training load, and 4. the principle of psychological preparation.
This article looks at varied speed training methods

suitable for the development of long jumpers.
Thierfelder, K.; Wiedner, H.

Erkenntnisse und Erfahrungen zur mikrozyklischen Gestaltung des Trainings in den leichtathletischen Sprungdisziplinen [Findings and
experiences concerning the microcyclic
organization of training in the track-andfield jumping events]
9/10, pp. 18-26
Tidow, G.
Models for teaching techniques and assessing
movements in athletics: the long jump
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (1990), 113, pp. 36073620; original version in: New Studies in Athletics,
Rome, 3 (1989), 3, pp. 47-62
In this article, reprinted from New Studies in Athletics, West German coach Tidow presents ideal models of movement patterns in the long jump as a starting point for use in training the individual athlete.
Tidow, G.
Zur Sollwert-Przision der Absprungvorbereitung beim Weitsprung (On the precision of
the target values in the preparations for
take-off in long jump)
In: R. Daugs (Ed.), Sportmotorisches Lernen und Techniktraining: Internationales Symposium Motorik- und
Bewegungsforschung 1989 in Saarbrcken, v. 2,
Schorndorf, 1991, pp. 61-65
Uhr, A.
Special events workouts (relays, long jump)
Texas Coach, Austin (Tex.), 26 (November 1982), 4, pp.
56-57
Vaupsas, A.
Training of the long jump
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (December 1967), 30,
pp. 938-939
In this article, the author gives some insight into the
training of Russian long jumpers.
Verhoshanskiy, Y.
Depth jumping in the training of jumpers

(Spring 1979), 1, p. 60; original version in: Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (March 1973), 51, pp. 16181619
In the past years, scientists and coaches have been
devoting much attention to the perfection of specialized strength training preparation of athletes. The
leading idea in this scientific search is the principle of
dynamic conformity. In accordance with this principle, the means of specialized strength preparation
should be chosen so that it has maximum conformity with the basic sports exercise in relation to the
amount of strength, the time it is displayed and the
speed of maximum development, the regime of the
work of the muscles, and finally the intensity of the
work movement. One of the results of such a search

was the appearance of the so-called shock method
of improving the reactive ability of the nerve muscle
apparatus, in which the leading method was take-off
after a jump for depth named, logically, depth
jumping. Starting from this, the author deals with
the following questions: (1) Why jump for depth? (2)
How are these jumps performed? (3) Why a height of
2-5 _ 3-7 _? When and how much to jump?
Walker, J.
Training for the long jump
pp. 64, 66, 88; also in: Track and Field Quarterly Review,
Kalamazoo (Mich.), 87 (1987), 4, pp. 8-10
This is an overview of the training planning and
organization of the American world-class long
jumper Larry Myricks.
Walsh, B.
Long term conditioning and technique development of long and triple jumpers
Sydney: Australian Track and Field Coaches Association,
1983, 31 pp.
Long-term conditioning involves the development of
strength, speed, flexibility, spring, specific and general endurance. Details of training sessions are given.
Wennemer, G.; Fejes, M. Z.

Plan de prparation pour des sauteurs en
longueur [Preparation plan for long jumpers]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (1977), 57, pp. 53-57
Wiemeyer, J.
Dehnen reduziert auch die Weitsprungleistung [Stretching also leads to a reduction of
the long jump performance]
Leipziger Sportwissenschaftliche Beitrge, St. Augustin,
43 (2002), 2, pp. 80-91
Although positive effects of stretching exercises during warm-up are generally expected (increase in performance, injury prevention), numerous studies have
shown that maximal-strength and power performances are reduced by previous stretching exercises.
The reductions in performance are considerable and
of great practical significance. For this study the
effects of an 8-min passive-static stretching of the
primary movers vs an 8-min break after a 5-min
standard warm-up program on the performance in
the standing broad jump were examined with a sample of 18 volleyball player (5 women, 13 men). The
results show a significant reduction of the broad
jump performance both after the passive break and
the stretching.
Young, W.
Specificity of strength development for
improving the takeoff ability in jumping
events
1, pp. 3-8
67
Zanon, S.
Consideration for determining some parametric values of the relations between maximum
isometric relative strength and elastic relative strength for planning and controlling the
long jumpers conditioning training
training is an effective way to improve the high jump

performance.
Zhao, B. J.
[Model system of main training targets of
mens jumping]
Journal of Xian Institute of Physical Education,
Shaanxi (P. R. China), 18 (2001), 1, pp. 81-82
Using the methods of cluster analysis and multiple
regression, a systematic study of the training targets
influencing the performance in male jumping was
conducted and a multiple regression model was
established. The precision and practicability of the
study were also verified so that the findings presented in this article can be used as a reference for
coaches in the jumping events.

4, pp. 14-20
The author provides some concepts regarding elasticity by emphasizing the importance of exploiting the
elastic abilities of the muscular system in sporting
movements. He then presents a diagrammatic reference model useful for describing the viscoelastic
behavior of the muscle in terms which can be applied
in training practice. On the basis of this mechanical
model he shows the necessity of linking the possibilities of force and elasticity of the muscular system in
each specific sport branch and he deals with one of
these links in the phase of the take-off in the long
jump. From this arises the need to have data concerning these two characteristics of the muscle for
long jumping. For this purpose the author supplies
some procedures and orientation data useful to
demonstrate the links between force and elasticity in
the most stressed muscles of a long jumper of a high
international level. Finally, some procedural and
methodological recommendations for the improvement of the links between the qualities of force and
elasticity of the muscular system of long jumpers are
given.
Zanon, S.
Zur Beziehung zwischen maximaler relativer
statischer und relativer elastischer Kraft im
Training des Weitspringers [Relation between
maximal relative static and relative elastic
strength in the training of a long jumper]
Leistungssport, Frankfurt, 5 (1975), 5, pp. 352-359
Zhang, T. D.
[Study on the mutual transformation of skills
and physical fitness between high jump and
long jump]
68
Sports Science, Beijing (P. R. China), 20 (2000), 1, pp.

55-57
Based on the authors many years experience and
taking the performance and technical features of
world-class jumpers as an example, this paper analyzes the common factors and differences between
the skills and physical fitness components of the high
jump and long jump. The results of the analysis show
that the skills and physical fitness components of the
two jumping disciplines can be mutually transformed
and that the effects of the transformation from the
long jump to the high jump are more obvious. The
methods of the transformation are presented in
detail. It is held that strength-oriented long jump
Zhao, F.; Wang, Z.; Qu, A.

[The primary research of events group
teaching and training in sprint, hurdle race
and long jump]
Wuhan (P. R. China), 32 (1998), 2, pp. 39-43
Based on the events group training theory, the
present article discusses the events group teaching
theory of the sprint, hurdle race and long jump. The
basic principles of this theory are summarized.
Teaching and learning the long

jump (including novice technique,
training, and related problems)
Adams, G.
Teaching long jump
4, pp. 4-5
After some general remarks on general class teaching
and teaching in small group situation, the author
outlines the basics of teaching the stride jump.
Andrejow, J
Die Grundschulung im Weitsprung mit 1112jhrigen Schlern [Basic long-jump training with 11 to 12-year-old pupils]
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 22 (1971), 31, pp.
1317-1318
Bell, S.
Long jumping from the ground up
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (June 1978), 72, pp.
2282-2284; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training (2nd ed.), Los
Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1981, pp. 99-101
The author presents a basic structure for learning a
sound long jumping technique.
The author examines specific speed strength qualities in the four jumping events and provides sound
guidelines for assessment of the qualities and training.
Bldorn, W.
ber den Weitsprung im Schulsport [On the
long jump in school sport]
1673-1674
Bosen, K. O.
Teaching the long jump
Crotty, J.
In: F. Wilt (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training, Los Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press,
1972, pp. 89-92, ISBN: 0-911520-35-X
The golden age of skill learning the teaching of jumps
Briefsch, J.; Rode, J.

Reserven in der Weitsprungausbildung
[Reserves in the training of long jumping]
Krpererziehung, Berlin, 30 (1980), 6, pp. 269-273
Calija, M.
[Interdependence of the results in track, long
jump and shot putting and the level of development of the basic muscle groups in the
pupils of 3rd and 4th years of the secondary
schools]
Campbell, D. E.
The coaching of the beginning long jumper:
an analysis
Coaching Clinic, Princeton (N. J.), 23 (May 1985), 9, pp.
7-10
Cen, H. B.
[A study of the teaching of the long jump in
college]
Journal of Hubei Sports Science, Wuhan (P. R. China),
19 (2000), 2, pp. 21-23
Applying methods of data analysis, in combination
with past teaching experiences, this article examines
the guidelines underlying the teaching of the long
jump and presents their major points.
Chambers, D. C.
Optimum speed in the long jump
In: F. Wilt (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training, Los Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press,
1972, pp. 124-126, ISBN: 0-911520-35-X
ently believe that once they have given their pupils a

run-up, and have told them to run fast, to jump high,
and not to sit back at the landing, they have done all
that is necessary. There is no reason, however, why
the fundamentals of balance in the air cannot also be
developed in children even at the early age of 11 or
12 years.
The experiments conducted by the author show that

the theory of a long jump run-up at maximum speed
is unfounded at least with the 13-18-year age group.
If the maximum speed run-up theory were adopted,
the youngsters in the authors experimental group
would all have approach distances of well in excess
of 40 meters.
Coghlan, D.
Teaching the beginning long jumper
In: F. Wilt & T. Ecker (Eds.), International track and field
encyclopedia, West Nyack (N. Y.): Parker Publishing
Company, 1970, pp. 162-165
When teaching the long jump, many coaches appar-
Athletics Coach, Halesowen (Eng.), 23 (1989), 3, pp. 6-8

There is an optimum period for the learning of basic
movements. The critical period is that time when the
maximum sensory, motor, motivational and psychological capacities are present. Successful skill attainment at maturity is not dependent on earliness of
instruction, but rather on its timing. The ideal phase
for learning basic jumping skills is between 8 and 13
years. Based on this, the author presents a selection
of age-suitable jumping exercises and deals with
methodical aspects in detail.
DAprile, A.
Alcune indicazioni didattiche per il salto in
lungo: risultati di una ricerca condotta su
ragazzi dai 12 ai 16 anni di eta [Some teaching proposals for the long jumps: results of a
study carried out on 12 to 16-year-old boys]
Atleticastudi, Rome, 24 (May/June 1993), 3, pp. 67-76
The results of a research on the take-off behavior of
children in long jump are reported. The use of a free
take-off zone seems to be a better condition for
improving learning and performance. The negative
psychological impact of a fixed take-off board is also
stressed.
Davidson, R.
Developing the young athlete for the long,
triple and high jumps
Texas Coach, Austin (Tex.), 46 (May 2002), 9, pp. 30-31
The author shares experience with coaching long,
triple and high jump athletes and includes diagrams
which break down technique, appropriate weights
for training and special plyometrics for each jump
event.
Debnam, M.
Rhythm drills to improve the long jump runup
technique and training (4th ed.), Mountain View, Calif.:
This is an outline of the basic principles of the long
jump runup with practical drills to assist the learning
and improvement of the approach run from young
beginners to elite performers.
Derlon, A.
Saut en longueur principes operationells et
EPS [Long jump: operational principles and
physical education]
69
Dring, W.
Zur Anwendung von Differenzierungsmanahmen in Riegen und Leistungsriegen: Am
Beispiel der Grundausbildung im Weitsprung
in der Klasse 5 [On the use of measures of
differentiation in squads and performance
squads: shown with the example of the long
jump in the 5th form]
Fleischmann, R.
Mit Methode weit springen: Richtig in die
Weite springen will gelernt sein! [A methodical approach to long jumping: jumping for
distance correctly is something to be
learned!]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 15 (January/February
2004), 1+2, pp. 37-41
The author presents a methodical approach to learning the stride long jump as the first step and the
hang technique as the second step.
Technique et pdagogie des sauts [Techniques

and teaching of jumping events]
Paris: Vigot, 1989, 218 pp.
Griebsch, J.; Rode, J.

Reserven in der Weitsprungausbildung
[Reserves in long-jump training]
On the basis of an extensive factor-analytical and
complex biomechanical investigation, the performance-determining factors of the long jump are determined in more detail and the significance of the individual phases of the long-jump technique are characterized. From this corresponding methodical conclusions for the motor learning process are derived.
In this context the attention is drawn to possible
reserves in long-jump training.
Herbet, F.
Hinfhrung zum Hang- und Laufsprung
[Introduction to the hang and running long
jump]
Praxis der Leibesbungen, Frankfurt, 13 (1972), 5, pp.
83-85
Franz, L.
Hofmann, G.
The long jump in school sport
Springen und Sprnge in der Leichtathletik

[Jumping and jumps in athletics]
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 24 (July

1986), 3, pp. 17-19; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps:
Contemporary theory, technique and training (3rd ed.),
Los Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1988, pp. 85-86; German version in: Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 33
(November 16, 1983), 37, p. 1541
The author stresses the importance of teaching students and young athletes the run-up and the takeoff as the two most important factors in the long
jump performance and recommends to pay a lot less
attention to the flight phase.
Giovinazzo, N.
Teach them to land
pp. 16, 23, 88-89
70
Goriot, G.
When teaching the long jump, probably the least

amount of instruction is given on the landing. Most
coaches feel this phase of the long jump is the natural part and spend 90 per cent of the time on other
fundamentals. The reverse is true. The natural parts
of the jump are the speed, take-off, and movements
in the air. The only part of the jump which a coach
can teach is the landing which is unnatural. But, if
teaching something unnatural can improve performance, then coaches had better teach it. Mans natural
instinct when landing is to land on his feet, similar to
the natural instinct of a cat. However, man does not
have the balance or flexibility of a cat. In landing
with the legs extended, coaches are teaching something quite unnatural. This landing will be referred to
as the side swing. The author holds that every jumper,
class A, B, or C should develop this landing.
Sportunterricht, Schorndorf, 34 (1985), 6, suppl.:

Lehrhilfen fr den Sportunterricht, 6, pp. 89-92
Huber, E.
Vom Vielsprung zum Weitsprung [From multiple jump to long jump]
Sporterziehung in der Schule, Baar (Switzerland)
(1981), 11/12, pp. 18-19
The author presents exercises for the hang technique
of the long jump in school sport with the emphasis
on the training of reactivity (active touchdown of
the take-off leg).
Jakimov, F.
Techniceskata podgotovka za skok na dalzina
nacin daga na ucenici v sekcijata po leka
atletika [Technique training in the long jump
according to the hang-jump method for
pupils in athletic sections]
Jarver, J.
An introduction to the long jump
There are several ways a young novice can learn the
long jump. One of the most common methods,
described in this text, is to establish the basic elements leading to the single-stride technique, universally accepted as the most suitable for young athletes.
E.P.S.: Education physique et Sport, Paris, 42 (1992),

238, pp. 44-46
Johnson, C.
Larger take-off boards for better long jump
teaching
4, pp. 14-15
Johnson, C.
Two to two or one to two
Athletics Coach, Birmingham (England), 28 (Summer
1994), 2, p. 14
The long jump is a one to two jump (taking off with
one leg, landing with both legs). The main approach
to the long jump take-off is most effective when
treated as one to the same (a hop), or one to the
other jump (a step).
Jones, A.
Run up + pop up = LJ
Athletics Coach, Halesowen (Eng.), 15 (June 1981), 2,
pp. 18-22
The author divides the long jump run-up into the following components: (1) Acceleration, (2) alignment,
(3) attack. Respective exercises for developing the
run-up are presented.
Jordanova, N.; Stoev, V.

Izsledvane na vrazkite mezdu fiziceskite
kacestva i dinamikata na formirane na dvigatelnite umenija i navici pri ucenicite ot 1
klas crez skok na dalzina sas zasilvane [Investigation on the relationship between the
physical qualities and the dynamics of the
development of motor abilities and skills in
the long jump with run-up in pupils of the
first form]
Vaprosi na fiziceskata Kultura, Sofia, 36 (1991), 11-12,
pp. 39-44
Katzenbogner, H.
In die Weite springen will gelernt sein [Jumping for distance is something to be learned]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 12 (2001), 8, pp. 22-29
The author outlines the principles of teaching children the long jump and presents a collection of exercises: general run-up and take-off exercises, the
jumping garden, distance-oriented jumping exercises, specific run-up exercises, adventure jumps,
stride jump exercises.
Erlernen einer neuen Sporttechnik (Eine vergleichende Untersuchung in der Sekundarstufe

I am Beispiel des Weitsprungs unter Einsatz
von Arbeitskarten und Arbeitsstreifen) [The
influence of visual information on the increase
in performance and movement quality when
learning a new sports technique (A comparative investigation in the primary stage of higher education with the example of the long
jump using working cards and working strips]
Cologne: German Sports University, 1988, ix, 259 pp.
Klimmer, H.
Verspringen. 1 [Long jump. Part 1]
Lichamelijke opvoeding, Zeist (Netherlands), 68 (4 June
1980), 10, pp. 293-294
Klimmer, H.
A single-stride long jump leads to the hitchkick
2, pp. 24-28; also in: Track Coach, Mountain View
(Calif.) (1999), 149, pp. 4754-4757; originally in: Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 16 (January
1978), 16-19; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory, technique and training (2nd ed.), Los
Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1981, pp. 91-94, under the
title: From a single stride long jump to the hitch-kick;
German version in: Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 2
(1991), 3, pp. 3-8; 4, pp. 27-35
Teaching young athletes the hitch-kick has always
been a controversial subject. In this article, the
author describes how a single-stride technique can
lead to mastering the hitch-kick action.
Koitzsch, J.
Mglichkeiten zur Verbesserung der
Aulaufgestaltung im Weitsprung [Possibilities
of improving the run-up in the long jump]
Sportpraxis, Wiesbaden, 34 (1993), 5, pp. 19
The author describes exercise forms for improving
the effectiveness of the long-jump run-up in a very
economic way.
Kolb, C.
Notre leon mensuelle: le saut en longueur
[Our monthy lesson: the long jump]
Kay, D.
Jeunesse et sport, Macolin (Switzerland) (June 1973), 6,

pp. 167-168
The teaching of the long jump
Kolciter, J.

This article deals with long jump facilities for the
teaching of the long jump, safety precautions, finding the correct run-up, and teaching the action in
the air (hang technique).
Rychlostna priprava mladsich dorastecov v

skoku do dialky [Speed preparation of young
long jumpers]
Trener, Bratislava, 26 (1982), 7, pp. 299-302
Keller, H.
Kostric, W.
Der Einfluss visueller Informationen auf Leistungssteigerung und Bewegungsqualitt beim
Learning the long jump, the triple jump and

the pole vault
71
Technically, the triple jump demands the learning of

the major forces included in the event. Only through
an active thinking process while exercising will the
triple jumper be able to use maximum physical
strength, body balance and co-ordination. The
approach run in the triple jump should be of sufficient length to allow the maximum sprinting acceleration. Very fast jumpers use seventeen to twentyone running strides, while beginners should start
with eleven approaching strides. Initially, the takeoff is a fast springing motion with a minimum loss
of developed horizontal speed. This is easily accomplished if the jumper consciously shortens his last
stride. A swift arm swing with the free knee drive
will considerably help the jumper to enter the hopping phase as the continuation of the approach run.
The author presents a number of exercises which are
the steps of learning the three stages of triple jumping.
Koukal, J.
New trends in teaching long jump
In: A. Rychtecky, B. Svoboda & P. Tilinger (Eds.), Physical
activity for better life style in a new Europe: Proceedings of the sixth ICHPER-Europe Congress, Prague,
Czechoslovakia, July 15-19, 1992, pp. 250-256
Kruber, D.
Kleine Methodik fr Weitsprunganfnger
[Brief methodology for long-jump beginners]
Long jumping for beginners

2, pp. 24-27; originally in: Modern Athlete and Coach,
Adelaide (Aust.), 17 (October 1979), 4, pp. 22-25; also
in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory,
technique and training (2nd ed.), Los Altos, Calif.:
This article looks into the mechanics of the stride
long jump technique and presents a series of conditioning exercises for beginners.
Lohmann, W.
Principles of beginners training in jumping
events
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 21 (October 1983), 4, pp. 17-19
This article presents the German Democratic Republics approach to training of beginners in jumping
events, emphasizing the development of specific
jumping capacities in conjunction with technique,
speed and general physical qualities.
Lohmann, W.; Voss, G.

Ausbildungsstand und Leistungsfhigkeit der
Nachwuchsleistungssportler im leichtathletischen Weitsprung unter dem Blickwinkel
einer mehrjhrigen Analyse [The level of
training and performance capacity of junior
long jumpers: a longitudinal study]

2/3, pp. 24-35
Le-Henaff, J.
Longden, B.
Dbutant en saut en longueur [Long jump for

beginners]
Foundation work for jumpers. A jumpers programme and development needs the right
foundations: Bruce Longden offers some suggestions of how to lay them
E.P.S.: Education physique et Sport, Paris, 28 (September/October 1978), 153, pp. 11-16
Lemcke, E.
Mit der Sprungausbildung in den Klassen 1
bis 3 die leichtathletischen Sprnge vorbereiten [Preparing the track-and-field jumps
using basic jump training in forms 1-3]
The Coach, Peterborough (England) (March/April 2003),

15, pp. 24-26
The author presents methods that jump-event
coaches can use to improve their athletes performances. Includes objectives, technical aims, and training techniques.
Ltgeharm, R.
Lohmann, W.
Methodische Reihen zum Erlernen der Weitsprungtechniken [Methodical teaching

sequences for learning the long-jump techniques]
Development of a basic long jump technique

72
Lohmann, W.
There is no doubt that the stride long jump provides

an excellent base for further technique developments in this event. It is easy to learn and combines
all essential elements without distracting the learner
by complicated movements. In this text, the author
outlines the development of the stride long jump and
presents a series of teaching exercises.
Turnen und Sport, Celle (Germany), 46 (1972), 6, pp. 8788
Mariani, D.; Alberti, G.; Rizzi, E.

Il salto in lungo: fantasia e didattica a fumetti [The long jump: fantasy and didactics in
the form of a comic strip]
Rome: Fidal, Centro Studi & Ricerche, 1994, 65 pp.

(1981), 4, pp. 4-8; also in: Track and Field Journal,
Vanier City (Ont.) (1980), 14, pp. 23-24
Martinon, J. C.
Didactique et correction des erreurs dans les
sauts horizontaux [Didactics and correction
of errors in the horizontal jumps]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris, 65 (1979), 4, pp. 11-15, 17
Merckwirth, B.
Nachwuchsentwicklung im Sprung (verdeutlicht am Beispiel des Weitsprungs der Mnner) [The development of young jumpers
(shown with the example of the mens long
jump)]
In: D. Augustin & W. Joch, Jugendleichtathletik,
Niedernhausen: Schors, 1988, pp. 367-373
This is an overview of (1) the development of the
long jump performances of junior athletes between
1977 and 1987, (2) the basic and build-up training of
young long jumpers, (3) the training planning and
the contents of the training of young long jumpers.
Morgan, K.
Athletics jumping challenges (part 2 in a
series of 3)
British Journal of Teaching Physical Education, Berkshire (England), 32 (Spring 2001), 1, pp. 14-16
A variety of teaching ideas is presented for long,
triple & high jump lessons with the aim of moving
away from the traditional teaching approach where a
limited number of pupils are participating and the
remainder of the class are waiting and watching. The
challenge approach in contrast encourages maximum
participation in the lessons by setting up a number of
event-specific stations so that pupils can work in
small groups and rotate around the activities.
Moss, D.
Field events: long jump mound
Physical Education Digest, Sudbury (Ont.), 19 (June
2003), 4, pp. 9-10
This article concentrates on teaching jumpers to keep
their feet in the air as long as possible.
Mutavdzic, R.
[Studying of impact of speed and strength of

leg extensors of thirteen years old schoolboys
upon long jump]
Athletics Weekly, Kent (Eng.), 39 (12 October 1985), 41,

pp. 38-40
Popitshev, M.
The development of the jumping capacity of
young athletes
1993), 3, pp. 19-21
The author presents what he considers to be the most
effective series of exercises for the development of
the jumping capacity of young athletes. The exercises and exercise complexes are based on an anatomical classification and take into consideration the
individual morphological characteristics of the students.
Powell, J. T.
Coaching long jumping
In: J. T. Powell, Track and field fundamentals for teacher
and coach (4th ed.), Champaign (Ill.): Stipes, 1987, pp.
221-224
The author gives advice on how to coach the run-up,
the take-off, the actions in the air, the hang, the
landing. He also presents coaching notes and corrections of common faults.
Powell, J. T.
How to introduce long jumping
In: J. T. Powell, Track and field fundamentals for teacher
and coach (4th ed.), Champaign (Ill.): Stipes, 1987, pp.
135-138
Section headings: [1] Equipment necessary. [2]
Method: the hop; the stride; running in air exercises;
the landing; the leap; the take-off; the use of the
take-off board.
Prost, R.
Le triple saut Le saut en longueur : initiation et entranement pour les jeunes athltes
[The triple jump and the long jump: introduction and training for young athletes]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (May/June 1981), 72, pp. 9-13
Aspects dealt with: Exercises, training organization,
training intensity and training planning for 10- to
13-year-old athletes.
Prost, R.
Quelques rflexions an sujet du saut en

longueur [Some reflections on the long jump]
Nieder, H.-T.
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (1985), 93, pp. 19, 21-24
Stundenbeispiele zum Weitsprungtraining im

B-Schleralter [Examples of long-jump lessons for 12- to 13-year-old pupils]
(part 1); 10 (1999), 4, pp. 11-15 (part 2)
The long jump is an event where the athletes instinct

is of particular importance. The author describes the
instinctive and natural abilities of the long jumper
and gives advice on the sensible build-up of technical and physical training.
Paish, W.
Rebischke, B.; Killing, W.
Coaching the novice jumper: part one long

and triple jump
Der lange Weg zum weiten Sprung [The long

way to long jumps]
73
The first part of this article includes a yearly training

plan for talented young long jumpers during buildup and the following performance training. The systematic presentation also includes training principles
and training tips. In the second part detailed training
protocols of the German long jump champion 1997,
Thorsten Heide, are presented. These plans show what
a concrete long jump training plan can look like.
Rosenthall, J.
High jump rules for long jump: adding variety
to your training sessions
Athletics Coach, Birmingham (Eng.), 23 (September
1989), 3, p. 20
The author presents an interesting variation of a
jumps session which can involve a squad of up to a
dozen athletes. There is both a skill factor and competitive element involved. The idea is very simply to
run a long jump competition using the rules for the
vertical jumps of high jump and pole vault. An
appropriate starting distance is set that will involve
all the athletes in the competition. As in a high jump
or pole vault competition all the competitors can
have three attempts to clear each distance. The margin of clearance, as in the vertical events, does not
matter; only the fact that the distance has been
cleared is recorded. An athlete can also pass their
attempts at any distance throughout the competition, or take their final attempt at a greater distance
than the one which they have failed. The competition
can be run as a short approach competition with
run-ups being limited to an appropriate distance (10,
15, or 20 meters). In this way an element of uncertainty as to achievable distances can be introduced.
This can make the competition more intense.
Scheer, H. J.; Maede, U.

Spielerisch zur besseren Weitsprungfhigkeit
[Developing a better long-jump ability in a
playful manner]
Schlter, D.
Entwurf eines Lehrprogramms fr die Schwebehangtechnik [Development of a teaching
program for the sail-hang technique of the
long jump]
Leibeserziehung, Schorndorf, 21 (1972), 11, suppl.:
Lehrhilfen fr die Leibeserziehung, 11, pp. 121-124
Schmelter, L.
Weitsprung macht Spass! [Learning the long
jump makes fun!]
Leistungssport, Mnster, 33 (January 2003), 1, pp. 34-40

The coordinative-technical performance profile is an
important performance-determining factor for the
development of young athletes in various sports.
Using the example of the long jump, the relationship
between the development of the kinesthetic discrimination ability taken from the coordinative performance factor, selected technical parameters from the
technical performance factor as well as the complex
competition performance are determined. From the
results practical consequences are derived.
Sharpley, F.
Teaching beginners to broad jump
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (December 1962), 10,
pp. 315-318
Beginners in the long jump must learn to solve the
following tasks: 1. In the run-up to reach the greatest possible speed from which to get an effective
jump, and to hit the board. 2. In the flight to get as
high as possible and to perform the movements
which give the jumper a good landing. 3. In the landing to reach the heels as far as possible in front of
the body and still get over them. Learning strategies
to solve these tasks are presented in this article.
Shen, J.; Wang, X.

Experimental study on teaching male students hang style in P. E. institutes
Shanghai (P. R. China), 20 (1996), 1, p. 93
Based on experiments, two different teaching methods were used with two groups of students to learn
the hang style of the long jump. The results show
that by using the reformed teaching method the students motivation and initiative can be increased. To
this extent the new teaching method is superior to
the traditional teaching method.
Sing, Z. L.; Chen, Q.

[Exploration of two-way series teaching pattern of long-jump]
Zhejiang Sports Science, Hangzhou (P. R. China), 23
(2001), 6, pp. 42-45
This paper is based both on the teaching experience
made during many years and modern teaching theory. The technical action of long-jump is divided into
logical unit sequences. The pattern of two-way
series in teaching long-jump has been designed in
line with the sequence of function information,
which aims at putting emphasis on the technical
combination of run-up and take-off for the beginners learning the technique of the long jump.
Song, Z. L.; Li, W. K.
Schwerin, J.
[Preliminary approach to strategy application

of mastering and learning in long-jump
teaching of common course in physical education department of colleges and universities]
Koordinativ-technische Leistungsprofile von

Nachwuchs-Weitspringern [Coordinative-
The author presents an exercise sequence for learning the long jump in the phase of basic training.
74
technical problems of young long jumpers]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 10 (1999), 6, pp. 20-26;

8, pp. 28-30 (part 2)

According to the basic theory of mastering and
learning, the aims and corresponding evaluation
system, suitable to long-jump teaching of the common course, were established. Comparison and study
were carried out in teaching by experiments. The
conclusions are as follows: 1. The strategy of mastering and learning is feasible in long-jump teaching of the common course in PE department of colleges and universities. 2. The strategy of mastering
and learning is superior to the traditional teaching
method as far as theory, evaluation of skills and
teaching results are concerned. 3. When applying the
method of mastering and learning, the form of
teaching organization, which is suitable to the present practical teaching condition of the PE departments and institutes, should not be changed.
Song, Z. L.; Si, Q. H.

[Exploration of improving the teaching pattern of the long jump]
Journal of Beijing Teachers College of Physical Education, Beijing (P. R. China), 12 (2000), 3, pp. 67-69
This paper is based both on the teaching experience
made during many years and modern teaching theory. The technical action of long-jump is divided into
logical unit sequences. The pattern of two-way
series in teaching long-jump has been designed in
line with the sequence of function information,
which aims at putting emphasis on the technical
combination of run-up and take-off for the beginners learning the technique of the long jump.
Stein, W.
Gedanken zum Weitsprung in Training und
Wettkampf [Reflections on the long jump in
training and competition]
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 33 (November 9,
1982), 36, pp. 1507-1510
The author presents his ideas on childrens and youth
training in the long jump, on training planning and
methods at the top level, on the competition behavior of long jumpers, as well as on jumping technique.
Lecturas: Educacion fisica y deportes, Buenos Aires, 8

(February 2002), URL:
http://www.efdeportes.com/efd45/salta.htm
This study provides new findings based on the determination of the index of growth in relation to competitive results of young long jumpers from Sao
Paulo State. It is suggested that this index can be an
instrument to detect, select and promote talents. The
relative and absolute index to determine the evolution level of male jumpers from 11 to 15 years was
established. The results show two developmental
peaks: the first is achieved when the athlete begins
specific training; and the second is determined by the
increase of hormonal production in the adolescent
phase, mainly of testosterone level, which is responsible for the development of explosive strength.
Tan, Z. F.
[Optimal design of teaching method in
breaking through difficult points of long
jump techniques]
Wuhan (P. R. China), 35 (2001), 1, pp. 85-87
Through analyses of relative difficult points of
long jump techniques and the general problems,
the author made an optimal design of teaching
method that could break through the difficult
points. Steps and mats were used to build dynamic finalization of techniques combined with runup and take-off. Orientation approach was applied
to reinforce the technique. Good results were
achieved in teaching.
Taylor, T.
Stolley, S.
Getting the max out of your long jumpers
High school P. E. lesson plans: hurdles, pole

vault and long jump
Scholastic Coach, New York, 62 (April 1993), 9, pp. 2627
Track and Field Coaches Review, Gainesville (Fla.), 98

(1998), 3, pp. 30-31
Determinacao da velocidade de crescimento

do resultado competitivo como indicador na
selecao de talentos de saltadores em distancia do Estado de Sao Paulo [Determination of
the index of growth in relation to competitive results of young long jumpers from Sao
Paulo State]
The author focuses on safety, equipment and activities when teaching the fundamentals of the long
ump. Students should be instructed to concentrate
on: a) running fast into the takeoff, b) driving the
knee of the free leg, and c) holding the arms up over
their heads in-flight as long as possible.
Strhl, E.
Weitsprung [Long jump]
The long jump, like most events, is a highly technical

science. To be able to teach it, the coach must first
study the actions and angles that are optimal in
jumping. Only then will he be able to tackle the task
of teaching the event. This technique must be progressively taught through the use of video tape and
drillwork. The event can be simplified by breaking it
down into its four natural components: approach,
gather/plant/take-off, flight, and landing.
Thumm, H.-P.
Jugend und Sport, Magglingen (Switzerland), 37 (1980),

5, pp. 150-157
Techniknahe Tiefsprnge im Weitsprungtraining Jugendlicher [Depth jumps in the

long-jump training of young athletes]
Takahashi, K.; Romero-Frometa, E.; Gandolfe, S.; Da Silva, A. I.

269-272; 9, pp. 307-308
75
Ushkevich, T.; Mikhalenya, V.; Krasheninnikov, R.; Zirko, A.; Rakovich, V.; Atamanchuk, G.; Zotko, R.
The long and triple jumps training for
youngsters in the second year of training
pp. 131-135; 4, pp. 187-190
The author gives a detailed overview of the goals,
methods and contents of the long and triple jump
training of young athletes between 14 and 15 years
of age (second year of training). A yearly training
plan is developed. Special tests for controlling the
level of performance are presented.
Zambetakis, L.
Saut en longueur: Initiation au collge
[Introduction to the long jump in school
physical education]
E.P.S.: Education physique et Sport, Paris, 40 (1990),
222, pp. 18-19
The author presents an exemplary long-jump lesson
for 10 to 11-year-old children.
Zeuner, A.
Genauer Weitsprunganlauf leichter als
erwartet [Accurate run-up in the long jump
easier than expected]
Wang, B. C.; Xu, F. P.
[Research on structure setting theory applying to teaching of long jump]
Zeuner, A.
Journal of Beijing Teachers College of Physical Education, Beijing (P. R. China), 12 (2000), 4, pp. 9-13
In this paper some objective indexes which aim at
researching the structure-setting function of mastering sport skill and improving performance were
collected through experimentation and photograph analysis. The result show that the effect of
mastering special skill and improving performance
in the experimental group is better than that in
the control group. In long jump training, reasonable structure-setting was very useful for the
velocity of the approach run, the velocity of contacting the board, the velocity of starting the
jump and improving the special skill and special
performance. It is suggested that mental structure-setting should be paid more attention to in
skill teaching.
Wang, J. H.
[A study on the teaching methods for broad
jumping movements skill]
Zur Schulung des Schrittweitsprunges im

Sportunterricht der Klasse 5 [About the
training of the stride long jump with 10 to
11-year-old children]
Zhang, X.
[Discussion of spare time long jump training
in college]
Sports Science Research, Shanghai (P. R. China), 18
(1997), 3, pp. 50-53
Based on the developing trend and technical characteristics of modern long jump and considering the
characteristics of the athletes ability, physique and
technique, this article points out that long jump
training should begin with developing speed ability.
The improvement of the run-up together with the
athletes technical training levels will lead to an
improvement of the jumping results.

18 (1999), 4, pp. 62-65
Yan, Z. L.; Liu, J.

[Experiment on synchronous long-jump
teaching with walk-in-air type and straighten-hip type]
Journal of Xian Institute of Physical Education,
Shaanxi (P. R. China), 17 (2000), 2, pp. 69-72
76
An experimental study of the synchronous teaching

of the long jump using the walk-in-air type and
straighten-hip type was conducted. It was found out
that there are obvious differences in technical quality, technical structure and technical effect of the
take-off between experimental group and the control group. The results show that synchronous teaching helps the students to master the take-off technique and technical structure.
3 Talent identification in the

long jump
Court, J. J.
Organisation du saut en longueur en Pologne
[Selection procedures in Polish long jump]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (1981), 72, pp. 53-54
Krger, A.
Was ist ein Weitsprungtalent? [What is a
long jump talent?]
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 33 (21 September
1982), 30, p. 1278
The author sums up the views of the Russian long
jump coach P. Siris on the typical features of a long
jump talent. According to the Russian point of view,
long jumpers must be fast and light. A further impor-
This article analyses and discusses the basic teaching

principles of teaching the movement skills of long
jumping, the textbook choice, teaching steps, key
and difficult points as well as the means and methods of practicing.

tant factor are short contact times on the board: 1112 years 0.125 sec or faster; 13-14 years 0.120
sec or faster; 15-16 years 0.120 sec or faster; 1718 years 0.120 sec or faster.
4 History of the long jump,

performance development and
prognosis
Nulton, J. E.
Long jump or triple jump
Barney, R. K.

pp. 44-47, 73-74
The ancient Greek pentathlon jump a preliminary reinterpretive examination
If a boy is going to be able to mature into a fine long

jumper he must have great natural speed. He must
certainly be at least an also ran competition quality
sprinter. He must be able to achieve his maximum
speed with rapid acceleration. Have the candidates
run repeat 40s and look for quickness and a wellcoordinated springy sprint stride. Observe carefully
those boys who demonstrate determination and
aggressiveness in their running efforts. Look for natural spring and general overall body coordination.
Does the candidate have resilience and spring in his
stride? Have the candidates perform several standing
vertical and long jumps. Look for the boys who can
execute powerful jumps in which they utilize quick,
coordinated movements of their ankles, knees, and
hips, assisted by effective back and arm action. Any
candidates who do poorly in either speed or spring
screening should not be encouraged to continue
training for the long jump.
Siris, P.
How to discover long jump talent?
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide 20 (1982), 1, pp.
20-22; original version in: Legkaja Atletika, Moscow
(February 1981), 2, pp. 10-12
The author describes a two-stage long jump talent
identification program, based on physical performance tests and the rate of improvement after the first
18 months of training. Suggested tests and evaluation norms are included.
Sirisa, P.
Prognozovanie schopnosti a vyber skokanov
do dialky [Prognosis of abilities and selection
of long jumpers]
Trener, Bratislava (1981), 10, pp. 481-484
Spokas, A. A.; Sakalis, V. K.

Otbor i prognozirovanie sportivnych rezultatov junych prygunij v dlinu [Talent selection
and performance prognosis in young long
jumpers]
Teorija i praktika fiziceskoj kultura, Moscow, 45 (1982),

9, pp. 27-28
Lecture presented at the International Congress of Physical Activity Sciences: Physical Activity and Human WellBeing, Quebec, 1976, type-written manuscript, 11 pp.
Boas, J.
Towards 2000 and four (horizontal) jumps
4, pp. 34-37; also in: T. Brandt (Ed.), Australian Track
and Field Coaches Association, Proceedings of the 1996
National Coaching Congress held in Canberra, October
25-28, Canberra, A. C. T.: Australian Track and Field
Coaches Association, 1996, pp. 26-28
The author takes a look at performance trends, technical development and competition planning for the
horizontal jumps. He states that in the long jump the
main trend is a consequence of a better understanding of the take-off mechanisms and the application
of this to training methods.
Brearley, M. N.
Long jump miracle of Mexico City
In: S. P. Ladany & R. E. Machol (Eds.), Optimal strategies
in sports, Amsterdam, North Holland, 1977, pp. 162167 (repr. from Mathematics Magazine 1972)
Edelson, M.
Jesse Owens: Owens outran Hitler but couldnt shake the bigotry that persisted even after
his heroics in Berlin
Sport, New York, 90 (December 1999), 12, pp. 44, 46
Hendershott, J.
A legend then, now & forever: rising above
his humble beginnings, Jesse Owens became a
giant of sport
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 53 (March
2000), 3, pp. 8-11
Hendershott, J.
A tale of two jumps: once upon a time, the
United States absolutely owned the long
jump. Things started to fall apart as the millennium [sic] ended ... and theres little relief
in sight
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 54 (May
2001), 5, pp. 7, 10-11
Hotchner, J. M.
Jesse Owens: more than an Olympic hero to me!
Journal of Sports Philately, La Grange (Ill.), 38 (January/February 2000), 3, pp. 3-7
77
Jokl, E.
Tilinger, P.
Bob Beamons Weltrekord wird bis zum Jahr

2000 bestehen [Bob Beamons world record
will last to the year 2000]
Predpoved vykonnosti skokana do dalky [Performance prognosis in the long jump]
Jokl, P.; Jokl, E.

Two world records: comparative evaluation of
long jump world records by Jesse Owens
(8.13m, 1935) and Bob Beamon (8.90m,
1968)
Olympic Review, Lausanne (Switz.) (April 1977), 114, pp.
239-240, 282; also in: American Corrective Therapy
Journal, Houston (Tex.), 31 (March/April 1977), 2, pp.
41-43; German version in: H. Lenk (Ed.), Handlungsmuster Leistungssport: Karl Adam zum Gedenken,
Schorndorf: Hofmann, 1977, pp. 176-179
Lease, D.
British jumping the future
According to the author, there are primarily two
causes responsible for the poor international quality
of British jumpers: 1. British jumpers neglect the targeted improvement of the run-up velocity and takeoff. 2. The British climate is not conducive to allowing the practising of the high level of skill required
for top class jumping throughout the year. British
jumpers should therefore concentrate on the acquisition of speed and the skill of take-off. They need to
rehearse their complex skills throughout the year in
constant and warm conditions, duplicating competition facilities regularly.
Nett, E.; Nett, T.

Weitsprung der Weltbesten von 1956 bis
1968 (Mnner und Frauen) [Long jump of the
world-best athletes 1956-1968 (men and
women)]
Berlin: Bartels & Wernitz, 1969?, 61 pp.
No author
Long jump: Phillips wins big 3
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 56
(December 2003), 12, p. 24
Provides the mens top 10 world rankings in the long
jump including the top results of various Grand Prix
competitions. United States rankings in the mens
long jump are also included.
Schmid, H.; Mller, N.

Neue Erkenntnisse zu den Theorien der Weitsprungtechnik in der griechischen Antike
[New findings regarding the theory of longjump technique in Greek antiquity]
78
In: M. Letzelter & W. Steinmann (Eds.), Trainingswissenschaftliche Studien zur Leichtathletik, Schors:
Niedernhausen, 1991, pp. 188-196 (Mainzer Studien
zur Sportwissenschaft, 14)
Teorie a Praxe telesne Vychovy, Prague, 29 (1981), 6, pp.

357-363
The purpose of the work was to analyze the development of the best world and Czechoslovak broad
jumpers, to determine the trends in the development
of performance in long jumping. The highest peak of
ones performance may be expected after 9 or 10
years of specialized training at an age of 24 to 25
years. it was found that in the majority of cases the
highest individual performance was in the same zone
as in his second to fourth year of training.
Watman, M.
A record to remember: Mary Rand captured
the 1964 Olympic gold medal in the long
jump, breaking the world record in the process
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 48 (20
December 1995), 51, pp. 38-39
Zotko, R.
Pryzok v dlinu: Retrospektiva i perspektiva
[The long jump: retrospective and perspective]
Legkaja atletika, Moscow (1987), 4, pp. 8-11, 15
5 Psychological aspects of the long

jump (including perceptual-motor
aspects)
Blumenstein, B.
Psychological preparation for competition in
the long and triple jumps
Track Technique, Los Altos (Calif.) (1981), 83, pp. 26442646
Four individual styles of mental preparation for competition in the long and triple jump are presented
(steady versus explosive emotional regulation,
and internal versus external orientation). Specific
examples of an individual plan of action for each
style are also presented.
Brauman, K.
15 competitive tips for long and triple
jumpers
44-45
The long and triple jumps pose a special problem to
the athlete. Whereas a runner has to psych himself
up for only one supreme effort, a jumper has to
psych himself up for six. It takes an extremely organized, composed, and stable individual to attack a
sixth effort as strongly as a first. The suggestions presented in this article can help every jumper organize
himself for six maximum-potential efforts.
Leichtathletik, Berlin, 30 (18 December 1979), 51/52, pp.

1671-1674
Eves, F. F.
Jermolajova, N.
Contributions of peripheral and central vision

to long jumping
Psychological problems of jumpers
In: B. G. Bardy (Ed.) et al., Studies in perception and

action III: Eighth International Conference on Perception and Action, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995, pp. 19-22
Gonzalez-Carballido, L. G.
Resultados del control psicologico del entrenamiento en saltadores cubanos de alto
rendimiento [Results of the psychological control of training in Cuban elite high jumpers]
Lecturas: educacion fisica y deportes, Buenos Aires, 6
(March 2001), 33 segunda quincena, URL:
http://www.efdeportes.com/efd33a/saltad.htm
El objetivo del artculo consiste en mostrar los resultados obtenidos en la aplicacin del Mdulo de Control
Psicolgico del Entrenamiento. Este incluye tcnicas
para estudiar la predisposicin psquica, un procedimiento para explorar la adecuacin autovalorativa de
rendimiento durante sesiones de entrenamiento tcnico y el estudio de la Concentracin de la atencin en el
terreno, integrando datos recogidos entre 1985 y 1997.
Entre otros resultados se conoci que los saltadores de
mayor rendimiento tuvieron menor frecuencia cardiaca antes del calentamiento en etapa especial, mayor
esfuerzo mximo en el dinammetro en la competitiva
y menor diferencia en el retorno al ritmo cmodo del
tapping test en la etapa competitiva, ndices que
pueden ser utilizados como predictores de buen
rendimiento. Los saltadores de altura y longitud
mostraron menor frecuencia cardiaca inicial en etapa
especial y competitiva y mayor incremento de la misma
despus del calentamiento. Mostraron tambin mayor
diferencia en el paso del ritmo cmodo al rpido,
menor en el trnsito del cmodo al cmodo y menor en
el paso del cmodo al lento en el tapping test en la
etapa competitiva. El coeficiente de error autovalorativo de rendimiento se hace menor en los saltadores de
mayor calidad deportiva durante la etapa especial, en
los cuales se observ una tendencia al error por defecto o negativo (el atleta tiende a subvalorarse en la calidad del movimiento realizado). Por su parte, el tiempo
de concentracin de la atencin y, sobre todo, su estabilidad, se asocian al rendimiento deportivo, de modo
que pueden ser utilizados como indicadores del estado
de la forma deportiva. El anlisis de consistencia del
mdulo aplicado permite confiar en su utilidad para el
control psicolgico del entrenamiento.
Ilg, H.
Selbstmotivierung von Schlern der Sekundarstufe am Beispiel Weitsprung in einem Feldexperiment [Self-motivation of pupils of the
secondary stage of higher education using the
example of the long jump in a field experiment]
In: D. Bhmer & H. Hahmann (Eds.), Leben in Bewegung,
Niedernhausen: Schors, 1995, pp. 187-194, ISBN 388500-310-4 (Mainzer Studien zur Sportwissenschaft,
16)

3, pp. 11-13; German version in: Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 26 (17 November 1987), 34, pp. 16191621
The author discusses psychological behavior patterns
of horizontal and vertical jumpers during the preparation for their next attempt in competition. Based
on empirical data, the author examines the dependence of the jumping performance on the previous
concentration phase.
Laurent, M.; Pailhous, J.

Contribution ltude du pointage locomoteur: application au saut en longueur et au
saut dobstacle en quitation [A contribution
to the study of locomotor assessment: application to the long jump and jumping over
obstacles in horse riding]
STAPS: Science et Techniques des Activits physiques et
sportives, Grenoble, 60 (March 1982), 5, pp. 1-13
Lee, D. N.; Lishman, J. R.; Thomson, J. A.

Regulation of gait in long jumping
Journal of Experimental Psychology / Human Perception
and Performance, Washington, 8 (1982), 3, pp. 448-459
The regulation of strides in order to adapt to external conditions was examined in experienced long
jumpers. The focus was on the run-up to the take-off
board.
Lee, D.; Lishman, P.; Thompson, J.

Visual guidance in the long jump
26-30; also in: Track and Field Quarterly Review, Kalamazoo (Mich.) 83 (1983), 4, pp. 13-14
An accuracy measured start mark is obviously important if the run-up is to be as stereotyped as possible.
What should be done, however, when a normally
consistent athlete suddenly starts missing the board
by an unusually large distance? One possible remedy,
which is practiced by most athletes, is to adjust the
start mark. According to the authors, this adjustment
should not be made on the basis of the error at the
board but rather on the basis of the error soon before
the start or the gather. That is, the start mark should
be moved a distance equal to the deviation of, say,
footfall 7 from its average position, which could be
measured quite accurately by a coach watching from
the side. It is this error that the athlete has to try to
correct in the gather.
Lee, D.; Lishman, R.; Thompson, J.

Visual guidance in the long jump
pp. 17-23
Loosch, E.; Tamme, M.

Struktur des Anlaufs und Treffgenauigkeit
des Absprungbalkens im Weitsprung [Struc-
79
ture of the run-up and precision in hitting

the take-off board in the long jump]
Review of the Hungarian University of Physical Education, Budapest, 19 (1990), 7, pp. 192-198
In: D. Teipel (Ed.), Sportpsychologische Diagnostik,

Prognostik, Intervention: Bericht ber die Tagung der
Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Sportpsychologie (asp) vom
08. bis 10. Mai 1997 in Jena, Cologne: bps-Verl., 1998,
pp. 282-285, ISBN 3-922386-59-8 (Betrifft: Psychologie & Sport, 34)
Santos, J.
Speed in the horizontal jumps: muscular

properties or cognitive treatment?
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 11 (1996), 2/3, pp.
127-132
In the horizontal jumps, speed in the final phase of the
approach run undoubtedly has a definite influence of
the length of the jump. In the past, coaches have
emphasized the acquirement of a standardized
approach run of a predetermined length, which would
enable the jumper to achieve an optimum velocity,
without the restraint of having to make adjustments
to stride length or frequency. Observations of top class
jumpers have shown, however, that this conception of
the approach run as being a closed skill, does not
agree, at least in the final phase of the run-up, with
what top class jumpers actually do. The object of the
paper is to confirm that horizontal jumpers, in fact,
modify their run-ups during the final phase, by means
of visual, cognitive and proprioceptive information
and that this process has a pronounced effect on the
variability in the length of their jumps.
Montagne, G.; Cornus, S.; Glize, D.;

Quaine, F.; Laurent, M.
A perception-action coupling type of control
in long jumping
Journal of Motor Behavior, Washington, 32 (March
2000), 1, pp. 37-43
The authors goal was to identify the control mechanisms used by long jumpers (N = 6) to precisely position their foot at the board. In addition to the intertrial method usually used in previous research, an original method based on a trial-by-trial analysis was also
implemented. If the approach to the board in long
jumping encompasses two distinct sequences separated by a key step that marks the initiation of visual
control, then a trial-by-trial analysis should reveal
those sequences, regardless of the amount of adjustment. The step number at which regulation is initiated should be the same irrespective of the amount of
adjustment. If, in contrast, a perception-action coupling mechanism operates, then the step number at
which regulation is initiated should be a function of
the amount of adjustment. A linear relation between
those 2 variables should emerge. The results of the
present study are compatible with continuous control
mechanisms based on a perception-action coupling.
Perenyi, S.
80
The forming of the psychophysical state of

jumpers as reflected in competition performance (case study)
Track and Field Coaches Review, Gainesville (Fla.), 96

(1997), 1, pp. 44-47
The author gives strategic and tactical advice for
high, long and triple jumpers as well as for pole on
how to behave during competitions. This behavior
should include the consideration of the opponents
performances when developing ones own competitive strategy, finding the correct attitude to competition, as well as taking into account the external
conditions (e. g. weather) when planning ones competition strategy.
Schexnayder, I.
A different view of accuracy in the jump
approach
Track and Field Coaches Review, Gainesville (Flor.), 97
(1997), 2, pp. 9-10
For many years the only method of developing accuracy in the jump approach has been rehearsal. While
consistency through rehearsal is a worthwhile goal,
many of the problems encountered in jump competitions simply cannot be handled by establishing a
rehearsed approach run and moving checkmarks.
There has always been the jumper who hits the
board in warm-ups and cant find it during the competition, the high jumper who takes off too close to
the bar, the triple jumper who fouls by an inch, no
matter where you put the checkmark, and the
vaulter who is constantly under. A deliberate steering processes during the run-up is very important.
Although this steering process is primarily dependent upon visual sensory input, visual focus must be
taught. Horizontal jumpers and vaulters should find
the board or box as early as possible. The forward
lean present at the start of the run may not permit
seeing the board immediately, but eye contact
should be possible. The head must not drop out of
alignment to do so. Peripheral vision is a useful tool
here.
Schild, J. F. G.
Variacao da quantidade de informacoes na
performance de uma destreza motora [Variation of the amount of information and the
performance of a closed motor skill]
Santa Maria: Universidade Federal de Santa Maria,
1987, 83 pp.
The purpose of this study was to analyze the relation
among the amount of information given and the
performance of a closed motor skill (broad jump), in
the initial phase of the learning process. The theoretical reference mark was the information processing
theory which is concerned about explaining what
happens with the individual since the perception of a
stimulus until the elaboration of a more adequate
response for it.
Madella, A.
Jump competition: the strategy and the competition
Scott, M. A.; Li, F. X.; Davids, K.
Sphicas, G. P.; Ladany, S. P.
Novice-expert differences in the regulation

of the long jumping approach phase
Dynamic policies in the long jump
In: M. Audiffren & G. Minvielle (Eds.), Psychologie des

pratiques physiques et sportives: Actes du congres ...,
Poitiers: Presses de lU.F.R.A.P.S. de lUniversit de
Poitiers, 1994, pp. 197-198
Scott, M. A.; Li, F.-X.; Davids, K.

Expertise and the regulation of gait in the
approach phase of the long jump
Journal of Sports Sciences, London (Eng.), 15 (1997), 6,
pp. 597-605
In the approach phase of the long jump, athletes
attempt to strike the take-off board accurately with
minimum loss of speed, and in an optimum body position for take-off. Previous research has shown that
skilled long jumpers demonstrate an ascendingdescending trend of variability rather than a consistent pattern of foot placement over trials. The present
study examined whether non-long jumpers showed a
similar pattern of variability in football placement
between trials to skilled long jumpers. Consistency of
foot placement over trials for non-long jumpers (n =
11) was determined using a panned video camera.
Digitization of the foot position provided toe-board
distances during the run-up phase. Our results
showed that non-long jumpers have a similar pattern
of descending variability near to the take-off board
to expert long jumpers, suggesting the use of visual
regulation. However, in comparison to more skilled
subjects, non-long jumpers accumulated a considerably larger maximum mean standard deviation in
football placement between trials (58 cm). Since nonlong jumpers had no previous task-specific training,
these data extended our current understanding of the
regulation of goal-directed gait.
In the long jump event each athlete has three

attempts. An attempt results in a recorded distance if
and only if the actual take-off point is on, or in front
of, the official take-off line, and the athletes score
for the event is the maximum of the recorded distances. The decision problem of the athlete is how
close to the official take-off line he should aim in
each attempt. The problem has been modeled as the
choice of the best position of an aiming line in
front of the official take-off line. Here dynamic programming is employed to maximize expected score
for the event. In the case of independent normal distributions of the athletes take-off accuracy and
jumping ability, the optimal dynamic policy is computed and compared to stationary policies. In addition to its dependence on stage (attempts remaining)
and state (previously recorded maximum distance), it
is shown that the optimal policy depends only on a
single parameter, the ration of the variances of the
accuracy and ability distributions. Criteria other than
maximization of expected score are also discussed.
6 Medical (i.e., physiological,

traumatological, preventive,
morphological and anthropometric)
aspects of the long jump
Scott, M.
Allers, S.
Visual regulation of the long jump approach

phase
Auswirkungen intensiver sportlicher Belastung auf das obere Sprunggelenk am Beispiel

von Hoch- und Weitspringen [The effect of
intense athletic stress on the upper ankle
joint using the example of high and long
jumpers]
In: K. Davids (Ed.), Interceptive actions in sport: information and movement, New York, Routledge, 2002, pp.
326-334
In: R. E. Machol & S. P. Ladany (Eds.), Management science in sports, Amsterdam et al.: North-Holland Publ.,
1976, pp. 113-124 (North-Holland/TIMS studies in the
management sciences, 4)
Regardless of the skill level of the athlete the

approach phase of the long jump is visually regulated. Visual regulation of step length appears to be
based on the athletes perceived need for adjustment
rather than visual regulation being initiated at a specific step away from the take-off board. This explanation denotes a functional explanation for the onset of
visual regulation, harmonious with an ecological perspective on the use of perception and action processes to support behavior. Although visual regulation
occurs across all skill levels, skill differences still exist
in the level of accuracy achieved at take-off, with the
literature showing that more highly skilled athletes
achieve a greater level of accuracy in their final foot
placement. In light of this finding, it is apparent that
specific practice at the approach phase in conjunction
with the performance of a jump should improve takeoff accuracy, although this is yet to be empirically
verified over a longitudinal study.
Berlin: Univ., Diss., 1987, 98 pp.
Allers, S;
Auswirkungen intensiver sportlicher Belastung auf das obere Sprunggelenk am Beispiel
von Hoch- und Weitspringern [The effect of
intense athletic stress on the ankle joint
using the example of high and long jumping]
In: D. Bning, K. M. Braumann, M. W. Busse, N.
Maassen, W. Schmidt, Sport Rettung oder Risiko fr
die Gesundheit? 31. Deutscher Sportrztekongress,
Hannover, 1988, Cologne: Dt. rzte-Verl., 1989, pp.
908-910, ISBN 3-7691-0195-2
Intense strain in athletics results in great stress on
the skeleton. One of the consequences is a variety of
damages caused by over-exertion and multiple trau-
81
Cohen, A.
Unhappy landings: a long jump injury raises
questions about risk management
Athletic Business, Madison (Wis.), 19 (May 1995), 5, pp.
16-18
Derby, L.
Common long jump injuries
Long jumpers were surveyed to elicit information
about the most commonly occurring injuries in the
event. The author discusses the possible causal factors of these injuries and provides recommendations
as to how to avoid acute and chronic overuse
injuries.
Ferretti, A.
Epidemiology of jumpers knee
Sports Medicine, Auckland (NZ), 3 (1986), 4, pp. 289295
82
Jumpers knee is a typical functional overload injury

because it affects those athletes who submit their
knee extensor mechanisms to intense and repeated
stress, e.g. volleyball and basketball players, high and
long jumpers. According to the classification of Perugia and colleagues, it is an insertional tendinopathy
affecting, in order of frequency, the insertion of the
patellar tendon into the patella (65 of cases), attachment of the quadriceps tendon to the patella (25)
and the attachment of the patellar tendon to the tibial tuberosity (10). The frequent occurrence of this
injury in athletes led to the study of factors that may
contribute to its onset and aggravation. These factors
are divided into extrinsic (i.e. kind of sport practised
and training methods used) and intrinsic (i.e. connected with the somatic and morphological characteristics of the athletes). On the basis of our experience and after a review of the literature it appears,
contrary to what has been repeatedly claimed in the
past, the extrinsic factors are more important than
the intrinsic in the aetiology of jumpers knee. The
effect of traumatic incidents and use of elastic
kneecap guards should also be considered negligible.
The intrinsic causes of jumpers knee, can be sought
in the mechanical properties of tendons (resistance,
elasticity and extensibility) rather than in morphological or biomechanical abnormalities of the knee
extensor mechanism.
Holzmller, U.
Belastungen und Beanspruchungen des Bewegungsapparates beim Weitsprung aus medizinischer Sicht [Loads and stresses on the the
locomotor apparatus in the long jump from a
medical point of view]
Bonn: Univ., Diss., 1985, 117 pp.
Klimt, F.; Bunde, U.

Sportpdiatrische Untersuchungen beim
Weitsprung [Sports-pediatric studies of the
long jump]
Kinderarzt, Munich, 19 (1988), 11, pp. 1441-1450
Kyrolainen, H.; Finni, T.; Avela, J.; Komi, P. V.

Neuromuscular behaviour of the triceps surae
muscle-tendon complex during running and
jumping
International Journal of Sports Medicine, Stuttgart, 24
(April 2003), 3, pp. 153-155
The present study examined the behavior of the
Achilles tendon (AT) triceps surae (TS) muscle complex during running and long jump take-off. High AT
forces were measured in the push-off phase in running even with very low EMG activity. In the long
jump, high rate of stiffness development was a characteristic of the braking phase of the jump. The
results suggest that high and well-coordinated activation patterns of the leg extensor muscles during
the pre-activation and eccentric phases together
with high stretching velocities of muscle-tendon
complex provide basis for appropriate tendomuscular
stiffness. This together with high force at the end of
the eccentric phase enables an effective push-off
(concentric) phase.
Laing, A. J.; Lenehan, B.; Ali, A.; Prasad, C.

V. R.
Isolated dislocation of the proximal tibiofibular joint in a long jumper
British Journal of Sports Medicine, London, 37 (August
2003), 4, pp. 366-367
Acute traumatic proximal tibiofibular joint dislocation is an exceedingly rare injury. This is a case report
in a rare horizontal type joint variant, following a
long jump injury. The diagnostic approach when this
injury is suspected is described.
Matos, R.; Godinho, M.; Barreiros, J.

Morphological and functional constraints of
jumping distance and distance judgement
In: P. Marconnet (Ed.) et al., First annual congress, frontiers in sport science, the European perspective. May
28-31, 1996, Nice, France. Book of abstracts, Nice:
European College of Sport Science, 1996, pp. 788-789
Continuous growth in body dimensions and strength
contribute to quantitative improvements in how far
an individual can jump. The mastering of the standing
long jump is a slow coordination process that develops during childhood and adolescence. From an eco-
mas. In the athletic disciplines such as high jump and

long jump, especially the ankle-joint is being affected. In order to evaluate the bone building cartilaginous and ligamentary nature of the ankle-joint after
abnormal stress during intense jump training over a
period of several years, 50 male and female long and
high jumpers were examined clinically and radiographically. No statistically relevant damages from
overstrain were found. Considering the arthromusculary balance and early diagnosis of possible injuries
of the ankle-joint, there is no medical evidence for
contraindicating athletic training in jump disciplines.

logical perspective, there is a strong coupling between
action capabilities, morphological and functional
constraints. Several studies indicated that subjects
can adequately define their action capabilities with
little discrepancy between perceived and actual capabilities. The purpose of the present investigation was
to clarify the relationships between body dimensions,
lower limb strength, maximum standing long jump
and perceptual judgment of maximum jump distance.
Muthiah, C. M.
somatotypes, scatter of somatoplots about their mean,

or means of separate components. The overall mean
was 1.5-4.5-3.5. Fifty-nine percent were either balanced mesomorphs or ecto-mesomorphs. The event
groups did not differ in age, but high jumpers were
taller and heavier than long and triple jumpers. These
findings support the concept that somatotypes of elite
jumpers are similar regardless of difference in body
size, and reinforce previous findings of few proportional differences in the same athletes.
Physical features of Indian youth aged 12-14

years and long jump performance
Wang, J.
In: J. Terauds & G. G. Dales (Eds.), Science in athletics,

Edmonton, 1978, pp. 283-292
Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine, Beijing (P. R.

China), 5 (1986), 3, pp. 140-141, 191
One important concept influencing sport is the

extent to which the formation of constitution is
caused by inherited endowments, ethnic, social and
environmental factors. In this study, the influence of
ethnic (Hindu, Muslim and Christian), regional
(North, South, East and West India) and social (private vs normal school children) correlates on the
constitution and their relation to performance in the
long jump were investigated.
Travill, A. L.; Carter, J. E. L.

Morphological differences in male Olympic
high, long and triple jumpers
South African Journal for Research in Sport and Physical Education and Recreation, Pretoria, 16 (1993), 2, pp.
65-75
The purpose of this study was to combine selected
anthropometric data collected on 60 high, long and
triple jumpers at the Rome, Mexico City and Montreal
Olympics and to compare the three event groups in
terms of absolute size, relative size and skinfolds. High
jumpers differed from long and triple jumpers on ten
absolute measurements (p < 0.05) while long and
triple jumpers only differed on two measures. There
were fewer differences in relative size between the
three groups of jumpers. Discriminant analysis showed
that sitting height, upper and lower extremity length,
triceps skinfold, thigh girth, weight, and biiliac and
femur breadths were the best combination of variables
for distinguishing between the three groups. The findings of this study provide a more quantitative basis for
assessing physique differences between male Olympic
track and field jumpers, and thus for a better understanding of the biomechanics of performance.
[The femoral fracture in long jump]

This paper deals with three cases of long jumpers suffering from fracture of the femoral shaft. This kind of
fracture is transverse and caused by indirect force at
the landing moment. As it is a typical fracture occurring in long jumpers it is called a jumping femoral fracture. Physical examination reveals swelling with tenderness and deformity of the injured thigh. X-ray
shows a transverse fracture and angular deformity at
middle one-third femoral shaft in all cases. Two cases
were treated by open reduction and internal fixation
with Kuerschner or medullary nail, and one case was
treated by traction through the intercondylus of the
lower femur. All patients showed good results after one
year, but open reduction was better than skeletal traction. According to clinical observations, CT examination
of the femur in normal person and experiment of the
femoral shaft with fresh cadaver, the mechanism is
based on the imbalance of the body rising high into the
air, which produces both scissors stress and rotational
force at landing. During the flight the posterior muscles of the thigh are more likely to be relaxed reflectively, leaving the femoral shaft unprotected.
Woodruff, C.
Prevention of hamstring injuries in the long
jump
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide, 40 (2002), 4, pp.
12-15; also in: Track Coach, Mountain View (Calif.)
(Winter 2003), 162, pp. 5168-5170, 5187
This is a discussion of the factors responsible for
hamstring problems and suggest strategies that may
help prevent these injuries.
Travill, A. L.; Carter, J. E. L.
Somatotypes of male Olympic high, long and

triple jumpers
South African Journal for Research in Sport and Physical Education and Recreation, Pretoria, 18 (1995), 1, pp.
67-75
The purpose of this study was to compare the somatotypes of 58 male Olympic high (n = 23), long (n = 15)
and triple (n = 21) jumpers using combined samples
from three Olympic Games (1960, 1968, 1976). The
mean somatotypes were 1.4-4.5-3.7, 1.5-4.6-3.3, 1.64.7-3.2, for high, long and triple jumpers respectively.
There were no differences by event between mean
7 Womens long jump

Ai, Z. B.; Zhang, Y. Q.
[A study on the female broad jump skill characteristics of the modern world]
20 (2001), 1, pp. 31-32, 35
The analysis of the results and skill data of the female
long jumpers at the Sixth World Championships
reveals the present characteristics and developmen-
83
Azarro, E.
Problemi attuali nei salti feminili [Current
problems in the womens jumping events]
Atleticastudi, Rome, 16 (1985), 2, pp. 175-180
The author describes his coaching experiences in
the area of the womens jumping events. The following aspects are dealt with: 1. The simplicity and
variety of the training elements and training means.
2. The development of muscle strength. 3. The fundamental role of the coach in guiding the training
process.
[Research on the major velocity of university female long jumpers performance]

Journal of Chengdu Physical Education Institute,
Chengdu (P. R. China), 26 (2000), 4, pp. 52-54
The author examines the velocity of Chinese university long jumpers during the last two strides and
take-off and compares it with world-class jumpers
from other countries. The results of the comparison
show that the Chinese jumpers lose much velocity
during the last two strides and gain less vertical
velocity during the take-off. This has a negative
influence on their achievement.
Davis, S.
Azpeitia, J. J.
Long jump: Barber draws a crowd
Confrence de J. J. Aspeitia (sic) concernant

lentranement de Yago Lamela, vice-champion du Monde a Seville [Speech by J. J.
Azpeitia about the training of Yago Lamela,
runner-up in the Seville World championships]

(October 2003), 10, p. 39
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (Spring 2001), 161, pp. 37-50,

(August 2003), 8, p. 28
Ballreich, R.; Ernst, H.

Weitsprung Frauen: Biomechanische Individualanalysen [The womens long jump:
individual biomechanical analyses]
In: R. Ballreich (Ed.), Beitrge zur Biomechanik des
Sports, Schorndorf: Hofmann, 1980, pp. 71-74
(Schriftenreihe des Bundesinstituts fr
Sportwissenschaftr, 32)
Bergmann, W.
Heike Drechsler im Vergleich mit dem Nachwuchs [Heike Drechsler as compared with
young long jumpers]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 10 (1999), 10/11, pp.
32-33
Blondel, A.
Weitsprungtraining mit Heike Drechsler
[Long-jump training with Heike Drechsler]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 10 (1999), 10/11, pp.
38-41
The author describes a typical technique training
session of the world-class long jumper Heike Drechsler. The structure of the session is as follows: 1.
Short warm-up (including sprint preparation), 2.
run-up checks, 3. long jumps, 4. multiple jumps, 5.
tempo runs, 6. warm-down.
Cavero, R.
Como entreno Olga Dalmau para su record
de salto de longitud [How Olga Dalmau
(Spain) trains for her record in the long
jump]
84
Chen, C. H.
Atletismo espaol, Madrid (June 1980), 302, pp. 36-38
Highlights the performance of the womens long jump

event at the World Championships IX in Paris, France.
Davis, S.
Long jump: Upshaw moves up
Highlights of the womens long jump event at the
2003 United States Track and Field (USATF) Championships in Stanford, California.
Dong, G.
[Research on evaluating methods and standards of training level of excellent female
long-jump athlete]
Journal of Guangzhou Physical Education Institute,
Guangzhou (China), 17 (1997), 3, pp. 65-70
Dzorin, K.; Kadijski, I.

Vlijanie na fiziceskite kacestva varchu postizenieto v skoka na dalzina pri 13-14 godisni momiceta [The influence of physical
characteristics on the performance of 13 to
14-year old female long jumpers]
Vaprosi na fiziceskata Kultura, Sofia, 24 (1979), 2, pp.
80-82
Foreman, K.; Husted, V.

Long jump
In: K. Foreman & V. Husted, Track and field techniques
for girls and women (3rd ed.), Dubuque (Ia.): Wm. C.
Brown, 1977, pp. 162-176, ISBN: 0-697-07139-1
Section headings: [1] Some comments of a general
nature: the approach; takeoff; flight in air; landing.
[2] Things to remember when teaching the long jump.
[3] Teaching the long jump: Determining the jumpers
check marks; learning to lift. [4] Training schedules
for long jumpers. [5] Analysis of performance.
Glesk, P.
Womens events at the 1980 Moscow
Olympic Games long jump
tal tendencies in thw womens long jump on an

international level. Some suggestions for the training of Chinese long jumpers are also made.

(Winter 1982), 4, pp. 6-7
From the point of view of technique, the Olympic
competition in Moscow proved that efficiency is the
consequence of the quality of the following basic
elements of movement: the run-up, the take-off and
the landing. The technical elements of the flight
(such as scissors, hitch-kick and hang) are just
accompanying phenomena of less importance for
the distance achieved. Their function is to stop the
rotation which is developed at the moment of takeoff and which is more pronounced in women
because of their larger measurement in the thigh
joint. As far as the length of the run-up is concerned, the competitors used between 18 and 24
strides. The technique in the final was characterized
by maximum effort in order to achieve the greatest
leg extension during the landing, with forward
motion out the end of the pit or the jumpers buttocks landing next to where the heels broke the
sand. Jumps over 7 meters are caused by (1) an
increase in run-up speed before the take-off to over
9m/sec, (2) by shortening the take-off time to less
than 0.123 sec, and (3) by exhibiting a starting
velocity of the flight of the center of gravity of not
less than 8.5m/sec. Bardauskiene, in setting the
world record (7.07m), at the end of her run reached
a velocity of 9.62m/sec.
Hay, J. G.; Thorson, E. M.; Kippenhan, B. C.

Why have our women long jumpers been
much less successful than our men?
Track Coach, Mountain View (Calif.) (Fall 1996), 137, pp.

4374-4377
Thee is only a small amount of data available that
would permit a comparison of the techniques of top
U.S. female long jumpers with those of athletes from
other countries who are more successful at the
international level. These data indicate that U.S. athletes (a) arrive at the board with horizontal velocities that are close to the average for Olympic finalists; (b) lose less horizontal velocity during the takeoff than is average for Olympic finalists; and (c) take
off from the board with horizontal velocities that
are above-average, vertical velocities that are
below-average and angles of take-off that are
below-average, for Olympic finalists. Considered
together, these results suggest that the primary reason for the lack of success of U.S. jumpers is not a
failure to generate sufficient horizontal velocity in
the approach but rather a failure to convert an
appropriate amount of this horizontal velocity to
vertical velocity during the take-off. The purpose of
this study was to identify the characteristics of an
athletes technique that determine how much horizontal velocity is lost and how much vertical velocity is gained during the take-off in womens long
jumping.
Huang, W. S.
[An examination of the ways of improving
the results of Chinese womens broad jump]
20 (2001), 2, pp. 77-78
Through comparing and analyzing the skills of

womens broad jumpers at home and abroad, this
essay examines the methods of improving the results
of Chinese womens broad jump. The author thinks
that absolute speed, fast take off and take off movements are good ways to improve the results.
Knapp, U.
Die deutschen Weitspringerinnen im TechnikCheck [The technique of the best German
female long jumpers]
Leichtathletiktraining, Mnster, 15 (July 2004), 7, pp.
18-23
This is a comparative analysis of the technique of the
German long jumpers Bianca Kappler (6.64 m),
Sophie Krauel (6.59 m) and Sofia Schulte (6.47 m)
based on picture sequences.
Kostadinova, N.; Kadiiski, I.

[Optimal height of female athletes for maximum results in long jumping]
Treniorska mis_l, Sofia 12(6), 1978, 10-13
Li, C. S.
[Examination and evaluation of the training
level of Chinese juvenile female long jumpers]
Zhejiang Sports Science, Zhejiang (P. R. China), 20
(1998), 6, pp. 30-33
A model of evaluating the physical training of young
female long jumpers is presented.
Miller, K. D.
Long jumping for women
Athletic Journal, Evanston (Ill.), 59 (December 1978), 4,
pp. 16-18, 57
Long jumping, unlike most track and field events, is
an activity in which women of various body types
can succeed. Over the past 50 years outstanding performers have come in all shapes short, tall, stocky,
and thin but within this variation there are certain
physical attributes by which the coach identify
novice jumpers with unusual potential. Whatever the
size and figure of the candidate for the long ump,
she must have a high degree of three traits: speed,
spring, and balance.
Moore, K.
Head-to-head: Heike Drechsler vs Jackie
Joyner-Kersee
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 77 (22 July 1992), 3, pp.
66-67
No author
Long jump: Kotova repeats
(December 2002), 12, pp. 45
Provides the distances attained in various long jump
competitions by the worlds top ten women long
jumpers. Includes the top 10 long jumpers in the
United States.
85
Prause, K.-D.
Schutze, H.
Womens long jump analysis and concept of

impovement
Power for women long jumpers
The purposes of this study are a) to demonstrate

selected results of kinematic analysis of a womens
long jump competition and b) to illustrate the concept for biomechanically supported improvements of
techniques in jumping events.
This article attempts to establish empirically the

influence of single-leg multi-jumps in training on
female long jump performances.
Prause, K.-D.; Wiedner, H.
Schwirtz, A.; Fischer, B.; Baumann, W.
Erkenntnisse aus der Analyse der Wettkampftechnik von Weitspringerinnen der

Spitzenklasse [Results of the analysis of the
competition technique of female top-level
long jumpers]
Zur Anlaufgestaltung beim Weitsprung der

Frauen [On the run-up organization in the
womens long jump]

8/9, pp. 38-46
Szmekova, E.
Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 27 (1988), 45/46, pp.

1557-1560
Long jump: Canadas forgotten event
Analyza sportovniho treninku cs. skokanek do

dalky [Analysis of the training of Czech
female long jumpers]
Athletica, Vancouver (Canada), 1 (September 1974), 5,

p. 13
Trener, Bratislava, 31 (1987), 12, suppl.: Theor. Bl., pp. 116
Radcliffe, T.
This is a short history of the womens long jump in

Canada.
Samungi, A.
The training of women long jumpers of world
class from Romania
(Winter 1985) 4, pp. 6-13; French version in: Rvue de
lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris
(1985), 90, pp. 35-40
Samungi, A.
The training of women long jumpers of world
class
In: J. W. Alford & F. W. Dick (Eds.), The jumps XIII Congress of the European Athletics Coaches Association, s.
l., s. n., 1985?, pp. 45-55
86
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide (Aust.), 17(4),

October 1979, 37-38; also in: J. Jarver (Ed.), The jumps:
Contemporary theory, technique and training (2nd
ed.), Los Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1981, pp. 106-107,
under the title: Development of power for women
long jumpers; German version in: Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Berlin, 27 (December 7, 1976), 47, pp. 1737,
1740
In this paper the training process parameters of the

two athletes Anisoara Cusmis-Stanciu, world-record
holder (7.43m) and Olympic champion (1984), and
Vali Ionescu, European champion and Olympic silver
medallist, as advised by their respective coaches
(main control tests dynamic results progress 19821984, main training means used during the winter
preparation period (January), main training means
used during the competition period in summer
(August), succession of main tasks in weekly training
cycles, example of a weekly cycle for February 1983
when Cusmis-Stanciu set a new world indoor record
of 6.92m, training cycle before winning the Olympic
title at Los Angeles, from July 30 to August 9, 1984,
planning documents used by coach Ioan Moroiu,
some characteristics of the modern technique and
training).
Wang-Qing
[Inspection and evaluation on the body building level of the Chinese elite women long
jumpers]
Chinese Sports Science and Technology, Beijing (P. R.
China) (1991), 5, pp. 8-16
Based on the results of 13 tests among more than 30
elite women long jumpers a reference model for
evaluating the fitness level of elite female long
jumpers as well as a test model for inspecting their
body building level is developed.
Yushkevich, T.; Mikhalenya, V.; Maistruk,

A.; Kroiter, N.
Pryzhok v dlinu dlya devushok uchebnotrenirovochnykh grupp (2-i god obucheniya)
[Coaching long jumping to young girls: the
second year of the training program]
Legkaja Atletika, Moscow (October 1982), 10, pp. 20-22
Yushkevics, T.
Long jump training for girls
Modern Athlete and Coach, Adelaide 21 (1983), 3, pp.
28-31
The author presents a training plan, designed for 14to 15-year-old girls who are expected to specialize in
the long jump, covers the development of movement
agility, improvement in physical development and
the learning of basic running and jumping techniques.
In: G.-P. Brggemann & J. K. Rhl (eds.), Techniques in

athletics The first international conference Cologne,
7-9 June 1990. Conference proceedings. Volume 2:
Main conference, free communication sessions,
Cologne: Strau, 1990, pp. 714-719
8 Interviews with and profiles

of prominent long jumpers
Championships medals in his collection, Ivan

Pedroso is the master of the long jump
Athletics, North York (Ont.) (August 2002), pp. 26-27
Albom, M.
This man can fly: Carl Lewis has two very
simple goals: he merely wants to run faster
and jump farther than any human ever has
Sport, 73 (October 1982), 10, pp. 59-62, 64-65
Beamon, B.
A giant leap of faith: Bob Beamon
Sydney Morning Herald. Good Weekend, Sydney (Aust.)
(2 September 2000), pp. 46-47, 49-50, 53-54
Brown, R.
Leapin Lewis: track and field star Carl Lewis
doesnt care what the media say about him;
his personal life and athletic performance are
his priorities
Sports People, Toronto, 5 (May 1985), 5, pp. 14-17
Butler, M.
Sights set on Edinburgh: John King interviewed
Athletics Weekly, Rochester (Eng.), 40 (3 May 1986), 18,
pp. 32-37
Geringer, D.
A better deal this time? Carl Lewis hopes to
add to his 1984 haul of four gold medals
while shucking the image problems that
reduced his market value
Sports Illustrated, New York, 69 (14 September 1988),
12, pp. 22-29
Gibson, L.
Jumpin Ji(ve): jumping Jai Taurima leapt
into the hearts of the Australian public after
taking long jump silver at last years
Olympic Games. Lucy Gibson met the charismatic Queenslander to discover how much
his life has changed since that dramatic
night in Sydney
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 55 (11 April
2001), 15, pp. 24-25
Gillingham, M.
Cazeneuve, B.
Tokyo target: with three efforts over 8.00

already this season Mark Forsysthe is within
striking distance of Lynn Davies 23 year-old
UK long jump record. And what could be a
more appropriate place to better 8.23 than
Tokyo the scene of Davies Olympic triumph? Martin Gillingham reports
Mike Powell, long jumper September 9, 1991.
Athletics Today, 5 (August 1, 1991), 31, pp. 24-26
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 100 (9 February 2004), 5,

p. 12
Haines, P. J.; Mason, J.
Cazeneuve, B.
A giant leap for mankind
Olympian, Colorado Springs (Colo.) 18 (November
1991), 3, pp. 10-14
Brian Cazeneuve profiles Mike Powell, world record

holder in the long jump. Powell retired in 1997 and is
getting back into shape to attempt to qualify for the
Olympic trials.
Crothers, T.; Garrity, J.
Carol Lewis: emerging from Carls shadow

Olympian, Colorado Springs (Colo.), 9 (October 1982),
4, pp. 8-9
Hall, B.
Carl Lewis
Long jump: Phillips wins on infrequent

tiebreaker
In: T. Crothers (Ed.), Greatest athletes of the 20th century, New York: Bishop Books, 1999, pp. 62-67

(August 2003), 8, p. 17
Ferstle, J.
Marions back ... on the front
Profile of Milan Matos, the coach behind Cuban

long jump champion, Ivan Pedroso.
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 54 (5 April

2000), 14, pp. 12-15
Frank, B.
Jos jumping for joy
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 53 (2 June
1999), 22, pp. 26-29
Garela, A. M.
The dynamo that drives: with eight World
This article deals with the highlights of the mens

long jump event at the 2003 United States Track
and Field (USATF) Championships in Stanford, California.
Hedman, J.
Long jump: Goulbourne again
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 56 (July
2003), 7, p. 25
Highlights the womens long jump event and the
winning performance of Elva Goulbourne at the
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Championships in Sacramento, California.
87
Hendershott, J.
Hurst, M.
Athlete of the year. Carl Lewis: more in

84
Carl Lewis
Hendershott, J.
Dont talk about it do it: quiet and confident, long jump star Larry Myricks believes
in deeds, not words
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 34 (April
1981), 3, pp. 58-59
Hendershott, J.
Heike Drechsler: athlete of the year
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 46 (February 1993), 2, pp. 8-9, 71
Hendershott, J.
Interview: Arnie Robinson
(October 1976), 9, pp. 17-18
Hendershott, J.
Mike Powell
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 48 (May
1995), 5, pp. 48-51
Hendershott, J.
Room at the top: a repeat season as
Womens Athlete Of The Year turned Marion Jones into the biggest name in the sport
(1999), 1, pp. 31, 34
Hendershott, J.
T & FN interview: Dwight Phillips
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 57 (January 2004), 1, pp. 24-25
Interview with long jumper Dwight Phillips on his
emotions during competition, his style of coming
from behind to win gold, the hardest aspect of
training, how his family motivates him and what he
likes to do outside of track.
Henderson, J.
Jumping Jonathan: only 17, Jonathan Moore
topped the UK senior rankings this year in
his second best event. Jason Henderson
spoke to one of Britains brightest junior
talents
December 2001), 50, pp. 14-15
Hommel, H.
Heike Drechsler and Erich Drechsler
88
New Studies in Athletics, Monaco, 9 (December 1994),

4, pp. 25-27
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 47 (April

1994), 4, pp. 56-57, 62
Jensen, A.
Jumpers Pate and Stringfellow: a study in
contrasts
(March 2003), 3, p. 38
Describes the contrasting personalities of 2 top long
jumpers Savante Stringfellow and Miguel Pate.
Jensen, A.
Long jump: Sands wins late
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 56 (July
2003), 7, p. 15
Highlights the mens long jump event at the
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Championships in Sacramento, California.
Johnson, D.
Carl Lewis: life in the fast lane
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 35 (January 1983), 102, pp. 4-7, 9
Johnson, D.
U. S. athlete of the year: Lewis runs & jumps
to the top
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.) 34 (January 1982), 12, pp. 74-75
Landells, S.
Hanging in there: what he currently lacks in
technique international long jumper Chris
Tomlinson makes up for in blood, sweat and
tears. Long-term he cites the UK record as
a goal but right now he is eyeing Manchester and the Commonwealth Games, as he
told Steve Landells
December 2001), 49, pp. 18-21
Interview with English long jumper Chris Tomlinson.
Landells, S.
Into the big time: long jumper Jade Johnson
made a huge impact in 2002 with silver
medals in Manchester and Munich
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 57 (1 January 2003), 1, pp. 14-15
Jumping Jade talks about everything from quiz
shows to babies and the London Olympic bid.
Landells, S.
The Stanley success story: he has helped
develop Jonathan Edwards into a global
superstar and has guided British long jump
record-holder Chris Tomlinson to the verge
of international recognition. Steve Landells
Track and Field News, Mountain View (Calif.), 36 (January 1984), 12, pp. 9-10
looks at the quiet success story which is

North East-based jumps coach Peter Stanley
2002), 26, p. 15
A biographical article relating the story behind
Peter Stanleys entry into coaching and his success
at developing international athletes.
Layden, T.
The fast lane: Marion Jones is the best
female sprinter on the planet, a rising star in
the long jump and world-class point guard
and she hasnt even hit her stride yet
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 88 (29 June 1998), 26,
pp. 72-78
Lewis, R.
No jaded lady: Jade Johnson has come a long
way since her primary school sprint successes in Liverpool. Now training under John
Herbert in London, the European under-23
long jump champion tells Richard Lewis
about how she plans to fulfill her Olympic
dream in Athens
November 2001), 46, pp. 22-25
Interview with long jumper Jade Johnson of England.
Liguori, A.
Mike Powells coach, Randy Huntington, believes

strongly, as does Powell, in the soundness of his
methods. The initial start of my training for long
jump came from [renowned retired Oregon coach]
Bill Bowerman and his method of determining
rhythm, Huntington says. Theres nothing new. All
of the elements of Mikes jumping are available in
any number of textbooks.
Macleod, I.
Heike Drechsler: Iain Macleod features the
new generation of East German athletes;
this week looking at the worlds best ever
woman long jumper
Athletics Weekly, Rochester (Eng.), 40 (29 November
1986), 48, pp. 36-38, 40-44
Martini, M.
[Virgilio Tommasi: Italian long-jumper]
Atletica, Rome, 44 (May 1978), 5, pp. 34-35
Montville, L.
Back to earth: Marion Joness heralded
quest for five gold medals ended with surprisingly little fanfare when she came up
short in the long jump
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 93 (18 October 2000),
16, pp. 78-79
Moore, K.
Going for more than gold: Carl Lewis is

proud of his four medals, but he longs to be
a singer or actor, to elevate himself to the
rare level of a Michael Jackson
Great leap forward: Mike Powell broke Bob

Beamons storied long jump record
Inside Sports, Evanston (Ill.) (7 August 1985), 4, pp.

50-54
Morrell, L.
Lilot, D.
Athens GP: tired Phillips PRs at 27-8 1/2
(August 2003), 8, p. 41
Profiles long jumper Dwight Phillips and includes
his personal record in the long jump at the Athens
Grand Prix track and field meet. Dwight comments
on his training and what he does with his spare
time.
Lilot, D.
Upshaw now No. 1
(March 1992), 3, pp. 56-57

(August 2003), 8, p. 29
Profiles Grace Upshaw, her past successes in long
jump and her 1st place finish in the womens long
jump at the 2003 United States Track and Field
(USATF) Championships in Stanford, California.
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 75 (9 September 1991),

11, pp. 14-19
Cleared for take-off: Nathan Morgan has

firmly established himself as Britains number one long jumper but hes becoming
weary of two things: one, having Lynn
Davies UK record shoved down his throat
and two, lack of lottery support. Liz Morrell
met the man who believes he can make it to
the top
2001), 24, pp. 18-20
Newman, B.
At long last: for Mike Powell, the man who
broke Bob Beamons long jump record,
becoming a sudden hero required years of
perseverance
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 75 (16 September
1991), 12, pp. 36-39
Lindstrom, S.
Nightingale, D.
The coach behind Powell
Carl Lewis: all this superman is trying to do

is to be the best that he can be
89
Sporting News, St. Louis, 198 (30 July 1984), 5, pp. 3, 11
Phillips, B.
No author
A Jackie of all trades

(December 2003), 12, p. 47
Provides the womens top 10 world rankings in the
long jump including the top results of various competitions. United States rankings in the womens long
jump are also included.
No author
Mary Rand, who put Olympic Gold in Golden Girl
August 2003), 34, p. 66
Profile of Mary Rand, the Golden Girl of British athletics, who broke the world and won Olympic Gold
for the long jump in Tokyo in 1964.
No author
Profile: Ian James
1982), 16, pp. 17-18
No author
This is an interview with Jackie-Joyner Kersee, who

won two gold medals at the Seoul Olymopics in
1988.
Pickford, M.
Longing to fly: Shermin Oksuz
Australian Athlete, Hawthorn (Vic.), 21
(September/October 2001), 3, pp. 14-15
Pileggi, S.
Going to great lengths: long jumping is a
Lewis family affair Carl holds the world
indoor record and Carol holds the U.S. girls
junior mark
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 54 (1 June 1981), 23, pp.
74-78, 80, 82, 85, 88
Rosenthal, B.
More focused, confident, Mike Powell eyes
30 feet
Profile: Karen Nelson
American Athletics, Los Altos (Calif.), 5 (Spring 1993), 1,

pp. 88-90

1982), 16, pp. 15-16
Smith, C.
No author
Profile: Nicole Ali
1982), 16, pp. 19-20
No author
Michael Johnson
Athletics, Toronto (Ont.) (March/April 2004), p. 5
The author describes Michael Johnsons quest to
make the sport of track and field more appealing to
the spectator. Describes how the measurement rules
in long jump can be changed.
TFN interview: Larry Myricks
Smith, G.
Track and Field News, Los Altos (Calif.), 40 (April 1987),

4, pp. 10-12, 14
I do what I want to do (Carl Lewis)
Noden, M.
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 61 (18 July 1984), 4, p.

22-26, 29-30, 32, 34, 36-39
Sports people: Carl Lewis
Srebnitsky, A.
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 80 (30 May 1994), 21,

pp. 62-63
In the steps of Igor ... a profile of Robert

Emmiyan the greatest Soviet long jumper
since Ter-Ovanesyan
Noden, M.
Sports people: Marion Jones
Sports Illustrated, Los Angeles, 79 (2 August 1993), 5, p.
54
Athletics Weekly, Rochester (Eng.), 40 (21 June 1986),

25, pp. 23-25
Ward, T.
Jim Buchanan: highlights of a brief but outstanding career
Immortal jumping: in Sydney she became the

first woman in history to win two Olympic
long jumps after her success in Barcelona in
1992. Just two high points in a career which
took off in 1983 when she won the first
world long jump title at 18 a feat she
repeated in 1994. Tony Ward profiles the
amazing Heike Drechsler
Ontario Athletics, 8 (December 1977/January 1978), pp.

14-15
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England), 54 (6 December 2000), 49, pp. 18-20
Pachovsky, G.
Ian James: a profile of the 1991 Canadian
champion in the long jump
Athletics, Willowdale (Ont.) (January 1992), pp. 20-22
Pachovsky, G.
90
Scholastic Coach, New York, 58 (April 1989), 9, pp. 7476, 78-80
Long jump: Barbers backup
Watman, M.
Carl Lewis: a curiously unappreciated champion
Athletics Weekly, Kent (Eng.) (11 January 1986), 51, pp.
12-18, 20-21
Wiley, R.
Jumping for joy: Larry Myricks, aiming for his
fourth Olympic team and first medal
jumps mostly for himself
Sports Illustrated, New York, 69 (18 July 1988), 3, pp.
39, 42, 44
Section headings: [1] Learning to long jump; [2]

Approach run; [3] Technique in the air; [4] Long
jump styles (The sail; The hang; The stride jump; The
hitch kick); [5] Summary. This chapter also includes
six photo sequences showing: [1] the preparation
for take-off, where the hips sink lower than in the
normal sprinting stride; [2] the drive of the takeoff leg and the free leg, [3] the legs continuing
through and the heels being pushed forwards for a
good leg shoot; [4] the hang style of long jumping ([a] the sprinting action on the runway, [b] the
take-off preparation, [c] the hang shape and the
preparation for landing).
Arnold, M.
Long jump
London: British Amateur Athletic Board, 1987, 57 pp.
9 Comprehensive and general articles

about the long jump
Adams, G.
Trends in the horizontal jumps
pp. 4-5; (September 1982), 3, pp. 14-15; (December
1982), 4, pp. 14-15; 17 (March 1983), 1, pp. 14-15
This four-part article deals with the following
trends in the horizontal jumps: 1. The trend towards
the standardisation of a basic technical model for
schoolchildren. 2. The trend towards the establishment of regular talent and performance assessment
tests. 3. The trend towards the training and development of event specifics. 4. The trend towards
underemphasizing the various flight techniques.
Alford, J.; Gambetta, V.; Ballesteros, J.

M.; MacWilliam, T.; Lopez, V.; Jarver, J.;
Dick, F.; Pfaff, D.; Hay, J.; Sanderson, L.
NSA round table 19: horizontal jumps
New Studies in Athletics, London, 8 (March 1993), 1,

pp. 17-28
Questions dealt with: 1) What are your views on
the most effective methods of obtaining optimum
height/take-off angle with minimal loss of horizontal velocity in the long jump? 2) What methods
have you found most successful in developing an
accurate foot placement on the take-off board for
the horizontal jumps? 3) Have you any definite
views on the best way to begin the run-up for the
horizontal jumps? 4) Do you consider that a double
arm action is a viable proposition for the take-off
for the first (hop) phase in the triple jump? 5) From
your experience (or observation of the womens
triple jump, what differences have you noted, in
technique or in training methods, between the
womens and the mens event?
Arnold, M.
The long jump
In: M. Arnold, Jumping, Ramsbury: Crowood Pr., 1986,
pp. 43-49
Chapter heading: 1. History of the long jump. 2.

The rules of long jumping. 3. Biomechanical fundamentals. 4. The technique of long jumping. 5.
Teaching the long jump. 6. Training for the long
jump. Appendix 1: Examples of training schedules.
Appendix 2: Control tests for jumpers. Appendix 3:
Statistics.
Arnold, M.
Make it a leap year
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England) (7 July
1993), pp. 40-41
Australian Track and Field Coaches Association

The long jump
In: Australian Track and Field Coaches Association in
association with Rothmans Foundation National
Sport Division & J. Jarver (Ed.): Track and field coaching manual (5th ed.), 1991, pp. 114-123
Main section headings: [1] The basic technical
model. [2] Teaching sequence single stride jump. [3]
Advances on the basic technical model. [4] Event
specific drills and activities. [5] Coaching the long
jump. [6] Safety factors and facilities.
Bell, S.
The long jump
Track and Field Coaches Review, Gainesville (Flor.), 72
(1999), 4, pp. 20-21
The long jumper should be an athlete with sprint
speed with the rhythmic stride pattern of a hurdler,
and the spring of a high jumper. Even through the
event seems simple on the surface, as you look at
it, there are several intricate parts to the event
which must be mastered if excellence is to be
achieved. There are some basic things a jumper
must accomplish to achieve success. The first of
these is reach the take off board with maximum
controllable velocity and be in a position to convert that velocity into off the board. The second,
which is really part of the first, is to lift the center
of gravity off the board and establish a parabola
which will afford the greatest distance for the time
in the air. The third ingredient is an ability to stop
forward rotation so that at the time of landing, the
91
Track and field: broad jump

Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare,
1963, 20 pp.
Canada Ministre de la sant nationale

et du bien tre social Service de laptitude physique
Berenbom, J.
Saut en longueur [Long jump]
Long jump: just jumpin in the rain
Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare,

1954, 23 pp.

(October 2003), 10, p. 23
The author highlights the mens long jump event at
the World Championships IX in Paris, France.
Boosey, D.
The long jump
In: D. Boosey, The jumps: Conditioning and technical
training, West Heidelberg (Vict.): Beatrice Publ., 1981
(2nd printing), pp. 94-104
The author deals with the following aspects of the
long jump: [1] Regulations. [2] The technique (the
approach run: length of the approach run and
speed, the beginning of the approach and check
marks, change in rhythm in the final strides to
take-off, foot plant at take-off, the phase of amortization, the active take-off, swinging movements
at take-off, the arms). [3] Flight phase in the long
jump (rotation; the sail; the Hang (hollow-back
technique); the hitch-kick (walk in the air technique). [4] Landing (the side-fall landing technique). [5] Bob Beamons phenomenal jump in
Mexico, 1968. [6] Long jump technical training (the
approach run; the take-off; the flight (hitch-kick).
Bresnahan, G. T., Tuttle, W. W. & Cretzmeyer, F.X.

The running broad jump
In: G. T. Bresnahan, W. W. Tuttle & F. X. Cretzmeyer,
Track and field athletics (6th ed.), Saint Louis: Mosby,
1964, pp. 190-213
This chapter has the following main section headings: [1] General considerations (comparative
marks in competition; equipment; qualifications;
objectives). [2] Technique of the running broad
jump (approach; take-off; flight; landing). [3]
Common errors in the running broad jump (in the
warm-up; in the take-off; in the run; in the flight;
in the landing). [4] Daily schedules of practice.
Brown, A.
Texas Coach, Austin (Tex.), 42 (February 1998), 6, pp.
40-41
92
Canada Department of National Health

and Welfare Fitness and Amateur Sport
Directorate
Cretzmeyer, F. X., Alley, L. E. & Tipton, C.

M.
The long jump
In: F. X. Cretzmeyer, L. E. Alley & C. M. Tipton, Track
and field athletics, Saint Louis: Mosby, 1974, pp. 132148
Section headings: [1] General considerations. [2]
Technique of the long jump (approach, take-off,
flight, landing). [3] Common errors in the long
jump (in the warm-up, the the run, in the take-off,
in the flight, in the landing). [4] Daily schedules of
practice.
Davidson, R.
The jumps
Texas Coach, Austin (Tex.), 27 (November 1983), 3, pp.
38-39, 41-43
Dick, F.
Horizontal jumps
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Kalamazoo (Mich.),
78 (1978), 2, pp. 60-61
This is an overview of kinesiological and muscular
aspects of the horizontal jumps as well as of discipline-relevant aspects of motor learning, conditioning training and technique (technical model).
Dickwach, H.; Wiedner, H.

Weitsprung [Long jump]
In: H. Dickwach et al., Leichtathletik Sprung: Analysen und Empfehlungen fr die Disziplinen
Hochsprung, Stabhochsprung, Weitsprung und Dreisprung, Berlin: Sportverl., 1991, pp. 72-91
Main section headings: [1] Characteristics of the
movement process. [2] Movement processes of
selected athletes (Beamon (USA), H. Drechsler
(GDR)). [3] Technical errors and their correction. [4]
Organization of training for the refinement of
technique. [6] Event-specific performance prerequisites.
Doherty, K.
Butler, M.; Cocksedge, D.
The long jump
Long jump
In: K. Doherty, Track and field omnibook (4th ed. rev.

and updated). Los Altos, Calif.: Tafnews Press, 1985,
pp. 167-182

March 1997), 12, pp. 6-11
jumper will be able to extend the legs beyond the

established parabola and pull himself through so
the buttocks do not land behind the spot where his
extended legs have broken the sand. This seems
simple enough but can be very frustrating to
accomplish. The problem then becomes one of
teaching the skills necessary to achieve the maximum potential of the athlete involved. How is this
done? At Indiana, they try to break the event down
into component parts and work on those parts one
at a time.

Main section headings: [1] A summary history of
performance and technique. [2] Essentials of technique (the run; the take-off; action in the air; the
landing). [3] Prevention of injury in the long jump.
[4] The organization of training.
Fawcett, L. J.
Long jump
Texas Coach, Austin (Tex.), 24 (February 1981), 6, pp.
30-32, 66
Flouret, J.
Le saut en longueur [The long jump]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (November 1988), 108, pp. 39-40
Geczy, A.
Calgary: Amateur Athletic Union of Canada Alberta
Branch (AAU of Canada), 1967, 20 pp.
Havlicek, I.
Dynamika struktury sportoveho vykonu v
skoku do dialky z hladiska pohybovych
schopnosti [Dynamics of the structure of
sport performance in broad jumping from
the point of view of motor abilities]
Teorie a Praxe telesne Vychovy, Prague, 23 (1975), 7,
pp. 414-426
Henson, P.
Long jump technique and training

93 (Winter 1993), 4, pp. 9-10
Success in the long jump is determined by several
important factors: (1) Athletic ability: The horizontal jumper is one of the best natural athletes on the
team, often excelling in other events including the
sprints and the hurdles. (2) Speed: The horizontal
jumper must possess great natural speed in order to
generate a very fast controlled approach. This
probably the single most important factor in the
long jump. (3) Strength-power: Since power is
strength divided by time, these factors are closely
related to each other and to sprinting speed. (4)
Agility-coordination: long jumping is not a single
effort, but is a composite of several actions requiring precise coordination. (5) Durability: Because of
the large forces involved, long jumping places great
stress on the muscles and joints. (6) Determination:
The long jump is much more complex than most
realize and the perfection of technique often
requires years of practice and training. Only the
most dedicated ever achieve their true potential.
Hilliard, C.; Pfaff, D.; Boas, J.; Bourne, G.

Round table: horizontal jumps
2003), 3, pp. 7-12; also in: Track Coach, Mountain
View (Calif.) (Winter 2004), 166, pp. 5305-5309
Four expert coaches from Australia and America
shed light on training and conditioning approach-
es for the horizontal jumps. The following questions are given answers to: [1] Which are the most
important physical qualities to be developed in
horizontal jumpers and in what priority? [2] What
field tests do you employ on a regular basis and
which tests do you find most beneficial as expressions of jumping preparedness? [3] How do you
view the importance of biomechanics and technological aids as a coaching tool. Specifically, what
measures do you utilize to assist in the coaching
process and the athletes understanding of their
event? [4] What is your philosophy on weight
training and its relative merit in the training
process? What types of special strength exercises
would you utilize to augment the various phases of
training? [5] Visual control during the final phase
of the run-up is paramount to successful jumping.
How do you coach or influence the steering
process of the athlete? What strategies or practices do you employ in developing a consistent
approach run? [6] Despite the physical differences
that exist between male and female triple jumpers,
do you believe they can be trained the same way
with regard to the types of training units and
respective loadings?
Jarver, J.
The long jump
In: F. Wilt & T. Ecker (Eds.), International track and
field encyclopedia, West Nyack (N. Y.): Parker Publishing Company, 1970, pp. 166-198
Section headings: [1] The run-up (length; uniformity; last strides). [2] The takeoff (velocity at the
takeoff; takeoff action; takeoff angle; the landing;
the flight, the sail; the hang; the hitch-kick;
detailed analysis of the hitch-kick). [3] Training
(general; speed; power; other factors). [4] Training
in detail (the yearly plan; active rest; foundation
phase; preparation phase; competitive phase; distribution of work in each phase).
Jarver, J.
Long jump in a nutshell
technique and training (2nd ed.), Los Altos, Calif.:
This is a short introduction to the basic mechanical
principles of the long jump, how they are applied
to the actual performance and the main training
methods employed.
Johnson, C.
Long jump
In: C. Johnson, Field athletics, East Ardsley: EP Publ.,
1982, pp. 23-31
Section heading: [1] Safety; [2] Equipment; [3]
Approach run; [4] Preparing for take-off; [5] Takeoff; [6] Off the ground; [7] Landing; [8] Aids to
training; [9] Learning.
Jonath, U.; Krempel, R.; Haag, E.; Mller,

H.
Der Weitsprung [The long jump]
93
This is a comprehensive overview of the technique,

teaching and training of the long jump. The article
includes a photo sequence of an 8.56m jump by
Carl Lewis (USA).
Jones, A. S.
Track athletics: broad jump
Boston: Small, Maynard and Co, 1912, 6 pp.
Kay, D.
Long jump (4th ed.)
London: British Amateur Athletic Board, 1987, 57 pp.
Chapter headings: [1] Rules. [2] Technique (the
run-up; the take-off; the flight). [3] Training. [4]
Aids to competition. [5] Class teaching. [6] Jumping
decathlon tables.
Lancaster, J.
Long jump
93 (Winter 1993), 4, pp. 5-8
This article deals with basic concepts of the long
jump, mechanics and training, bounding teaching
progressions, coaching strategies, safety aspects,
key elements for the athlete, and guidelines relevant to long jump coaching.
Lees, A.
Full speed ahead
Athletics Weekly, Peterborough (England) (7 July
1993), p. 42
No author
The long jump
In: F. Wilt (Ed.), The jumps: Contemporary theory,
technique and training, Los Altos, Calif.: Tafnews
Press, 1972, pp. 96-106, ISBN: 0-911520-35-X
The following aspects are dealt with: [1] The
approach: Length of the approach-run and speed;
the start and acceleration in the approach; check
marks. [2] Take-off: Planting the take-off foot;
putting down the take-off foot; the preparation
phase; the active take-off. [3] The flight and landing: Hollow-back technique (hang style); the walkin-air style. [4] Special preparation: Technical
instruction; basic exercises in order to develop the
step method; supplementary exercises.
No author
Saut en longueur [The long jump]
Quebec: Editeur officiel du Quebec, 1974, 24 pp.
No author
Long jump: goes 1-2-3
(December 2002), 12, p. 26
Provides the jumping distances attained in various
competitions by the worlds top 10 long jumpers.
Includes the top 10 long jumpers in the United
States.
Paish, W.
Letzelter, H.
The long jump
Zusammenhang von Weit- und Dreisprungleistungen [The relationship between long

jump and triple jump performances]
In: W. Paish, Track and field athletics, London: Lepus

Books, 1976, pp. 114-128
Leichtathletik-Magazin, Ahrensbk, 3 (1983), 47,

Lehrbeilage, 84, pp. 21, 24; 48, Lehrbeilage, 85, p. 26
Locatelli, E.; Astrua, M.; Bernaschi, A.;

Cauz, U.; Cavalli, E.; Pitoni, G.
I salti [Jumps]
Atleticastudi, Rome, 14 (September/October 1983), 5,
pp. 92-186
Locatelli, E.; Astrua, M.; Cauz, U.;

Bernaschi, A.; Cavalli, E.
I salti [The jumps]
Atleticastudi, Rome, 15 (July/August 1984), 4, pp.
302-383
May, W.
High school long jumping
78 (1978), 2, pp. 9-10
94
the four phases of the long jump (approach, takeoff, flight, and landing) (4) the work program for
long jumpers, and (5) the behavior of long jumpers
during competition.
The author gives an overview of (1) important factors in long jumping (speed, power, endurance,
confidence) (2) selecting long jump prospects, (3)
This chapter deals with the technique and teaching of the long jump. Two sections of the chapter
focus on the coaching and training of top-class
performers.
Payne, R.; Payne, H.

Long jump
In: R. Payne & H. Payne, The science of track and field
athletics, London: Pelham, 1981, pp. 306-314
This chapter is a description of the technique and
training of the long jump. Included is also a photo
sequence of jumps by Sue Reeve (GB) and the
decathlete Daley Thompson (GB).
Prost, R.
Le saut en longueur [The long jump]
In: M. Houvion, R. Prost & H. Raffin Peyloz, Trait
dathltisme: les sauts (2e ed.), Paris: Vigot, 1982, pp.
125-176
This chapter covers the technique, teaching, and
training of the long jump.
Real Federacion de Atletismo

Longitud y triple [Long jump and triple
In: U. Jonath, R. Krempel, E. Haag & H. Mller, Leichtathletik 2: Springen, Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1995, pp. 97169
jump]
Madrid: ENE, 1987, 107 pp.
Robison, C. F., Jensen, C. R., James, S. W.

& Hirschi, W. M.
Long jump
In: C. F. Robison, C. R. Jensen, S. W. James & W. M.
Hirschi, Modern techniques of track and field,
Philadelphia, Pa.: Lea & Febiger, 1974, pp. 163-176
Chapter headings: (1) Procedure. (2) Long jump
technique (approach; gather and takeoff; action in
the air; landing). (3) Application of scientific principles. (4) Common faults and how to correct them.
(5) The training schedule (summer; fall; winter;
spring (early and middle portion); late spring (MayJune). (6) Conditioning exercises.
Rometta, L.
Considerazioni sulla specialita del salto in
lungo [Observations on the long jump]
Boy Sport (January-March 1988), 1, pp. 2-4
The main phases of the long jump are described
(run up, take off, flight and landing). Finally a
sequence of specific drills is suggested.
Ryan, F.; Hall, E. T.
Singh, J.
High hurdles and broad jump (the step sisters)
Society for the National Institutes of Physical Education and Sports Journal, 2 (April 1979), 2, pp. 3-7
Smith, C.
Jump for joy
Athletics, North York (Ont.) (October/November 1998),
pp. 33-35
Jumping for joy
Strmer, I.
New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1980, 59 pp.
Weitsprung (2. Aufl.) [The long jump (2nd

ed.)]
Schiffer, J.; Hommel, H.

The XVIIth Congress of the European Athletics Coaches Association the jumping
events: part 2
New Studies in Athletics, London, 8 (September
1993), 3, pp. 91-110; German version in: Die Lehre der
Leichtathletik, 32 (March 25, 1993), 7, pp. 15, 17-18;
(April 1, 1993), 8, p. 18; (April 8, 1993), 9, p. 17
This congress report includes the following contributions dealing with the long jump: 1. Sprinting
speed as a basis of the mens long jump (E. Locatelli). 2. Details and results of diagnostic methods
used in training to enhance the jumping ability of
Heike Drechsler (H. Dickwach in cooperation with E.
Drechsler and B. Perlt). 3. Generating vertical velocity in the long jump (A. Lees). 4. Report on the long
jump workshop (H. Kyrlinen).
Schmidt, G.
This book includes a chapter on the long jump (pp.

228-251) dealing with the following topics: [1]
technique (approach, take-off, the flight and the
landing, the stride long jump, the hang style, the
hitch-kick), [2] technical training (special
preparatory exercises, basic exercises of technical
training, basic exercises for learning the stride
long jump (squat jump), basic exercises for learning the skills of the hitch-kick, basic exercises for
learning the hang-style technique, ancillary exercises, fault reason correction, [3] physical
requirements and training methods for improving
performance in the long and triple jumps (the
importance of physical condition, means for
developing physical properties).
Emden: Strmer, 1983, 104 pp.
Teel, B.
Long jump
In: V. Gambetta (Ed.), Track and field coaching manual, West Point, N.Y.: Leisure Press, 1981, pp. 155-165
The long jump is one of the most simple and natural events in track and field. Despite its apparent
simplicity, a great deal of skill and conditioning is
required to run full speed down a runway, consistently hit an eight inch board, and take off and
land. For this reason it is imperative that the coach
and athlete treat the long jump as a technique skill
that can be improved only through proper training
and conditioning.
Teel, B.
Long jump
Some aspects of the long jump
Track and Field Quarterly Review, Kalamazoo (Mich.)

83 (1983), 4, pp. 11-13

Tafnews Press, 1988, pp. 97-99; German version in:
1603-1606
The author describes the technique of the

long jump (run-up, take-off, flight and
landing phase) and gives hints on the
methodology of beginner training.
The author discusses aspects of the technique, conditioning and planning of training in the long
jump.
Schmolinsky, G. (ed.)
Track and field (2nd rev. ed.)
Berlin: Sportverl., 1983, 416 pp.
Temple, M. A.
Horizontal jumps and the official
1982), 16, pp. 13-14
Tooth, G.; Wiebaut, F.; Smart, A.; Calder,
95
A symphony for long jump

Sports Factor (Aust.) (5 Oct 2001), URL:
http://www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2001/sportsf/s38
3636.htm
A sizzling sprint on the track and a stunning violin
solo have a lot in common. Both are feats of athleticism which share a particular psychology. For
instance physical effort required to complete a
particularly difficult piano concerto is the equivalent of shifting two tons of weight in 25 minutes.
In an attempt to explore these correlations some
of our Olympians have got together with some of
our best musicians to see how they can enhance
each others performances. One of the first
requests is for music composed to match athletic
events like long jump! We hear from both musicians and athletes excited by the prospect of
working with one another over the next couple of
years in a formal collaboration between the Australian Institute of Sport and the Australian
National Academy of Music in Melbourne. They
got together to set up a program called Excellence
Squared.
Vialette, G.
Remarques gnrales sur lpreuve du saut
en longueur [General comments on the long
jump]
Rvue de lAmicale des Entraneurs Franais dAthltisme, Paris (Autumn 2001), 163, pp. 31-33
A report on the long jump competition at the
Edmonton 2001 World Championships in Athletics.
Vives, J.
Athltisme 3: saut en hauteur, saut en
longeur, triple saut, saut a la perche (10e
ed.) [Athletics 3: high jump, long jump,
triple jump, pole vault]
Paris: Ed. Bornemann, 1969, 62 pp.
Vives, J.
Athltisme/saut en longueur: principes
dexecution [Track and field/long jump:
performance principles]
E.P.S.: Education physique et Sport, Paris, 49
(July/August 1999), 278, pp. 52-53
Wakefield, F., Harkins, D. & Cooper, J.M.

Long jump
In: F. Wakefield, D. Harkins & J. M. Cooper, Track and
field fundamentals for girls and women (3rd ed.),
Saint Louis: Mosby, 1973, pp. 123-137
Section headings: [1] History and background. [2]
Special considerations. [3] Elements of jumping
(take-off, techniques of delaying landing, landing).
[4] Rules. [5] Common errors. [6] Teaching progression for the beginner. [6] Training suggestions.
Walker, J.
96
Long jump ideas

87 (1987), 4, pp. 4-8; also in: Track and Field Coaches
Review (Gainesville, Fla.), 95 (Winter 1996), 4, pp. 2830
The technique of the long-jump run-up and takeoff as well as the flight phase and landing are dealt
with. A season plan of the world-class long jumper
Larry Myricks is presented.
Watts, D.
Long jump and the hop, step and jump (2nd
ed.)
London: Amateur Athletic Association, 1950?, 24 pp.
Watts, D. C. V.
The long jump (2nd ed.)
London: Amateur Athletic Board, 1968, 31 pp.
Watts, D.
Athletics: jumping and vaulting
London: Pelham Books, 1976, 62 pp.
Weixelbaumer, G.
Warum gibt es in sterreich noch keinen 8m-Springer? Kritische Betrachtungen ber
sterreichs Weitspringer [Why has there
not yet been an 8m long jumper in Austria?
Critical reflections about Austrias long
jumpers]
sterreichische Leichtathletik, Vienna, 4 (1971), 5, pp.
7-8
Wilt, F.
The long jump
In: International Amateur Athletic Federation, Oceania group, Advanced and Elementary Course, London:
International Amateur Athletic Federation, 1978?, pp.
1-20
Woicik, M.
The long jump
83 (1983), 4, pp. 6-10
The author gives an overview of the biomechanical
aspects of the long jump and describes the four
movement phases, run-up, take-off, flight and
landing, in a detailed way. For each phase special
training contents are presented.
Zhang, Y. Q.; Lou, H. Y.

[A study on characteristics of mens long
jump skills in the 6th championship]
Zhejiang Sports Science, Zhejiang (P. R. China), 21
(1999), 2, pp. 21-25
This article analyzes the results and skills parameters of the long jumpers competing in the final of
the Sixth World Championships. The skill characteristics and the developing tendency in modern long
jump is presented and suggestions on long jump
training are given.
A.; Lucas, O.
IAAF ACADEMY REPORT

by IAAF
20:2; 97-100, 2005
IAAF Academy Courses

Two courses signal progress and development
he development and implementation
of the IAAF Academy continued with
the successful organisation of the
residential modules for two courses, one for
chief coaches and one for elite coaches in the
sprint and hurdles events, in early 2005.
Both courses were staged at Loughborough

University in Great Britain and organised by
the universitys School of Sport and Exercise
Sciences, headed by Prof. Dr. Stuart Biddle.
The Chief Coach Course was held from 30
March to 13 April and the Elite Coach
Course took place from 29 March to 5 April.
Chief Coach Course

The Chief Coach course was the first official
IAAF Academy Course and the residential session, which took place in Loughborough, built
on the experience gained through a successful pilot course staged in 2004. A small group
of seven highly qualified coaches, all from
Africa, were invited to participate: Magda
Botha (RSA), Wolde Meskel Kostre (ETH),
Steve Atuahene (RSA), Nganga Ngata (KEN),
Gervais Ramar (MRI), Jon Obeya (NIG) and
Gad Onumaegbu (NIG).
The course content is organised in two

parts.
Part A focuses on the more generic leadership,
management and coaching areas of knowledge as they relate to chief coaches; Part B
focuses on the more athletics specific aspects
of leading athletes and performance support
teams in delivering world class performance.
The course design comprises a residential
component and a non-residential component.
The residential component involves eight

hours per day on average of workshops, lectures, role-play, individual presentations and
personal study. The non residential involves
distance learning, pre- residential course
preparation and assignments and post residential course assignments.
The content of Part A was prepared and delivered by Loughborough University senior academic staff and supervised by IAAF consultant
Dr Craig Hanford. The content of Part B was
prepared by IAAF consultant, Dr Frank Dick in
collaboration with M.S.D Director, Dr Elio
Locatelli and delivered by former IAAF MF
Chief Coaches. Integration of the two parts
was supervised by Craig Hanford and Frank
Dick. The total program comprises 30 units
and involves up to 300 hours of total student
effort.
Elite Coach Course

The Elite Coach course for sprint and hurdles
events, the first part of which was staged in
Loughborough, is a pilot of a syllabus that
has been newly developed by the IAAF Consultants Frank Dick and Craig Hanford. As
with the Chief Coach course, a group of
well-qualified candidates from around the
world was invited to take part: Jol Severe
(MRI), Abdel Rahim Hamdi (EGY), Oscar
Gadea (URU), Carlos Cavalheiro (BRA), Colin
Bovell (GBR), Fitz Coleman (JAM), Russell
Hansen (AUS), Zeljko Aras (CRO), Keith Connor (AUS). Their feedback on their course
experience will be used to check the validity
of the course and whether it has met the
needs of the participants. The consultants
will also use the feedback to collect ideas of
97
IAAF Academy report
Course Participants and Lecturers (from left to right):

Oscar Gadea, Ralph Mouchbahani, Gad Onumaegbu, Nganga Ngata, Keith Connor, Gervais Ramar, Magda Botha,
Wolde Meskel Kostre, Frank Dick
The course, which will eventually be available

for all event groups, is for those coaches who
are active practitioner coaches working with
athletes of national/international standard or
similar level and/or active practitioner coaches who demonstrate coaching effectiveness
or a persistently high level in working with
juniors, youth or other specific athlete development stages.
Like the Chief Coach Course, the Elite Coach
course Content is organising in two parts.
Part A focuses on the more generic leadership,
management and coaching areas of knowledge as they relate to elite practitioner
coaches; Part B focuses on the more athletics
related aspects of practical coaching and
the event specific aspects of coaching elite
performers.
The course design has three components.
1 Self managed learning where the student
coaches determine the learning content, the
procedures, timing and location, while the
98
IAAF Academy provides the organisational

context of learning and affords support to the
student coach in pursuit of process.
2 Residential involving a concentrated period of eight ten hour days of lectures, roleplay, workshops, individual presentations and
assignment preparation.
3 Mentoring involving supported learning
with an IAAF Academy accredited mentor over
a six month period. This component is essentially about application of the student coachs
knowledge and coaching expertise to an athletes effective pursuit of high performance.
The content of the residential component Part
A was supervised by Craig Hanford; and delivered by Loughborough University senior academic staff. Part B was prepared by Frank
Dick in collaboration with Elio Locatelli and
other IAAF elite coaching advisors. Part B
general content guidelines and format is
designed and supervised by Frank Dick. Presentation will be supervised by an IAAF Academy accredited expert in the relevant event
grouping of a given Elite Coach Course. Integration of Part A&B was supervised by Frank
how to optimise the course syllabus and its

delivery.
IAAF Academy report
IAAF Academy Entry Qualifications for Coaches Courses

The candidates for IAAF Academy courses
for coaches will be required to satisfy the
following minimum entry criteria:
IAAF Coaches Education and Certification System Level II or an equivalent
recognised by the Academy
Letters of recommendation from the
National Federation and Area Coaches
Association
Guarantee of economic support to pursue the course
Personal written commitment to meet
the requirements of course participation
and conditions for graduating as an IAAF
Academy Coach (i.e. attendance, assessment etc.)
Figure 1: Entry qualifications for coaches courses at the IAAF Academy
IAAF Academy Chief Coach Course Syllabus Overview

The Chief Coach course syllabus recognises an athlete centred approach and the role
of the Chief Coach as leader and manager of
a support network assembled around the
athlete. Central to the course design is a
philosophy that focuses on meeting the
practical demands and challenges that face
coaching at this level.
Utilising a problem solving approach, the

perspectives of multiple disciplines are
brought together in order to facilitate innovative and creative solutions. Candidates are
encouraged to explore and develop the critical factors that impact on this process
namely; their personal coaching, leadership
and management skills. The components of
Observation & Analysis, Planning, Preparation and in event Performance are all examined from an interdisciplinary perspective.
Part A Leadership & Management focuses on developing the coaching, leadership
and management skills. It includes the following units:
Unit 1 Personal Leadership & Management
Credit Weight: 10
Student effort: approx. 100 hrs (20 hrs
direct contact)
Unit 2 - Leading & Managing People

Credit Weight: 10
direct contact)
Unit 3 - Leading & Managing the Process
Credit Weight: 10
direct contact)
Part B Delivering the High Performance

Environment focuses on the practical
aspects associated with delivering world
class performances. It includes the following units:
Unit 1 Long-term Athlete Development
Unit 2 The Major Championship Campaign
Credit Weight: 30
direct contact)
Upon successful completion the candidate
will be recognised as an IAAF Academy
Chief Coach.
Figure 2: Overview of the syllabus of the IAAF Academy Chief Coach course
99
IAAF Academy report
IAAF Academy Elite Coach Course Syllabus Overview

The Elite Coach course aims to provide the
candidate with the relevant knowledge,
understanding and practical experience to
create an environment capable of delivering
high levels of individual performance over
multiple seasons. It recognises an athlete
centred approach and the role of the Elite
Coach as custodian of a process that
includes the management of significant relationships, resources and technology assembled around the athlete. Central to the
course design is a philosophy that focuses on
meeting the practical demands and challenges that coaches at this level face.
Unit 2 - Effective Coaching and Management

This unit focuses on key aspects of the
Elite Coach role with specific emphasis on
the development and management of relationships with the people involved.
Utilising a problem solving approach, the

perspectives of multiple disciplines are brought
together in order to facilitate innovative and
creative solutions. Coaches are encouraged to
explore and develop the critical factors that
impact on this process, namely their personal
coaching and management skills.
This module aims to assist coaches in the

further development of the competencies
required for effective professional practice
at the elite level. Throughout this module
coaches will be encouraged to translate and
apply knowledge and experience following
from Part A under the mentorship of an
experienced IAAF appointed mentor. It is
envisaged that this module will last for a
period no less than nine months and will
include 2 case studies that address the following:
The components of Analysis & Evaluation,

Planning, Preparation and In-event Performance are examined from an interdisciplinary perspective.
Part A - Residential Module
The three main areas covered in Part A are:
Unit 1 - Personal Development
This unit aims to establish the context
within which the elite coach operates and to
extend general understanding of the professional issues facing the elite coach ncouraging self reflection in relation to the process.
Unit 3 - Applying Sports Science

This unit addresses the interdisciplinary
application of cutting edge science to
the processes of; analysis and evaluation,
planning, preparation and performance.
Part B - Supervised Experience Module
(Mentoring Module)
I) Preparation of an athlete for attendance

at a major competitive event
II) An interdisciplinary coaching project
that draws on expertise from a number of
related disciplines to help solve a coaching
problem
Upon successful completion the candidate
will be recognised as an IAAF Academy Elite
Coach.
Dick and Craig Hanford who also managed

the coordination and general delivery of the
three design components.
During the course at Loughborough, the candidates demonstrated a very high level of qualification and experience as coaches, making
100
their feedback on the syllabus, teaching methods and course materials particularly valuable.
The final assessment results are expected to
be known by January 2006.
Reported by Frank Dick,
Craig Hanford and Harald Mller
Figure 3: Overview of the syllabus of the IAAF Academy Elite Coach course
BOOK REVIEW
by IAAF
20:2; 101-103, 2005
Physiology of Sport and Exercise (3rd Ed.)

by Jack H. Wilmore & David L. Costill
ow does your body

respond to the high physiological demands of
physical activity? This is the key
question when one studies the
physiology of sport and exercise
and Jack Wilmore and David Costill try to give an answer to it.
Hardly anyone can be better qualified for this project:
Jack Wilmore, PhD, was a distinguished professor and head of the

Department of Health and Kinesiology at Texas A&M University, a
professor and department chair at
the University of Texas at Austin,
and Director of the Exercise and
Sports Sciences Laboratory at the
University of Arizona from 1976 to
1985. He has written extensively
about exercise physiology and has
been a member of the editorial
board of several journals, including
Sports Medicine, Pediatric Exercise
Science, Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation, Journal of
Athletic Training, International Journal of
Obesity, and Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise. He is the former president of the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
and has served as a consultant for several
professional sport teams in the USA, including
the Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles Rams,
Los Angeles Lakers, Los Angeles Kings, California Angels, and San Francisco 49ers. Dr
Wilmore is also a fellow and former president
of the American Academy of Kinesiology and
Physical Education.
David Costill, PhD, is the emeritus John and

Janice Fisher chair in exercise science at Ball
State University in Muncie, Indiana. He established the Ball State University Human Performance Laboratory in 1966 and served as its
director for 32 years. He has written and
coauthored more than 400 publications over
the course of his career, including books,
peer-reviewed journal articles, and lay publications. He served as the editor in chief of the
International Journal of Sports Medicine for
twelve years. He was president of the ACSM
101
from 1976 to 1977, a member of its board of

trustees for twelve years, and a recipient of
ACSM Citation and Honor Awards. Many of
his former students are now leaders in the
field of exercise physiology.
With their first and second editions of
Physiology of Sport and Exercise, which
appeared in 1994 and in 1999 respectively,
Wilmore and Costill presented a solid foundation of basic exercise physiology and redefined the disciplines standard for textbooks.
Now, with the third edition they offer an
improved version of their text, framing the
latest and most significant research findings
in a reader-friendly format that makes it
easier for students to learn and for teachers
to teach.
Like the second edition, the third edition
features ancillaries such as an updated and
improved presentation package including a
comprehensive series of PowerPoint slides for
each chapter, a free test package including a
bank of over 700 questions created especially
for this new edition, a free instructor guide
including among other things sample course
syllabi, sample lecture outlines, and direct
links to detailed sources on the Internet for
every chapter in the text. Also included is an
online student study guide with study questions and activities to test the students
knowledge as he or she prepares for tests.
Because of the rapid progress of research in
the area of exercise physiology, it goes without
saying that the information presented in this
new edition has been considerably updated.
Theres a section in the historical chapter on the
emergence of molecular biology, new information on clinical research and researchers in the
field, and an updated discussion of longitudinal
versus cross-sectional research and the basics
of how to accurately read scientific graphs. The
present edition also contains:
The most current information on muscle
fibre type categorisation.
Coverage of recent studies of the neural
component of strength gains and the
molecular changes that are responsible
for these gains.
102
New research on muscle soreness and its

causes.
More instructive material to illustrate the
measurement of oxygen consumption and
carbon dioxide production during exercise,
including the Haldane transformation.
Expanded material on estimating anaerobic effort using the Wingate test, maximal
accumulated oxygen deficit, and other
new techniques.
New evidence of the causes of fatigue at
the contractile muscle and central nervous system levels.
Additional VO2max information just published from the Heritage Family Study
(724 untrained subjects who completed
an identical training programme for 20
weeks and showed increases in VO2max
from 0 to 53%).
Updated information on thermal regulation by hydration before exercise.
New research on exercise in microgravity
(space) environments.
More firsthand research on the demands
of training, from Costills Human Performance Lab at Ball State University.
Expanded material on chronic fatigue
syndrome, overreaching, and overtraining
principles.
Recent research on tapering.
More details on assessing body composition using the newest methods and technologies.
Up-to-date diagnostic techniques for
medical clearances for an exercise program.
Updated statistical information from the
American Heart Association on the leading causes of death in the United States
and updated information on obesity rate,
risks of obesity, and prevention through
physical activity.
All-new information on diabetes based on
the most recent research and trends.
The present edition also includes some
improved features to encourage learning.
New research is highlighted in breakout boxes
to bring attention to important trends and
directions, improved conversion tables focus
on SI units (international system of units for
Book review
Book review
measuring physical properties), and an

expanded glossary makes it easier for students to look up and cross-reference terms.
Contents
In the introduction, the authors begin with
a historical overview of sport and exercise
physiology as they have emerged from the
parent disciplines of anatomy and physiology,
and the basic principles used throughout the
text are explained (e. g. acute physiological
responses to exercise and chronic physiological adaptations to training).
In parts I through III, selected physiological
systems are reviewed, focusing on their
response to acute bouts of exercise, before it
is considered how these systems adapt to
long-term exposure to exercise in the form of
training. In part I, the authors focus on how
the muscular and nervous systems coordinate
to produce body movement. In part II, it is
explained how the basic energy systems provide the energy needed for movement and the
role of the endocrine system in regulating
metabolism. In part III, the authors look at
how the cardiovascular and respiratory systems transport nutrients and oxygen to the
active muscles and waste products away from
them during physical activity.
In part IV, the perspective is changed to

examine the impact of the external environment on physical performance. The bodys
response to heat and cold is considered, and
then the impact of low atmospheric pressure
experienced at altitude and high atmospheric
pressure experienced during diving is examined. Part IV is concluded by considering the
effects of a unique environment one of little gravity during space travel.
In part V, the attention is shifted to how
athletes can optimise physical performance.
The effects of different amounts of training
are evaluated. The athletes special dietary
needs and how nutrients can be used to
enhance performance is examined. The
importance of appropriate body composition
for performance is considered. Finally, the use
of ergogenic aids (substances purported to

improve athletic ability) is explored.
In part VI, the unique considerations for
specific populations of athletes are examined.
First, the authors look at the processes of
growth and development and how they affect
the performance capabilities of young athletes. The changes that occur in physical performance with age are evaluated and the ways
that physical activity can prolong youthfulness are explored. This part is concluded with
the examination of issues and special physiological concerns of female athletes.
In the final part of the book, part VII, the
authors turn their attention to the application
of sport and exercise physiology to prevent
and treat various diseases and the use of
exercise for rehabilitation. They look at prescribing exercise to maintain health and fitness, and then they close the book with a discussion of cardiovascular disease, obesity and
diabetes.
To sum it up then, this third edition of
Physiology of Sport and Exercise offers a
novel approach to the study of sport and
exercise physiology. Everything is designed
to better meet the needs of undergraduate
students and to make learning easy and
enjoyable. Although the text is comprehensive, the reader is not overwhelmed by either
its size or its scope. The third edition of
Physiology of Sport and Exercise is therefore
a valuable and essential textbook for coaches and athletes who want to understand
what happens in their bodies when the train
and compete.
Reviewed by Jrgen Schiffer
Jack H. Wilmore & David L. Costill

Physiology of Sport and Exercise (3rd Ed.)
Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2004,
744 pp., ISBN: 0736044892, U.S. $ 75.00
103
RSUMS
by IAAF
20:2; 104-105, 2005
Une comparaison de systmes sportifs succs

Par Helmut Digel
Les chances de succs dans toute comptition, quelle quelle soit, sont plus fortes si lon
russit possde une bonne comprhension des stratgies, des tactiques, des moyens, des
ressources et de la volont de son ou ses adversaires. Malgr cela les autorits responsables des systmes nationaux servant dvelopper des athltes et des performances du
plus haut niveau se souvent montres introspectives et insulaires. Cet article rapporte les
premires conclusions dun projet visant renverser cette tendance. Le projet a analys les
conditions et structures, ainsi que les efforts de modernisation qui existent dans huit
nations ayant connu des succs lors des Jeux Olympiques dAtlanta en 1996 (ces nations
sont : lAustralie, la Chine, lAllemagne, la France, la Grande-Bretagne, lItalie, la Russie, les
Etats-Unis). Aprs une introduction dcrivant l'univers du sport moderne de haut niveau,
l'article liste d'abord les objectifs, puis les approches thorique et mthodologique du projet. Il donne ensuite les rsultats des recherches sous les titres: 'Conditions sociales
gnrales', 'Le systme du sport de haut niveau' et 'Une slection des relations entre le systme et son environnement'. Lorsque ces trois secteurs sont tudis ensemble, on arrive
une vue gnrale des similitudes et des diffrences qui existent entre les diffrents systmes tudis. Cet article conclut en prsentant des ides sur les manires dont les institutions lies au sport de haut niveau travaillent pour se renouveler et se rformer; larticle pointe aussi les divergences frquentes qui existent entre les thories promulgues par
les diffrentes organisations et ce qui est effectivement mis en pratique.
Les activits comptitives sur le long terme des meilleurs athltes mondiaux.
L'auteur a examin, dans le but d'amliorer la prparation des athltes, les programmes
dentranement sur le long terme ainsi que les carrires comptitives de plus de 1500
sportifs dans chacune des disciplines de l'athltisme. L'objectif tait de tenter de comprendre sils ont t affects par l'introduction de championnats internationaux pour les
cadets (moins de 18 ans) et les juniors (moins de 20 ans), ainsi que par la hausse du nombre de comptitions disponibles et l'augmentation des nivaux d'intensit des comptitions seniors. Une analyse gnrale a permis une classification divise en quatre groupes
distincts pour des athltes mondialement reconnus. Cette classification est base sur
leurs performances lorsqu'ils taient cadets/juniors et ce quils ont accompli depuis. Une
analyse par groupe de disciplines donne des exemples d'athltes qui ont russi des rsultats internationaux de haut niveau un ge relativement jeune et des athltes qui se
sont illustrs des ges relativement avancs. L'auteur conclut que (1) de bons rsultats
russis jeunes ne compromettent pas ncessairement la carrire consquente d'un athlte, que ce soit en termes de longvit ou de succs, (2) l'ge moyen des vainqueurs et
mdaills des Championnats du Monde et des Jeux Olympiques a graduellement aug104
Par Vadim Zelichenok
Rsums
ment, (3) il existe un nombre important d'exemples d'athltes qui se sont maintenus
dans l'lite mondiale, voire mme ont encore progress, aprs avoir atteint 30 ans.
Labus des strodes anabolisants andrognes et leurs effets secondaires nuisibles pour les
athltes qui en usent.
Par Fumihiro Yamasawa
Les strodes anabolisants andrognes (SAA) sont un lment majeur du dopage dans le
sport depuis cinquante ans et ils sont la substance interdite la plus usite en athltisme.
S'il est vrai que les SAA peuvent contribuer amliorer les performances dans un certain
nombre de sports, il existe de multiples rapports dtaillant leurs mfaits et effets secondaires nuisibles et indsirables, surtout en ce qui concerne les systmes cardio-vasculaire, reproductif, hpatobiliaire et psychiatrique. Cet article comprend des vues d'ensemble sur l'abus des SAA dans le sport et les techniques dingrence utilises par ceux qui en
usent, ainsi que des explications dtailles sur leurs effets secondaires. L'article se focalise
surtout sur une longue liste des effets nuisibles, parfois mortels, de la substance. L'auteur
conclut son article en insistant sur l'importance de la lutte contre le dopage et sur le
besoin d'duquer les athltes et leur entourage quant aux dangers de l'abus des SAA.
L'entranement des athltes bas sur l'haltrophilie 2e partie: planification des sances
dentranement.
Par Martin Zawieja-Koch

Le haut niveau, dans la majorit des disciplines de l'athltisme, requiert que l'athlte maximise sa capacit musculaire. Il en est de mme, bien entendu, en haltrophilie. Dans cette
discipline, les gestes relativement ferms et l'environnement contrl qui la caractrisent
facilitent l'tude de la biomcanique et des principes d'entranement et, de fait, les connaissances scientifiques dans ce sport sont assez avances. Les haltrophiles de haut niveau
sont totalement conscients de l'importance de matriser la technique, et ils en font un point
focal dans leur prparation. Dans cet article, l'auteur, un mdaill olympique devenu
entraneur, cherche tablir le lien entre les manires contemporaines de s'entraner en
haltrophilie et en athltisme, particulirement en ce qui concerne le domaine de l'augmentation gnrale de la force musculaire. Dans la premire partie de cet article, publi
dans le NSA 1/2005, il a identifi l'application d'exercices spcifiques et leurs variations,
utiliss par les haltrophiles, qui peuvent tre appliqus aux besoins de force musculaire
requis par diffrents athltes en fonction du groupe d'preuves (voire mme de certaines
disciplines spcifiques) qui est le leur. Dans cette seconde partie il examine l'application de
principes d'entranement cls ainsi que la planification des programmes d'entranement.
105
RESMENES
by IAAF
20:2; 106-107, 2005
2-2005Comparacin de los sistemas deportivos exitosos

Por Helmut Digel
La posibilidad de xito en un esfuerzo competitivo se ve aumentada cuando uno tiene un
conocimiento de las estrategias, tcticas, medios, recursos y deseos del oponente. En el
caso de los deportes de alto rendimiento, sin embargo, aquellos responsables de los sistemas nacionales necesarios para producir atletas de alto nivel y rendimientos han sido
tradicionalmente cerrados y parciales. Este artculo informa sobre los descubrimientos
preliminares de un proyecto para revertir esta tendencia analizando condiciones, estructuras y trabajos hacia la modernizacin en ocho naciones que fueron exitosas en los Juegos Olmpicos de Atlanta 1996 (Australia, China, Alemania, Francia, Gran Bretaa, Italia,
Rusia, y los Estados Unidos de Amrica). Luego de comenzar con una introduccin a los
fenmenos del deporte de alto rendimiento, el artculo se dirige a describir los objetivos,
el enfoque terico y metodolgico del proyecto. Luego brinda resultados bajo los ttulos
Condiciones sociales generales, El sistema del deporte de alto rendimiento y Relacin
del sistema-medio seleccionado. Los mismos, en conjunto crean una imagen de similitudes y diferencias entre los sistemas examinados. El artculo concluye con un debate de
las formas en que trabajan las instituciones asociadas con el deporte de alto rendimiento para reformarse y renovarse y las frecuentes discrepancias entre la charla organizativa y la accin que se observaron en los sistemas estudiados.
La actividad de competencia a largo plazo de los atletas de lite mundial
106
Con el propsito de mejorar la preparacin de atletas, especialmente la planificacin a

largo plazo de sus carreras, el autor examin las carreras competitivas de ms de 1500
atletas de lite en todas las disciplinas del atletismo. El objetivo era tratar de entender de
qu manera haban sido afectados por la introduccin de los campeonatos mundiales de
menores (sub 18) y de juveniles (sub 20) y por aumento en oportunidades e intensidad de
competencias para los atletas mayores. Un anlisis general produce una clasificacin de
cuatro grupos de atletas famosos basados en sus rendimientos internacionales en los
campeonatos de menores/juveniles y subsiguientes campeonatos de mayores. Un anlisis por grupos de pruebas proporciona ejemplos de atletas que lograron resultados de
clase internacional a una edad relativamente joven y otros atletas que lo hicieron a una
edad relativamente madura. El autor concluye estableciendo que (1) los buenos resultados logrados a una tempana edad no tienen que comprometer la carrera del atleta en trminos de eventual nivel de xito o duracin, (2) la edad promedio de los ganadores y
medallistas en los Campeonatos del Mundo y Juegos Olmpicos se ha venido incrementando gradualmente, (3) existen unos pocos ejemplos de atletas que hayan permanecido
en la lite mundial e incluso hayan mejorado sus resultados luego de los treinta aos.
Por Vadim Zelichenok
Resmenes
Abuso de esteroides anablicos-andrognicos y efectos adversos en atletas

Por Fumihiro Yamasawa
Los esteroides anablicos-andrognicos (AASs) han sido un elemento fundamental en el
dopaje en los deportes durante 50 aos y son las sustancias de mayor abuso en el
atletismo. Mientras que es cierto que los AASs pueden contribuir a mejorar el rendimiento en varios deportes, existen numerosos informes de los efectos colaterales adversos,
especialmente en el sistema cardiovascular, hepatobiliar, reproductivo y psiquitico. Este
artculo incluye generalidades del abuso de AASs en el deporte y las tcnicas utilizadas en
la prctica como tambin una detallada explicacin de cmo funcionan los AASs en los
consumidores. La atencin principal, sin embargo, se centra en una extensa lista de efectos colaterales adversos reporteada, algunos de los cuales pueden ser fatales. El autor
concluye poniendo nfasis en la importancia de la lucha contra el dopaje y la necesidad
de educar a los atletas y a quienes forman su entorno, destacando los riesgos que implica el abuso de AAS.
Levantamiento de pesas en el entrenamiento para atletas - Parte 2: Aspectos de la planificacin del entrenamiento
Por Martin Zawieja-Koch

El alto rendimiento en la mayora de las disciplinas atlticas requiere del atleta la
optimizacin de su capacidad de fuerza. Lo mismo, por supuesto, es cierto en el
deporte de levantamiento de pesas. All, los movimientos relativamente cerrados y el
ambiente controlable que caracteriza el deporte facilita el estudio de los principios
biomecnicos como los de entrenamiento y es as que, la ciencia del deporte se
encuentra bastante avanzada. Como resultado, los levantadores exitosos reconocen
la importancia de la tcnica correcta y se centran en este aspecto en su entrenamiento. En este artculo, el autor, un medallista Olmpico de levantamiento de
pesas, que ahora entrena, busca realizar la conexin entre la forma contempornea
de entrenamiento en levantamiento de pesas y el atletismo, particularmente en el
rea del desarrollo de la fuerza general. En la parte I de este artculo, publicado en
la NSA 1/2005 l identific la aplicacin de ejercicios especficos y sus variantes
segn son utilizados por los levantadores de pesar para los requisitos de fuerza general de los grupos de eventos, e incluso pruebas especficas en el atletismo. En la
parte II debate la aplicacin de los principios claves de entrenamiento y la planificacin del programa de entrenamiento.
107
IAAF
The IAAF technical quarterly
New Studies
in Athletics
3.2005
PREVIEW
Editorial
Special
Special Topic
Topic: Endurance
Endurance
including articles:
A review of the maximal oxygen uptake values necessary for different
running performance levels
by ALEJANDRO LEGAZ ARRESE, DIEGO MUNGUA IZQUIERDO,
DIEGO MOLINER URDIALES
Current perspectives of the marathon performance improvement:
from universalisation to training optimisation.
by VRONIQUE L. BILLAT
Studies
including article:
108
NSA Specials
Athletics World
Documentation
Selected and annotated bibliography 71:

High Jump
by JRGEN SCHIFFER
Volume Twenty, issue number 3; September 2005

New Studies in Athletics, printed by DMP Digitaldruck GmbH, Berlin
05
Run-up speed and performance in horizontal jumps - What Brazilian

athletes do!
by NELIO ALFANO MOURA, TANIA FERNANDES DE PAULA MOURA,
JOO PAULO BORIN

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CONTENTS

The long term competition activity of the worlds top athletes

Abuse of androgenic-anabolic steroids and adverse

Weightlifting in training for athletics - Part II

SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY NO. 70:

IAAF Academy Report

Volume Twenty, issue number 2; June 2005

International Scientific Advisory Board

Cover & Graphics design

Executive Editorial Board

The annual subscription rate (calendar year only)

New Studies in Athletics, IAAF Bureau,

Remit orders to:

A few copies of back issues (up to volume 12,

IAAF Web Site: http://www.iaaf.org

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

NSA is the product of a co-operation between

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

Comparison of successful sport systems

The long-term competition

activity of the worlds top athletes

20:2; 7-18, 2005

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

Helmut Digel is a Professor

The possibility for success in any competitive endeavour is enhanced when

Introduction to the subject

he phenomenon of modern highperformance sport is marked by a

Comparison of successful sport systems

This makes the quest for an optimal solution

2000 that will be subject to evaluation after

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

High-performance sport is marked by an

Comparison of successful sport systems

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

with the economy and this dependence makes

Aims of the research project

In view of the introductory remarks above,

Comparison of successful sport systems

On the grounds of this observation, it is an

The obvious thing to do, and not just from

Figure 1: The system of high-performance sport

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

On the first level of the suggested heuristics,

Comparison of successful sport systems

resource patterns will probably come into

Figure 2: The system of high-performance sport

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

Figure 3: The system of high-performance sport and its environment

The project is called

5.1 General social conditions

Comparison of successful sport systems

5.2 The system of high-performance

ly accompanied by professionally oriented

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

ed into very different social systems. For

Comparison of successful sport systems

and France, doping is fought against by

5.3 Selected system-environment

New Studies in Athletics no. 2/2005

The role of the state and politics

pendent by President Boris Yeltsin in 1990

Comparison of successful sport systems