MODELS AND THEORIES

THEORIES
Trait theory- this theory differentiates leaders from non-leaders
by focusing on personal qualities and characteristics. About 20
Researchers identified about 80 leadership traits but only 5 were
common to the 4 of more studies, however by 1990 it was concluded
that following 7 traits differentiate leader from non leader:

Ambition and energy

The desire to lead
Honesty and integrity
Self confidence
Intelligence
High self monitoring &
Job related knowledge

Broadly all these characteristics can be attached to big

five model of personality

Extroversion- assertive, sociable, ambitious

Agreeableness- cooperative, warm, trusting
Conscientiousness- responsible, organized, dependable, persistent
Emotional stability- calm, self confident, secure
Openness to experience- creative, curious, artistic

Limitations trait theory can either predict emergence of leadership or appearance

of leadership but can not differentiate effective or non- effective
leadership
It assumes that leaders are born only

 Behavioral theories- these theories rely on the

premise that the leadership behaviors can be
designed and implanted in individuals who desire
to become leaders. Different studies are: Ohio state studies- this study narrows down on two main categories
which account for leadership behavior
Initiating structure
Consideration

This study concluded that person with high on both

initiating structure and consideration are successful,
but subsequently many exception were found to this.

 University Of Michigan studies

Employee oriented
Production oriented

Managerial grid (by blake and mouton)

p
High e

Low

o
p
l
e
c
o
n
c
e
r
n
.

1,9

Country club mgt.

9,9

Team Mgt.,best per

5,5
Middle of road mgt
Impoverished mgt.

Authority complian.

1,1

9,1

Low

High
Concern for production

 Limitation of managerial grid- it only gives framework

conceptualize leadership styles rather giving any information as success or
failure. Success of 9,9 in all situations is not enough corroborated.

Scandinavian study
Developmental orientation- they seek
Experimentation
New ideas
Change

Summary of Behavioral theories- These theories had modest

success to identify consistency in relationship between leadership behavior and
group behavior. The situational factors that can influence success or failures are
not considered, e.g. can style of Mahatma Gandhi, could have been successful in
era of globalization. Two success stories of mahatma Gandhi and Hitler but one
for constructive work and other for destructive.

 Contingency theories- these theories believe that different

style are successful in different situations. These theories
therefore focus on isolating situational variables for successes or
failures.
Fiedler contingency Model- it proposes that effective group performance
depends on the proper match between style and the degree to which
situation gives control to leader
Identifying leadership style- least preferred coworker (LPC)
questionnaire survey
If one rates him favorable- he is relationship oriented
If one rates him unfavorable- he is task oriented

This survey observed only 16% respondents were observed both types
whereas 84% are of either type and their effectiveness will depend on
situation

 Defining the situation

Leader member relations- The degree to which members have
confidence, trust and respect for their leader ( good, poor )
Task structure- The degree to which job assignments are
procedurized ( high, low)
Position power- The degree of influence a leader have on
power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions
and salary increases. ( strong, weak)

Matching Leaders and Situations- by considering three

contingency variables there are eight possible situations from I-VIII
i.e. favorable- unfavorable

Findings of Fiedler model

Task oriented

Relationship oriented
favorable
I

II

III

medium
IV
V

VI

unfavorable
VII
VIII

good good good good poor poor poor poor

high

high

strng wk

low

low

high

high

strg

wk

strng wk

Category
Leader-member relationship

low

Task structure

strng wk

Position power

low

 Valuation of fedler Model- overall it leads to positive

conclusion but the LPC results are not constant and the logic
underlying the LPC is also not understood

Cognitive resource theory- Fedler along with Joe Garcia

reconceptualised the original theory for role of stress. Leaders
intellectual ability correlate positively with performance under low
stress and negatively under high stress and conversely a leaders
experience correlate negatively with performance in low stress but
positively in high stress.

 Hersey and Blanchards situational theory (SLT)- this

theory focuses on followers and selecting the right
leadership style suitable to level of followers readiness
Readiness of followers assess ability and willingness and
decide the style of leadership

If unable and unwilling- authoritative

If unable but willing- high task oriented
If able but unwilling- highly supportive and participative
If able and willing- not much required

Valuation- This theory is practiced by majority of companies

in their leadership training programs, however, it also
consists of internal inconsistencies and ambiguities.

 Leader-member exchange theory(LMX)- This

theory argues that because of time pressures leaders
develop a special relationship with small group of
followers. It may be because of similarity in the personality
characteristics or competence comparatively to others: In-group members- higher performance , greater
satisfaction, leaders invest their resources with those
they expect to perform best
Out-group members- lower performance, less satisfied ,
more inclined to change

 Path goal theory- Developed by Robert house, its essence is

that leader is supposed to provide the followers the information,
support and other resources necessary for them to achieve their goals.
The name is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the
path to their followers to make the journey easier
Leaders Behavior
Contingency variables
Environmental
Environment factors
Contingency factors
Personal characteristics
Leader behavior
Directive , participative,
Achievement oriented,
Supportive

Task str., Formal auth.,

work group

Outcomes
Performance
satisfaction

Subordinate
Contingency factors.
Locus of control,
Experience,
Perceived ability

The following predictions will come from pathgoal theory

Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks
are ambiguous

Supportive leadership results into high employee
performance and satisfaction in structured task

Directive leadership will be redundant when employee with
greater perceived ability and experience

Participative management will be effective if the locus of
control of subordinates is internal

Achievement oriented leader will be convincing followers
that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are
ambiguously structured
Evaluation this theory supports the logic that employee
performance and satisfaction will increase when the leader
compensates for things lacking either in the employee or the
work setting

 Leader participation model- Victor Vroom and Phillip

Yetton developed this theory. It provided a sequential set of
rules that should be followed in determining the form and
amount of participation in decision making as determined by
different types of situations.
Five leadership styles
12 contingency variables

Importance of the decision

Importance of getting followers commitment to decision
Whether the leader has sufficient information to make good decision
How well structured the problem is
Whether autocratic decision will receive follower commitment
Whether the follower buy into organizations goals
Whether there is likely conflict among followers over solution alternatives
Whether followers have necessary information to take good decision
Time constraints of leader that may limit follower involvement
Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified
Importance of the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make a decision
Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills

 Valuation- The results of this model has found

encouraging results during research however the critics feel
that lot of variables have not been considered. Other
contingency models demonstrate that intelligence, stress and
experience are important variables but these have been
omitted here. It is also complex to use in day to day routine
however the researchers have also developed computer
program to guide managers.

Summary
Trait Theory- Focus is on personality factors
Behavioral Theory- Stress on task orientation and
people orientation styles but failed to take situations into
consideration

Contingency Theory- This included task structure, level

of situational stress, level of group support, leaders
intelligence, experience and followers characteristics