Thesis presented and

defended in Milano
4 October 2010
at
Milan University
(Universit degli Studi di Milano)
Philosophy and Sociology of Law Department

PhD thesis written within

the doctoral programme:
Renato Treves
International Doctorate
in
Law and Society
Established partnership with:
The University of Milano-Bicocca
The University of Insubria
The University of Bologna
The University of Urbino
The Centro Nazionale di Prevenzione e
Difesa Sociale in Milan
The University of Lund
The Carlos III University of Madrid
The University of Antwerp

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF NORM

THE EXPERIENCE OF THE VALLEY OF THE ELVES AND THE PROPOSAL OF THE
ITALIAN ECOVILLAGES

PhD Candidate
Cristina Spada
University of Milan

To Cristian and Olmo,

my parters in life.
To the baby that will be born

Tables of contents

1.
1.1.
1.1.1.
1.1.2.
1.2.
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.3.
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
2.

3.
3.1.
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.2.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.2.3.
3.2.4.
3.2.5.
3.3.

4.
4.1.
4.2.

Introduction
Aspectsofthecontext:communitarianismandenvironmentalism
Communitarianism,utopianismandideasofperfectibility
Intentionalcommunities
Utopiainliterature
The postmodern version of the intentional community: cohousing
communitiesandecovillages
Cohousingcommunities
Ecovillages
Keyword:sustainability
On"natures"
Naturebecomesenvironment
The norm perspective as a lens to look at the phenomenon. The social
constructionofnormswithinacomplexfield.

7
9
9
9
22
30
30
33
37
38
47

55

TheValleyoftheElves
Amethodologicalnote
Therelationshipwiththeearth
Thehouseoftheculturalcreatives
Effortstowardsalegalstatus
Conclusion
Birth
ThebirthofCastana
ThebirthofJoukoandofElvanLuni
ThebirthofMarco,Oaysi,HaianandYannaweySilui
From rebellion to constructive interpretation. Towards a new type of
awareness
Towardsabiodynamicbirth
Conclusion
Theimportantthingisthatwedecidedittogether:thetalkingcircle
Conclusion

94
109
119
119
131

Fromnonlawtolaw:intentionalcommunitiestowardslegalrecognition?
Ideasofcivilsociety
Sustainableliving

135
135
137

63
67
69
79
81
83
84
84
87
89

4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.

Crisisisopportunity
Desireofrecognition
Contentsoftheproposal,Autumn2008
ThesituationinSpring2010
Fromsocialnormtolaw?
Towardsanothernormativeparadigm?

141
145
147
151
152
154

Conclusions

157

AppendixI
AppendixII
AppendixIII
Bibliography
Internetwebsites
Audiovisuals

159
161
164
167
177
178

Introduction
Inthehistoryofhumanitythereareseveralexamplesofgroupsofpeoplethathave intentionally
abandoned, both physically and symbolically, the fundamental assumptions of their dominant
culturesandsocionormativesystems.Pythagoreans(6th5thcenturyB.C.),Essenes(2ndcentury
B.C.),earlyChristiansanarchiccommunities,enlightenedexperimentsinthe19thcentury,
countercultural communities in the last century and contemporary ecovillages: very different
motivations, of religious, politicalrevolutionary, utopian, existential and environmental origin,
haveinspiredlotsofsocialexperiments,carriedoutwithpassionandspiritofenquiry.Centralto
themistheideaofperfectibility,withoutwhich,accordingtoWilliamMetcalf,therewouldbeno
senseintalkingaboutintentionalcommunities.Accordingtohim,inthelast250yearslotsof
intentionalcommunitieshaverevealedthemselvestobeimportantcitadelsofexperimentationand
theavantgardeinfieldsasdiverseashealthandhygiene,childcare,femaleemancipation,the
relationshipwithothersandthedifferent,schooling,and,lately,technologicalinnovationsthat
arerespectfultowardstheenvironment.
Contemporary ecovillages could perhaps be considered a post-modern version of the intentional
community, for they are characterized by a less radical communitarianism, smaller sizes, attention
to ecological and existential aspects and their inner growth; they tend to be egalitarian, willing not
to totalize, and open to the outside world and to similar experiences, while carrying out their life as
articulation of a planetary consciousness.
The GlobalEcovillageNetwork wasfoundedin1995.Sincethen,thenetworkhasbeengrowing
(andstillis)constantly,aswitnessedbythenumberofdeclaredecovillagesandthenumberof
peopleinvolvedatdifferentlevels,fromthethirdworldtotheopulentWesttotheexSovietworld.
Thepersonalexperience ofadifferentrelationship withtheselfandtheother,inspiredby the
discoveryofholisticandcooperativesynergies,isconsideredthemostproperandsurelythemost
stimulatingwayinthepersonalandcollectivepathtowardsagoodlife.Therediscoveryofancient
stylesandancientlanguages(attributabletosomeaspectsofcustomarylaw),togetherwiththe
appreciationofscienceandtechnologythatarerespectfultowardstheenvironment,arethebasisfor
aculturalandnormativeproposalthatregardscreativityasthekeytofacetheperceivedecological
andsocialcrisisinasatisfactoryway.
InthefirstchapterItrytoillustratetherootsthatexplaintheexistenceofcontemporaryecovillages.
Thedifferentexperiencesofintentionalcommunities,theutopianstreakinbelleslettersandinfolk
tales, the birth and the development of the environmental movement and of the New Age
(understoodasformofnewspirituality)have,intheirintertwinings,givenwaytothoseparticular
typesofintentionalcommunitiesthataretodaydistinguishedbyethicalandecologicalresearchand
bytheefforttoachieveacreativeadaptationofthevariegatedsocietyofmenandwomentothe
changingpresent.
ThesecondchapterillustratesthetheoreticalframeworkwhichIdrawon,theprivilegedlens
throughwhichIchoosetoconsiderthephenomenon.AccordingtotheNormSciencedevelopedat
theInstituteofSociologyofLawinLund,thenormwouldbethatoutcomethatisdefinedby
environmentalconditionsandbypersonalcharacteristicsandinclinations.Thenorminactionisthe
objectofmyanalysisandthepurposeofmyinterpretativereconstructing,accordingtoanaesthetic
7

thatconsiderscomplexityasanepistemologicalassumptionandanaxiologicalprinciple.
In the third chapter I present the results of a piece of ethnographical research carried out in an
Italian ecovillage, The Valley of the Elves, which vaunts a decades-long experience and is
currently populated by some two hundred people. In the attempt to reconstruct its normative
orientation, I have privileged the qualitative approach. The experienced norm, the one that is looked
for, wanted, and built day by day, is the object of my field observation and of the several interviews
I conducted. What I witness emerging, while aware of the perturbation necessarily brought on by
my presence and role of observer, is the outcome of a unanimous participation, inspired by a shared
spirit of research tending towards cultural, social and ecological sustainability. The topics more
specifically focused on in my work are the following:

the approach to childbirth: pregnancy and, above all, the rituals transmitted for the moment
of delivery, which may be a significant precondition for the development of an aggressive or
peaceful culture;

the relation to land, i.e. the pursuit of being in tune with nature, experiencing nature as
holistically as possible;

thequestforconsensus,i.e.apracticeofconsciousnessandspiritualgrowth.
For several years, the Italian Communards have been looking with favour to the possibility of a
recognition first of all social and cultural, and then legal (chapter 4) of the realities they have
been creating. In 2008 the Italian Ecovillage Network drafted a bill, but unfortunately, because of
the unfavourable political situation, there has been no parliamentary discussion of it yet, even
though it has been supported by several activities, including a collection of signatures. What the
representatives of ecovillages are trying to obtain is that the social norm created and experienced
with spirit of research and a certain degree of consciousness, elaborated internally in conferences,
debates, periodicals, newsletters and university courses get an institutional and national
confirmation. This would give them the certainty of making a positive contribution to the whole of
society, with a significant normative interpretation that would creatively face the present. What is
proposed is a cultural, social and legal paradigm shift though in the promoted bill this is barely
glimpsed. The new paradigm considers life in general as the outcome of interrelations, whose
richness is directly proportional to their quantity and quality. According to the authors, it is time for
the typically modern spirit of conquest which has enabled an extraordinary degree of
technological progress, and at the same time made human life on earth uncertain, to give way to
other styles and languages. These would recognize subjectivity (also legal, since the law is an
important regulating instrument still today) in the other, in a general sense.
NorthoftheAlps,EuropeanecovillagesareveryinterestedinItaliannormativeandjurisprudential
developments. Some of them are thinking about a similar legal gamble to be promoted at
StrasbourgtotheEuropeanParliament.

chapter I
Aspects of the context: communitarianism and
environmentalism
1.1. Communitarianism, Utopianism and ideas of perfectibility
1.1.1. Intentional communities
In the history of humanity there have been many attempts to create social structures which would
qualify as alternatives to the dominant cultural paradigms which have emerged in different contexts
and geographical areas. A common intent connected to a project and a shared view of a possible
better society, have, over the centuries, motivated thousands of men and women in the planning and
the physical construction of lives which differ from the dominant cultural universe from the socioeconomic and religious points of view.
The first, documented intentional community dates back to the sixth century BC when, in Crotone,
in that New World, as the uninhabited southern Italian coasts must have appeared at that time, a few
hundred people cluster around the charismatic figure of Pythagoras. For about eighty years, people
lived, worked and ate (vegetarian) meals together at the Homakoeion school. There was no private
property and people dedicated their time to mathematics, astronomy, music and philosophy.
Mystical and intellectual practices were experienced as a tool and a method in the search for the
ideal society. According to Eva Cantarella, Homakoeion saw the recovery of the female principle,
through a return of the chthonic cults, aspects which Greece was leaving behind1.
The discovery of the so-called Dead Sea scrolls, at Qumram in 1947, gave a more detailed picture
of the life of a community, a Jewish monastic sect of about four thousand people, who in the second
century BC, intentionally shared their homes and their agricultural and handicraft products.
William Metcalf, a scholar who has studied the community phenomenon for about thirty years and
has himself spent most of his life living in both intentional and non-intentional communities,
suggests that the Essenes are the first real Utopian example of an alternative lifestyle about which
we have information2. They chose to live in seclusion, far from the main religious school of thought
based in Jerusalem, avoiding the distractions and temptations of the world in order to focus on the
search for knowledge and purity. Their life was governed by meticulous compliance with the rules
contained in the Books of Deuteronomy and Leviticus.3 According to Barbara Thiering, Jesus Christ
lived in an Essene community and this may have influenced the development of early Christianity 4.
Metcalf holds that, following the death of Christ, a communal style of life evolved which was a
forerunner of the numerous anarchical Christian communities existing to this day. According to this
1 Johan Jacob Bachofen, Il potere femminile. Storia e teoria, (a cura di Eva Cantarella), Il Saggiatore, Milano, 1977,
p. 14.
2 William Metcalf, Dropping out staying in: Recruitment, Socialization and Commitment Endangerment within
contemporary alternative lifestyles, issued by Griffith University; Brisbane, Australia, 1986, p. 92.
3 Thomas L. Long, Utopia, in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, et. al. (eds), The enciclopedia of community: from
the village to the virtual world, Sage, Thousand Oaks, USA, 2003, p. 1438.
4 Barbara Thiering, Jesus the man, Doubleday, Sidney, 1992.

author, the first Christian groups for whom the sharing of goods was the norm could be seen as the
counter-cultural movement of their day, in that they were in direct opposition to the materialistic
domination of the Roman Empire5.
The fact that these anarchical communes went into decline was, paradoxically, the result of the
spectacular political success of the Christian church. Many historical examples show how cultural,
social and/or economic inclusion of a potentially revolutionary ideology in the political mainstream
tends to cause a weakening of their capacity to attract disciples and thus reduces their strength in the
power struggle6.
Although suffering opposition, the communal lifestyle of the early Christians survives until it leads,
in the fourth century, to monasticism. This is usually characterized by collectively owned property,
the conscious development of a family atmosphere, common work and the sharing of meals as well
as shared rituals of song and prayer.
The Medieval period sees the birth and spread of different heretical groups who devise forms of
communal living in an attempt to recover a more authentic Christianity, closer in spirit to its
origins. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, the Cathars and the Waldensians flourish in France
and Italy and in the 13th century, the Brethen of the Free Spirit emerged in central Europe. The
latter hold millenarian convictions, believing that the coming kingdom of Christ would visibly
materialize on Earth and they would be its first builders and the first to be redeemed.
The Anabaptist tradition, with its radical Protestant roots, which probably originated in Saxony,
inspired many counter-cultural groups from the 16th century to the present time. Many of these
groups found refuge in the New World from cruel and merciless persecution suffered at the hands
of European political and religious hegemonies, who saw these groups essentially as a threat to the
social order.
The Mennonites, called after their founder Menno Simons (1496-1561), today number over a
million followers; the Hutterites, who emigrated to the United States, to what is now Pennsylvania,
in the wake of the Englishman William Penns7 holy experiment today number tens of thousands
of followers and the Amish, who numbered 5000 at the beginning of the 20th century, today number
about 180.0008 followers. All these groups represent the current success of the Anabaptist Utopia.
The Amish, following the Anabaptist tradition of common property, moreover represent a clear
departure from the individualistic and materialistic culture of mainstream society in the United
States9.
The 19th century and the first years of the 20th century see numerous Utopian communities of a
5 The attitudes and behaviours taken to be counter-cultural are those which consciously move away from, and
sometimes appear to openly oppose, the fundamental rules of a hegemonic and/or dominant culture.
6 R. Connell, Ruling class, ruling culture, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977.
7 William Penn (1644-1718), driven by the need to remove his religious congregation - that of the Quakers - from
persecution and hostility, manages to obtain a concession from King Charles II to colonize a vast area of the New
World the territory which will become the British colony of Pennsylvania. Penn, who is an absolute authority in
that territory, establishes a government based on the separation of the powers and on freedom of religion, something
which would then favour immigration from other European countries, especially Germany.
8 The Amish population, although no missionary activity is involved, doubles every 20 years. This is caused by, on
the one hand, their typically large families and on the other hand by their success in keeping over 85% of their
offspring inside the communities (Donald Kraybill, in K. Christensen e D. Levinson, 2003, p. 42)
9 Donald Kraybill, ibid, p. 42, 43

10

religious and anarchical-socialist nature appear. They are attempts to put into practice the vision of
certain intellectuals in their illuminated search for the perfect society. These attempts are not so
much oases of salvation for the chosen few, but rather real social experiments, models for the rest
of humanity. These communities are based on the conviction, revolutionary for their time, that
social reality, far from being determined by Nature or by Divine Will, is the result of the interaction
of various social forces.10
There are about one hundred and thirty small (in size but not so small in their goals) Utopian
communities flourishing in America in the 19th century, seeking fulfilment within that greater
Utopia and those infinite spaces of the New World. Some of the main people who inspired this
movement were Robert Owen (1771-1858), Charles Fourier (1772-1858), John Humphrey Noyes,
as well as Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) and Etienne Cabet (1771-1855).11
These modern, secular Utopian communities were set up as deliberate alternatives to the tyranny
of the state and capital: actual societies freed from the malaise which was a consequence of early
industrialisation.
The communitarian practice inspired by Owen emerges between 1825 and 1827; in 1826 there are
already eleven experiments, all of which will fail within a few years. Amongst these, one stands out
as worthy of mention: New Harmony, home for pietists and socialists, quickly emerges as a leading
edge economic and cultural oasis. The community promotes the early philosophical publications of
its host state of Indiana and its library, with 360 volumes, becomes one of the most extensive
collections in the western area of the continent. Owen, on reaching Washington in 1826, stated that
he had come to introduce a completely new social system; to change an ignorant and egoistic
system into an illuminated system which will unite all individuals and remove the reasons for the
struggle between them12. According to Owen, science, technology and mutual cooperation would
ensure abundance and prosperity in a society in which equality of the sexes and a secular public life
reigned. At New Harmony, the socio-cultural principles of American society were basically
rejected: religion, marriage and most of all, private property.13
Unlike Owen, Charles Fourier conceives his phalanxes as a kind of "limited company", thus
revealing a more liberal view compared to the Owens communistic organization.14 In a Utopian
view which was more pastoral in nature than industrial,15 Fouriers phalanxes were communities of
1620 individuals, two for each possible personality type. 16 These individuals organized themselves
10 William Metcalf & Diana Christian, 2003, p. 673.
11 Martin Buber (1878-1965), Austrian and later naturalized Israeli, philosopher, theologist and pedagogist suggests
that the Utopian Socialists had successfully identified the radical evil of capitalism in the breakdown of society.
Capitalist society, unlike local and genuine societies, is structurally poor and doomed to become ever more so.
Martin Buber holds that Joseph Proudhon in his vision of confederate communities as an alternative to the state and
with the purpose of guaranteeing both individual freedom and the social order, was the first person to really sense
the need for a real restructuring of society. - see Valentina Paz, Il comunitarismo, Laterza, Bari, 2004, p. 44.
12 He expresses himself in a similar way when, shortly after this, he launches the New Harmony experiment -Tyler
Alice Felt in Grazia and Donata Francescato, Famiglie aperte: la comune. Analisi socio-psicologica delle comuni
nord americane con una nota sulle comuni italiane, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1980, p. 17.
13 R. Creagh, Laboratori di utopia, Eleuthera, Milano, 1987.
14 Fouriers communities appear not to have removed class differences, but to have guaranteed a minimum level of
material support for each member (Kathryn Tomasek in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, et. al. (eds) , 2003, p. 507;
Grazia e Donato Francescato, 1980, p. 20)
15 Kathryn Tomasek, ibid, p. 507.
16 The 810 possible personality types were calculated by Fourier according to what, in 1799, he called the calculation
of passional attractions, a science of human attraction comparable to Newton's work in physics and the work of

11

by taking into account peoples natural inclinations as regards occupation, the management of their
free time and the choice of partners. The present stage was seen as an imperfect step in the
development of an ideal society called Harmony.
Most of the Fourierist communities, (twenty-four according to Kathryn Tomasek) are set up in the
United States between 1842 and 1847; the majority, however, only survive a year or two, due to
debts and internal discord.
The perfectionists of Oneida, led by the charismatic John Humphrey Noyes, establish themselves
in the State of New York in 1848 intending, not so much to conduct an experiment, but rather to
create a model for the future Kingdom of God, thought not to be hidden in the improbable mists of
the Afterlife but firmly anchored on this earth.17 All the property belongs to the community (even
clothes!) and there is no division of work roles. As the emphasis is on community, any type of
exclusive relationship between men and women and between parents and their children is
discouraged. At the same time, they follow a practice of complex marriage according to which
every man could mate with each consenting woman. The aim is always one of spiritual perfection.
From 1869, 'stirpiculture', or selective reproduction is encouraged. The community, which regards
itself as superior, was supposed to produce the best possible individuals. Oneida lasts longer than
that the Owenian and Fourier communities: it comes to its end in 1881 when it is changed into a
limited company which soon turns out to be a successful commercial enterprise.
According to Grazia and Donata Francescano, what causes the decline of the American intentional
communities of the 18th and 19th century are not so much the financial problems, as the failure of
these communities to establish themselves as models for society as a whole. From their position of
small strongholds, these communities regarded themselves as avant-garde forerunners with which
ordinary society would have to align itself as the contradictions brought about by the new
capitalistic system worsened. Of course amongst those seeking Utopia, improvements are visible: in
health and nutrition, in the increased attention towards childcare, in higher levels of education, in
the emancipation of the female role and in improved general social conditions. This is certainly a
striking contrast to the poor and unhealthy conditions in which most of the new working classes in
the factory townsof the Industrial Revolution live, especially in the Old World. History, however,
does not prove them right. Mainstream values, lifestyles, models, the strategy of expansion, the
conquest of private property and, for religious communities, the gradual process of secularization,
all turned out to be too tempting and ultimately won over their communal values.
Donata and Grazia Francescato write that the recovery of the Christian commonwealth, of the
community holding common property, could not but fail within a system which had clearly chosen
the opposite pole. It is not by chance that the Saints, the Citizens of the Kingdom of Heaven on
Earth - as the inhabitants of Oneida called themselves - become manufacturers of luxury cutlery.18
Sure enough, centuries ago, there was a similar phenomenon when the Christian communitarian
movement, with the secularization of the early Christian Church shut itself up inside the
monasteries; further analogies may be found in the radical changes and in the weakening of the
communitarian sense of equality in the monasteries following invasive secularization and the
increased influx of material goods.19
Leibniz in mathematics.
17 Donata and Grazia Francescato, ibid, p. 21.
18 Donata and Grazia Francescato, op. cit., p. 37-39.
19 William Metcalf, 1986, p. 93.

12

As far as the Old World is concerned, the advent of totalitarian regimes between the two World
Wars (Fascism, Nazism, the Franco dictatorship, Stalinism) reduces the drive towards any form of
communitarian and socialist or Utopian development.
One of the aspects of the countercultural movement - the background of which was initially beat
and then hippie - which developed initially in the United States in the 1960s, is the emphasis of
many young people on the return to nature, experienced for the most part as going home20, a
return to the original condition.
The 1960s see the largest communitarian activity in American history with the birth of over two
thousand communes in 34 states.21 The young people who join these communes are mainly white
middle-class22 searching for simplicity and a reconnection with nature, to achieve a spiritually
orientated and significant existence, often with the aid of drugs to expand the mind; all this, in an
attempt to counteract the prevailing avidity, alienation, violence and war23.
Often dissatisfied with the failure of the mainstream institutions to pursue goals that were of
fundamental importance for them,24 the new hippies search for or set up communes (so called
because usually the members hold common ownership of the property25) in order to build and
create cooperation, harmony, gender equality and to undertake the production and consumption of
organic food. Being alternative is often displayed aesthetically, usually by means of long hair,
beads and flamboyant clothing and is also shown in practices like the appreciation of rock music,
the use of marijuana and psychedelic drugs. The new transgressors are often accused of (real or
imagined) unconventional sexual behaviour.
One of the novelties in the recent countercultural style consists of an inner existential search, a
characteristic which, as we shall see later, will be common to many of the future community
experiences. Undoubtedly the fundamental values, unlike those of previous intentional
communities, are of a post-materialist nature26, where the most important goal is personal (and then
collective) development instead of the materialistic economic growth worshipped by the old
culture. According to Alberto Melucci, the holders of these new values do not fight for material
goals or to increase their participation in the system. They fight for symbolic and cultural stakes,
for a different meaning and orientation of social action.27
The intentional communities in existence today have their roots in these diverse experiences. As
William Metcalf writes, citing D. Christian, intentional communities, in different forms and to a
20 Many of the communes founded at that time use the term house to define themselves - Donata e Grazia Francescato,
op. cit., p. 67.
21 Schehr C. Robert, Dynamic Utopia. Establishing intentional communities as a new social movement, Bergin &
Garvey, Westport, Connecticut, 1997, p. 45.
22 Paul Heelas, The new age movement, Blackwell Publisher Ldt., Oxford, 1996, p. 61.
23 Schehr C. Robert, op. cit., p. 45.
24 Whilst interviewing an activist (J.) in a Finnish voluntary project, with a humanitarian, communitarian background it
emerged that it was the duty of the State to take care of the problems of the development but more cost effective
way - Cristina Spada, Il gruppo Estelle. Analisi di un esperimento sociale, tesi di laurea, anno accademico 19992000, p. 47 -. According to J., many hippie friends had chosen to go into politics and had joined the Finnish Green
party (Vihre Litto), believing that they could thus put their ideals into practice. J. had instead chosen volunteer
work as a main occupation, preferring this method of contributing to the improvement of society.
25 Michael S. Cummings, Intentional communities and mainstream politics, in K. Christensen e D. Levinson , 2003,
p. 698.
26 Ronald Inglehart, Culture shift in advanced industrial society, Princeton University Press, 1990.
27 Alberto Melucci, Symbolic challenge of contemporary movements, Social Research, 52 (4), 1985, p. 797.

13

varying extent, offer an extraordinary array of common, basic values. These values may be of a
social, economic, spiritual, political and or ecological nature28. For example, as far as I know, in
Italy, there are anarchical communities like Uropia29 in Salento (founded in January 1995, currently
hosting about 15 people); Catholic-socialist communities like Il Forteto 30 in the province of
Florence (founded in 1977, this community of about 100 people combines cooperative agricultural
activity with family fostering of about twenty children); more communist communities like
Bagnaia31 in the province of Siena (founded in 1979 and comprising about 25 people today), the
Federation of communities of Damanhur32 in Valchiusella (Turin), one of the largest Western,
esoteric communities, which has about a thousand members, of which six hundred are residents; the
Community and Family Association (ACF)33, which are communities coming from a certain kind
of social Catholicism; the community of the Elves, a group consisting, today, of about 200 people
reinhabiting farms on the Apennines between Tuscany and Emilia Romagna: this community has
chosen close contact with nature as a guiding principle for their very particular lifestyle.
Communities can be inspired by secular, religious or spiritual philosophies. They may be organized
on the principles of political activism, social justice or based on environmental values. From a
political perspective, they may display radical, liberal, conservative views, or they may remain
politically neutral. Most communities tend to avoid the traditional political division between left
and right, attempting to maintain a less rational approach to the daily management of their lives and
trying to preserve an openness to the intuitive and emotional dimensions 34. In this they differ from
the attitudes held by earlier communards. On the basis of empirical research conducted using a
sample of 175 intentional communities to whom a questionnaire was given, Josefin Larsson states
that 'politics' in the sense of party and state politics are not central to most intentional
communities, while 'politics', in the sense of power relations, more generally lies close to many a
communard's heart.35
More and more intentional communities are nowadays inspired by environmentalist values36 which
are sometimes followed with religious fervour37. In contrast with what may be commonly perceived,
many intentional communities today do not have tendencies and styles that are countercultural or
opposed to the dominant paradigm. Instead, they operate peacefully alongside society and some
members carry out activities and have roles which are regarded as normal. For example in the
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

37

William Metcalf & Diana Christian, 2003, p. 670.

http://isole.ecn.org/rukola/Uropia.htm, www.unpattotranoi.it/urupia.htm
www.ilforteto.it, www.fondazioneilforteto.it
In an interview, the founder of Bagnaia underlines the fact that Bagnaia is primarily a commune and only secondly
an ecovillage, (it is thus a commune which emphasises ecological issues).
www.damanhur.it
www.acieffe.com. The association was found in 1988 but the idea came to Bruno ed Enrica Volpe with the first
community of Villapizzone in Milan at the end of the 1970s.
Certainly the emphasis on the wholeness of the individual was significant here, the overcoming of the gap in value
systems, an attempt to weld together the individual and the social experience embraced by the young people of the
countercultural movement, beginning in the early 1960s - Grazia e Donata Francescato, 1980, p. 67.
Josefin Larsson, Aiming for change. Intentional communities and ideology in function, rebro University, 2004, p.
52.
This is also true for some of the Israeli kibbutzim whose motivation was anything but environmental. In 2006 the
Lotan kibbutz (www.kibbutzlotan.com) - founded in 1983, part of GEN (Global Ecovillage Network) from 2002 was recognised for the best practices during the annual meeting held in the Danish ecovillage of Svanholm
(www.svanholm.dk), specifically, for its work "in promoting ecological building, waste management and
environmental education; and also for its work in promoting sustainability through the building of bridges between
different ethnic groups in Israel". The last part refers to projects involving Israelis, (Jews and Arabs), young
Jordanians and Palestinians and the Bedouin community in Israel.
William Metcalf & Diana Christian, 2003, p. 670.

14

commune of Bagnaia, alongside the rule of communally owned goods and real estate and
community support for the individuals personal development38, it is considered up to each member
to decide whether to work inside or outside the community, and this usually entails paid work. Thus
there may be teachers, farmers, full time mothers and students in the commune, all living under the
same roof and sharing meals. The same thing occurs in the intentional community of Svanholm in
Denmark, founded at the end of the 1970s, which currently includes about one hundred residents
and at Findhorn, one of the most famous intentional community in the world (founded in 1962 in a
bay on the north east coast of Scotland and representing today, with its approximately 400
inhabitants, the oldest large-scale intentional community in the Old World). Moreover, as openly
acknowledged on various occasions, the financial contribution of outside incomes, whether
communally or individually managed, is in fact often important for the group.
Some intentional communities actually turn out to be more conservative than mainstream culture, as
for example some Christian fundamentalist communities. According to Metcalf, it is quite easy for
anyone in search of communities with a radical or conservative orientation to find precisely what
they are looking for; however, the search proves to be even easier for those who are seeking
communities with moderate political views which are environmentally sustainable and with a
system which promotes solidarity and humanitarian values.39
Some communities self-organize and self-finance themselves through the work of their members
(outside work or the sale of food and handicrafts made within the community), and through the
organization of cultural events; in some countries, like Denmark, Australia, New Zealand and
Israel, intentional communities are sometimes promoted and financed by the government. The
Christian Churches and other institutions sometimes organize and subsidise some forms of
intentional community in line with their orientations and values.
Cohousing communities and ecovillages represent the most recent form of intentional community.
Usually, in cohousing communities, people live in small-scale, self-organized neighbourhoods,
averaging between twelve and forty families; each family owns their home and shares the
ownership of communal areas which include a space or building for collective activities
(recreational, cultural, meal sharing etc.). Beginning in Denmark in the 1970s, co-housing is one of
the fastest expanding forms of intentional community and this is especially true in Europe, North
America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.
Ecovillages, which are sometimes, but not always, similar in size to villages, are attempts to create
communities whose founding values are ecology and attention to the environment. Since the 1990s,
communities of this sort have developed mainly in Europe, in the ex Soviet Union, in North and
South America, in New Zealand and in Australia.
On a different scale and with diverging cultural values, some ecological experiments founded in
Africa and Asia define themselves as ecovillages.
Most intentional communities today are situated in rural areas, often far from the major
38 As stated in the sixth principle, which, together with the other five principles, expresses the values of the people who
are part of the Commune of Bagnaia: We recognise the right of every member to choose the kind of work which he
finds most fulfilling, compatibly with the general economic needs. It is important to like what you do, as Nino
(one of the founders and currently the oldest person in the group, who, had himself grown up in a commune called
Nomadelfia) told me in an interview, the important thing is that it ensures a reasonable income.
39 William Metcalf & Diana Christian, ibid, p. 671.

15

communication routes. However, many of them are in urban contexts as in the case of the student
housing cooperatives40 or of the recent cohousing projects. There is in fact a long tradition of radical
political activists who live in urban intentional communities although this is changing, in that an
increasing number of communities are founded by city-dwellers, who opt for cohousing, creating
cooperatives with the intent of building or buying common residential homes 41, and who hold
moderate political views.
The ecovillage of Los Angeles, in a totally urban context, is an intentional community of about
thirty five people and it is the intention of the members to demonstrate the processes which give rise
to healthy and lively urban cohabitation, aiming at a reduced environmental impact along with
models of a high quality of life.42 One of their covert aims is that of reclaiming public spaces and
streets, seen as desirable places for meeting and interpersonal exchange.
Some lay intentional communities as for example the Yamagishi communities in Japan are part of
bigger organizations. Religious communities like Bruderhof, the Emissaries of the Divine Light,
the Hutterites, The family and Hare Krishna have centres in different parts of the world and the
members move from one to another. Sometimes communities inspired by the same ideology are
founded independently of one another (as in the case of Camphill community and L'Arche in
Europe and North America); in other cases single, intentional communities can become members of
more vast communitarian networks like the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN)43, in North America
the Federation Of Egualitarian Communities (FEC)44, the Fellowship for Intentional Communities
(FIC)45 or the Cohousing Network46.
Living routes, an organization based in Massachusetts, offers courses on the theme of sustainability;
the courses are held in ecovillages located in Europe, India and in the United States. The
organization cooperates with some universities people taking part in these courses can obtain
college credits47.
The Communal Studies Organization (CSA), based in the United States, is a group of academic
researchers and members of intentional communities who are interested in the study of both
contemporary and historical community groups. The CSA organizes an annual conference, usually
held in a historical commune in America, and it publishes the magazine Communal Societies48.
The Society for Utopian Studies (SUS) includes academics and people who are interested in the
40 Widespread especially in the United States, these are cooperatives created by individual universities, with the intent
of building/buying residential student buildings. The students who intend to live in college, participate by paying a
share and thus becoming co-owners for the duration of their studies.
41 According to William Metcalf, this option tends to be a more conservative way to establish semi-communal living
arrangements (personal communication).
42 http://ena.ecovillage.org/English/ecovillages/index.html, http://www.laecovillage.org/.
43 www.gaia.org. As regards the specific subject of GEN, see below.
44 FEC is a mutual help network in North America for about a dozen communities who have as common ground
income-sharing, non-violence, shared decision-making and ecological practices. The website is www.thefec.org.
45 FIC supplies information and coordinates communities and people interested in such issues in North America,
publishing the journal Communities and The Community Directory. FIC organizes regional meetings for
communities every couple of years. The pertinent websites are www.ic.org and http://store.ic.org.
46 Cohousing Network, which in the United States, promotes and supports communities in cohousing condominiums
through the coordination of the network, the spread of information and a magazine which comes out every four
months. The website is: www.cohousing.org. In Canada, the Canadian Cohousing Network provides a similar
service (www.cohousing.ca ).
47 www.livingroutes.org.
48 www.ic.org/csa.

16

themes of Utopia, in literature and psychology and in the concrete implementation of Utopia within
intentional communities. The SUS organizes an annual conference and publishes the scientific
review Utopian Studies.
The International Communal Studies Association (ICSA)49 includes people who live in intentional
communities and people studying the phenomenon internationally, both from a historical and a
contemporary perspective. Every three years ICSA organizes a conference at a university or at a
large intentional community. The first international conference was held in May 1985 in Yad
Tabenkin, Israel, in 2007 it took place in Italy in the commune of Damanhur, and in 2010 it was
held in Israel inEmekYizraelCollegewiththetitleCommunities:thevariedpathsofcommunal
life.
The concept of communitarianism, in the version with which we are conversant, has recent origins.
The term, in fact, understood as a world view or ideology which sees community as a value in itself,
appears in recent encyclopaedias50. It is, in fact, in the period between the 16th and the 17th centuries
that, from being a paradigm appearing as part of the self representation of the traditional world,
communitarianism becomes an actual ideology. This concept develops to the point where it uses the
metaphor of the family and/or group of friends for the state, the nation and the social class and
conceives of social relationships through the model of the relationships which prevail in small
groups. In the Age of Enlightenment, the sharing of some aspects of the communitarian criticism of
the Enlightenment epistemology is usually accompanied by a universalistic programme of human
emancipation. In the 1980s, particularly in the Anglo-Saxon world, people began to talk about
communitarianism, essentially under the auspices of a desire for an anti-individualistic and antiuniversalistic society - A theory of justice by John Rawl51, essentially a reaffirmation of liberalism,
was published in 1971; Liberalism and the limits of justice by the communitarian Michael Sandel
was published in 198252.
Since the spreading of Internet, various virtual communities have formed who hold discussions on
the subject of communitarianism and the development of Utopia. The two best-known groups may
be
found
at
the
following
addresses:
http://www.gaia.org/list/ecobalance
and
http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/intentional/ommunities.
According to William Metcalf, from the mid 1990s Internet has given a significant boost to the
development and spreading of intentional communities, ecovillages and the values on which they
are founded. If, as Metcalf and the Francescatos say, on one hand the intentional communities of the
past appeared as isolated strongholds compared to the wider society and on the other hand, the
counter culture, despite its high profile in the media, lacked any real connection with the masses 53,
over the last 10 years, Internet has brought the values and the lifestyles of intentional communities
closer to ordinary individuals, most of whom live in medium and large cities. Many intentional
communities and ecovillages have a website or are referred to in the virtual web.
Historically speaking, most intentional communities are short lived54, even though this should not
49
50
51
52
53
54

www.ic.org/icsa.
Valentina Paz, op. cit.
It was translated into Italian in 1982, with the title Una teoria della giustizia, edizione Feltrinelli.
It was translated into Italian in1994, with the title Il liberalismo e i limiti della giustizia, edizione Feltrinelli.
Grazia and Donata Francescato, ibid, p. 67.
William Metcalf & Diana Christian, 2003, p. 673.

17

be considered the main criteria for judging their success55.

The factors which shape the cultural and normative orientation of each intentional community can
be summarized in the following points:
the alchemy of the internal organization and of the governing system, which can be formally
normed (for example, the community of Damanhur has its own written constitution) or
informally normed (most communities at least refer to the statutes of their association);
the financing modalities, which can be based either on the conventional monetary and
financial economy, or, at the other extreme, on exchange and bartering, donation and even
by making requests to charitable institutions (like the Caritas in Italy). Recently some
communities have opted for forms of self-financing, also through the creation of an internal
currency. This is the case, for example, of Damanhurian Credit, of the Eko at Findhorn and
of the Ln at Christiania. The modes of financing are usually closely bound up with the
values and norms of the group;
conflict management: according to Josefin Larsson, most intentional communities declare an
intention to adopt a system of decision making by consensus. There are various ways to do
this (facilitation, the circle), the norms of the single groups differ;
the socialization procedure for new members: some communities have a trial period (usually
of a year), others organize courses for the introduction into the community of new members
(as in the case of the Scottish community of Findhorn), others, preferring to reduce the
number of rules, leave this process to spontaneity (as is the case of the Popolo degli Elfi,
although for the sake of successful cohabitation, there is an unwritten rule about the need to
identify with the group and above all about sharing the various rural activities);
interaction with the surrounding population, which can be of an open and cooperative
nature, or a closed and hostile nature;
interaction with local and national authorities: intentional communities have often been
negatively regarded and at times, fiercely opposed by national governments, especially in
the age of the constitution and consolidation of governments. Many past communities found
refuge from persecution in America, where they often prospered. Today, especially in Italy,
there is a growing desire on the part of some intentional communities (especially
ecovillages) to obtain legal recognition of their status56.
These points, though only a summary, give an idea of how the different permutations of these
factors, adopted both consciously and unconsciously by the single intentional communities,
determine their success and longevity. These permutations also define the internal value systems,
along the continuum that runs between the preservation of the status quo and dynamism.
Most intentional communities which were set up between the 1960s and 1970s were founded by
young people between the ages of twenty and thirty years old.57 Since then, intentional communities
are less likely to be set up by people in this age group; today, it is more often people between the
ages of forty and fifty who found projects of this kind.58

55 See Robert C. Schehr, op. cit. According to Schehr, judging the success of a project by its longevity is an attitude
flawed by a commitment to positivism: an attitude which seeks to satisfy a need for certainty with structural
steadiness, control, rejection of any deviance, in line with an evolutionary perspective. This works to the detriment
of change, creativity, and grassroots innovation.
56 For an analysis of this subject, see below.
57 Grazia and Donata Francescato, 1980. pp. 68-72.
58 William Metcalf & Diana Christian, ivi, p. 674.

18

Many of the established intentional communities, as the communards grow older find it more and
more difficult to attract new members and to keep alive the mechanisms underlying the sense of
community; as a consequence, these communities suffer a decline in the number of their members
and in the extent to which they live communally.
Until recently, the mass media depicted intentional communities as colourful social deviations, and
thus as unworthy of serious coverage. The style of the media was characterized by salacious
allusions to sexual or other kinds of misdemeanours, which often proved false, or stories about
dangerous cults.
As demonstrated in recent research by William Metcalf and the British researcher Chris Coates,
these representations, where the use of the term commune is manipulated to discredit the
experiences of intentional communities, continue for over one hundred years. That which Metcalf
defines as an anti intentional community hysteria appears either as the predictable defensive
response that many people have when faced with actual alternatives to mainstream society or the
result of political manipulation. Many groups were persecuted and accused of being cults, usually
without solid grounds. This was the case, amongst others, of the first Mormons and of Oneida in the
United States, of the English Shakers in the 19th century and of Federative Home in New Zealand,
also in the 19th century59. The interest of the mass media, however, has brought American
intentional communities like New Harmony, The Shakers, Amada, the Rappities, Oneida, Brook
Farm and Icaria to the attention of a wider public; this is also true of the last centurys
counterculture community experiments and this attention contributed to the spread of the Utopian
belief in perfectibility, according to which a new, ideal society could exist here and now in the real
world and not in heaven60.
The emergence, in the 1990s of cohousing movements and ecovillages has changed the reporting
style of the main newspapers and programmes around the world, in that the number of positive
stories has increased. Some well-known (and, I may say, successful) intentional communities, like
Findhorn and Damanhur, have people who are in charge of public relations.
The most recent forms of intentional community (cohousing and ecovillages), though following a
rule of common ownership of some possessions, are far less communal than past models.
According to Grazia and Donata Francescato, even the Utopian communities of the late eighteen
hundreds and early nineteen hundreds, though constituting enclaves of collective thinking (the very
thing excluded from the American Dream), especially in the United States, felt the effects of the
spreading of capitalist culture and progressive individualism. In the last thirty years, even the
59 William Metcalf, 2004, pp. 111-114.
Recently, in Italy, the members of the Ananda community in Assisi in the province of Perugia, defined as a
mystical-religious sect, were under investigation, accused of being a mafia-type association involved in slavery,
fraud and usury. In 2008, after seven years of investigations, the judge, at the preliminary hearing, acquitted all the
Ananda communard. The sentence was pronounced on the grounds that no crime had been committed.
60 Sectarian visions have occasionally triggered tragic events. Some recent examples are:

Jonestown, in north Guyana, where in 1978, 918 people, including their leader, collectively commit
suicide;

Branch Davidian Adventists, Texas, 1993: 74 people, including their leader, die in a fire;

Solar Temple, in France, Switzerland and Canada: in 1994, 53 people die in a fire, killed by firearms or
poisoned; another 16 deaths occur in 1995 and then 5 more in 1997;

Aum Supreme Truth Religion: in 1995 some members carry out attacks using nerve gas in the Tokyo
underground, killing 12 people and injuring a further 5000.

Heaven's Gate, USA: in 1997, 39 members commit suicide.

A detailed account of these tragic groups may be found in John R. Hall, Philip D. Schuyler and Sylvaine Trinh,
Apocalypse observed: religious movements and violence in North America, Europe and Japan, London; Routledge,
2000.

19

organization of Israeli Kibbutzim has progressively evolved towards a less communitarian style.
With regards to the approach to technology, as in other fields there are differing responses. Some
communities only use pencils for writing, on the grounds that a pen is made from the by-products of
oil (thus choosing to opt out of the huge international oil industry with its negative implications for
the health of the planet).61 In other communities, there may be a belief in the development of
devices which reduce the human impact on the biosphere and therefore there may be a certain level
of investment in the research and development of such devices, thus embracing a commitment to
the improvement of technology, seen as a tool for the betterment of life on earth. Though both these
tendencies, leading to opposite results, display a critical approach towards mainstream
technological development, there are other intentional communities whose attention chiefly focuses
on other areas and for whom the environmental issue is marginal or absent.
In the West, after World War II, there is a great increase in the number of new religious groups. The
new forms of worship to which these groups subscribe diverge noticeably from traditional
Christianity. The members of these new religions also find communitarian lifestyle alternatives
congenial62.
Compared to their 19th century predecessors, the intentional communities of the 20th and the early
21st centuries tend to have a spiritual orientation, but usually do not hold dogmatic religious views,
tending instead to move away from institutionalized religions.
Comparing current communities to hippie communes, todays intentional communities tend to
attract older members who are more in line with the dictates of mainstream culture, who appear to
diverge less in their style of dress, who are less likely to use drugs, who are more likely to adhere to
conventional sexual mores, sharing similar musical tastes with the outside world and interacting
more easily with their neighbours.
On the whole, these members are also better organized, more inclined towards the kind of
organization which adopts structured programs and open to the inclusion of whole nuclear families
within the more extended family of the community.63
Currently, about a hundred thousand people live in intentional communities in North America
(about 0.03% of the whole population) in about two thousand communities. Some of these are well
established communities and some are newly emerging groups; the indicators show that this
phenomenon is a healthy and growing trend in the USA and in Canada.
In Great Britain, there are about five hundred intentional communities in which roughly ten
thousand people live. According to Chris Coates, intentional communities have never before
provided a home and a set of values for such a large group of individuals in the United Kingdom as
they do today.
Germany hosts the biggest and most diversified movement of intentional communities in Europe.
Many of these communities arose from the countercultural and environmental movements of the
61 This is the case of a small community (less than 10 residents) on the Emilian Apennine who prefer to remain
anonymous, according to the wishes of one of the main representatives.
62 J. Gordon Melton, Intentional communities and new religious movements, in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, et.
al. (eds), op. cit., p. 700-701, William Metcalf, 2004.
63 Michael S. Cunnings, Intentional communities and mainstream politics, in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, et. al.
(eds), op. cit., p. 699.

20

past few decades, and often have anarchist, feminist and socialist underpinnings. Eurotopia: The
directory of intentional communities and ecovillages in Europe presents 101 projects, although one
has to presume that many projects do not appear in this list.
The development of intentional communities in eastern Europe and Russia - impossible during the
Communist regime because party guidelines implied that society as a whole should take on the
features of an intentional community - starts in the 1990s. In this case too, the movement, which is
often in contact with its Western counterparts, is undergoing healthy expansion.
The Israeli case is certainly worthy of mention. According to the most recent census, about 2% of
the population (115,300 people) live in 268 kibbutzim, representing by far the largest percentage of
residents in intentional communities compared to any other country. Degania is the oldest kibbutz
(group in Hebrew), founded in 1909 and existing today in two branches which host 830 people.
This movement, successful for some decades in influencing the social norms and even acting as a
source of inspiration in the forging of national policies, reached its apex in the mid-1980s and then
began to implode due to economic and political difficulties, decreasing at an annual rate of 0.5%.
When the State of Israel was established in 1948, one third of the members of the government and
twenty six out of the hundred and twenty Members of Parliament lived in Kibbutzim; this is no
longer the case for any member of the political class.64 In Israel, there is the Yad Tabenkin Research
and Documentation Center of the Kibbutz Movement which is one of the biggest academic centres
for research on intentional communities, the other one being the Center for Communal Studies at
the University of Southern Indiana.
The number of people wishing to live or presently living in intentional communities is increasing
even in India, where traditional religious customs blend with New Age trends imported from the
West65, and in Australia, where there are between one and two hundred intentional communities.
In general, the extremely dynamic, changeable and cyclical movement of intentional communities,
at the present time is growing dramatically in terms of number of people who are involved and in
countries where such social experiments are found66.

64 Daniel Gavron, The kibbutz awakening from utopia, in in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, (eds), The
Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World, Sage, Thousand Oaks, USA, 2003, p 727.
According to Daniel Gavron "not only has the kibbutz failed to foster universal egalitarisn and communal norms, it
has itself succumbed to current Western materialist and individualist values".
65 Paul Heelas, The new age movement, Blackwell Publisher Ldt., Oxford, 1996.
66 William Metcalf, 2004, p. 115.
On various occasions, many people have tried to outline a theory of Communes in order to shed light on the
motivations and relationships involved in the creation of collectives based on social freedom and equality.
According to Claudio Stroppa, history shows that, with the exception of primitive communities and village
communities, it is an exception for communities to be founded in times of peace; they are founded as a reaction to
social pressures and a lack of security. - Claudio Stroppa, Comunit e Utopia. Problemi di una sociologia del
Kibbuz, CRISAN, Milano, 1968, pp. 23-29.

21

1.1.2. Utopia in literature

According to the scholar William Metcalf, if it were not conceded that the human race could
change, evolving towards perfection (if not reaching it), it would be meaningless to speak of
intentional communities. Metcalf, in fact, holds that such a juxtaposition is so obvious that it risks
being overlooked. Here we need to look at the long history of Utopia in its universal and timeless
appeal.67
The neologism Utopia was coined in the 16th century by the English statesman Thomas More
(1478- 1535) to designate an imaginary island, outlined in fantasy though physically unreachable.
From the Greek ou topos, no place, but also eu topos, good place, Utopia derives from what
Pamela Neville-Sington and David Sington call the almost universal, enthusiastic yearning for the
Golden Age.68
To quote some examples, Hesiod, Ovid, the Bible, the Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh, although in
different historical and cultural contexts, all present a similar picture of ancient times as being free
from any hardship arising from the search for the necessities of life. Often the reference is to the
generosity of Earth in lavishly providing countless delicious fruits, the enjoyment of which appears
free from labour and pain.
Hesiod says: With hearths free of sorrow and remote from toil and grief, the fruitful earth
spontaneouslyborethemabundantfruitwithoutstint.69 In the imagination of Ovid, in the Golden
Age, a period of innocence to be retrieved, man sine lege fidem rectumque colebat70: it was an age
in which the earth, free from any constriction, unfurrowed by hoe or plough, spontaneously
provided everything man could need; a land flowing with streams of milk and sweet nectar and in
which the verdant oak distilled yellow honey71.
Some Old Testament scholars see the prophet Amos (8th century BC) as being the first person that
we know of to plan an intentional community: he is thought to have imagined a social reality based
on the communitarian principles of justice and the absence of exploitation. According to others, this
67 William Metcalf, 1986, p. 84.
68 Pamela Neville-Sington and David Sington, Paradise dreamed, Bloomsbury, London, 1993, in Robert. C. Schehr,
1997, p. 135.
69 Robert C. Schehr, ibid, p. 135.
70 Ovid, Metamorphoses, book I, verses 89-93:
Aurea prima sata est aetas, quae vindice nullo,
Sponte sua, sine lege, fidem rectumque colebat.
Poena metusque aberant; nec verba minacia fixo
Aere legebantur, nec supplex turba timebat
Judicis ora sui, sed erant sine vindice tuti.
Jean Carbonnier sees in this passage a proclamation of lawlessness in the sense that each individual embodied his
own justice [...] if law must define itself in and through society. According to the sociologist of law we emerge
from lawlessness: we await its return - Jean Carbonnier, Flessibile diritto. Per una sociologia del diritto senza
rigore, Giuffr, Milano, 1997, p. 43 (Flexibledroit:textespourunesociologiedudroitsansrigueur,Librairie
generalededroitetdejurisprudence,Paris,1969), my translation. (From here onwards, the translation of quotations
from non English texts and of interviews are mine)
71 Paraphrases of a passage of Ovid, in Robert. C. Schehr,1997, p. 135.

22

is an overly liberal interpretation of the Scriptures.72

In the Encyclopaedia on Communities, under the entry Utopia, Thomas L. Long briefly
summarizes the main implications of the Utopian Dream in literature and history.73
In The Republic by the Greek philosopher Plato (circa 428-348 A.D.), philosophers, whose civic
virtues would be accompanied by benevolence, truth and beauty, were appointed as guides and
sovereigns of an ideal state.
In the Timaeus, the first verses of the story of Atlantis are outlined, the mythical civilization which
is said to have sunk beneath the waters of that ocean. According to Robert Schehr, Plato's ideas on
the education of Philosopher-Kings, was the first systematic attempt to combine highly imaginative
explanations of another way, based on a re-evaluation of the political, economic and cultural
framework.74 In Karl Poppers opinion, the other way, the perfect state in the imagination of the
Greek philosopher who aspired to discover the secret of the art of government in its unchanging
form, achievable by man in virtue of a superhuman effort and with the help of reason, in fact tends
to inspire totalitarian visions in dangerously fossilised societies in which political change is
absent.75
In the Dialogues attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-499 BC), according to a
series of teachings on right order in societies, the virtue of the ruler, (chosen on the basis of his
moral stature and not on his lineage) and the common sense of subordinates should ensure stability
and prosperity without the need for stern and restrictive laws. A noble character, no longer the sole
prerogative of noble blood, becomes potentially accessible to everybody through dedication and
decorum, justice, loyalty and filial devotion. The text of Confucius, fundamental for the education
of every cultured Chinese person and an essential text for moral education for about two thousand
years, exerted an enormous influence on Chinese and East Asian philosophy and ethics until it was
challenged and finally rejected during the Maoist-Marxist cultural revolution.
Genesis depicts the first dwelling of mankind as a plentiful garden, free from evil; it is human
imperfection that makes future humanity as a whole no longer worthy of such an idyllic place.
In the Promised Land of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible, the Torah for the Jews)
there are rivers running with milk and honey (Exodus 3:8; Leviticus 20:24; Numbers 13:27;
Deuteronomy 6:3); it is to the Promised Land that Moses leads the Israelites in their flight from
Egyptian captivity after forty years spent in the wilderness. Particularly in Leviticus and in
Deuteronomy, Moses lays down the rules for the rituals, the sacrifices, the ceremonies and the
precepts necessary for the good functioning of society.
The prophetic tradition, especially in the book of Isaiah (chapter 56-66) and Jeremiah (chapter 23,
30-33), predicted the return of peace, safety and prosperity in the Messianic kingdom to come.
In Islam, seen as the fulfilment of Judaism and Christianity, a similar image of social relationships
72
73
74
75

William Metcalf, 2004.

Thomas L. Long, 2003, pp. 1437-1442.
Robert. C. Schehr, ivi, p. 139.
R. Karl Popper, La societ aperta e i suoi nemici, Armando, Roma, 1977 (DieoffeneGesellschaftundihreFeinde,
1945). For a criticism of the closed nature of Utopian societies, see also Antonio Cocozza, Utopia e sociologia.
Una critica alle societ chiuse, Armando Editore, Roma, 2004.

23

ordered according to a divine principle is depicted. The Koran, the law of Allah, as communicated
to mankind in the words of the prophet Mohammed, aims at establishing an ideal life for the
community of believers through abidance by rules which promote mercy as well as ethical and just
attitudes, including special attention for the poor and needy.
In his De Civitate Dei, St. Augustine (354-430) postulates the existence of two opposing worlds: the
heavenly city (City of God) and the city on earth (the City of Man). 76 Tainted by Original Sin,
the men of the earthly city are regarded as being incapable of maintaining the ideal social order of
the City of God which is placed at a distant vanishing point and is the mirage which makes it
possible to survive in the vale of tears and which could only be reached in an indeterminate end
time. The doctrine of incarnation, however, makes dual citizenship possible for man as a foreign
resident in the world.
The work of Augustine, the writing of which took about a dozen years, will become one of the
foundation stones of Western culture, changing the millenarianist Christian Utopia for the next
seven centuries77, until the appearance of the work of Italian monk Gioacchino da Fiore (circa 11301202). The latter proposes a progressive interpretation of the history of humanity and suggests that
monastic rules be followed both by religious and lay communities. Gioacchino, who saw himself as
the guardian of Divine revelation, divides human history into three eras: the era of the Father, that
of the Son and that of the Holy Spirit. The monk saw his own time as the apex of the last era, during
which laymen, clergy and monks should live according to the monastic rule, holding all goods in
common, writing and practicing contemplation to enhance their spiritual understanding. The
influence of Gioacchino da Fiore (especially his having divided history into separate periods and his
belief in progressive human development) had, according to Thomas Long, far-reaching effects.
These effects could be seen in the works of the Italian Dominican Girolamo Savonarola (14521498) who, after the decline of the Medici family, attempted to establish a theocracy in Florence.
The influence of Gioacchino da Fiore could also be traced in the life of the explorer Christopher
Columbus (1451- 1506), the first of many Europeans to see the New World as a possible Utopia78.
This influence is still noticeable in the thinking of the philosopher Tommaso Campanella (15681639), who puts forward a vision of a Universal Republic of the Church in a new Golden Age.
Long mentions the English Puritans and the radical Protestants for their Utopian social projects
which often accompanied the development of the Protestant reform, the socialist disciples of the
reformer Claude Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825) and even Karl Marx (1818-1883). According to
Long, if the English Civil War (1642-1644) had lasted longer, it would have better deserved the
name of the English Revolution79 since the Puritans and other religious sects envisioned and
fought for a profound renewal of English society.
The book Commonwealth of Oceana, by the English political theorist James Harrington in 1656 and
dedicated to Oliver Cromwell, is an allegorical analysis of the struggle and at the same time a
Utopian answer to Thomas Hobbes Leviathan, in which human life is summed up as essentially
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. After the war, radical groups press the Puritans for more
76 Also Plato, some historians, Cicero and Ticonius referred to the existence of two societies, that of the just and that
of the unjust. Augustines thinking differs in his ordering of some peculiarities of Biblical origin, based on the
theology of incarnation. See Maria Bettetini [et al.], La citt dell' utopia: dalla citt ideale alla citt del terzo
millennio, LibriScheiwiller, 1999. (Civitas europea), pp. 25-28.
77 The rules of St. Augustine are followed above all by Christian monasticism up until the advent of the Benedictine
order, founded by Benedetto da Norcia (480-547). These communities, basing their life on the principles of poverty,
chastity and obedience, tried to live as if the City of God were an earthly reality.
78 See Mattelart Armand, Storia dell'utopia planetaria. Dalla citt profetica alla citt globale, Einaudi, Torino, 2003,
pp. 9-11.
79 Thomas L. Long, 2003, p. 1440.

24

extensive reforms. The Levellers try to eliminate the social hierarchy in their country.
The Diggers, one of the most radical groups of English Protestantism, (but also forerunners of that
anarchical form of English communitarianism, theorized by the Russian prince Ptr Alekseevi
Kropotkin), respectful of the supremacy of the pater familias and with rigid ascetic morals and a
spartan work ethic, fight for an equal land distribution, communistic social reform and
decentralization of the state in favour of many small, linked communities.
Some Renaissance humanists, inspired by literary and religious analogies and by the new travel
tales from the explorers of America, produce several versions of the ideal state, both serious and
satirical. The literary creations aimed at depicting imaginary better worlds are however not only
created by the educated and scholarly classes. Some anthropologists underline the fact that the
scientific community fails to pay adequate attention to the different forms of rebellion of the lower
classes and thus fail to reach a clear interpretation and expression of a culture of the oppressed .80
Jacques Derrida, in his Della grammatologia declares that over the years, scholars gave greater
space to an academic vision than to contributions from the lower classes.81 According to Robert
Schehr the knowledge of the subordinate classes is a situated knowledge82, which Michel Foucault
identifies as being knowledge which is firmly anchored in time and space and perceived, lived and
experienced by the knower in a direct way, mainly through felt experience.
In the 14th century, the masses create their own version of the Golden Age, which differs from the
romantic version of the poets and from the austere and pious one depicted by the clergy. 83 The poem
The Land of Cockaigne dates back to this time and is probably the best known representation of a
Utopian vision before the publication of Thomas Mores work.
The poem, as reported by Neville-Sington and Sington84 is as follows:
The land of cockaigne85
There are rivers brought and fine
Of oil, milk, honey and wine;
Water serveth there no thing
But for sight and for washing.
There is a mighty fine Abbey,
Thronged with monks both white and grey,
Ah, those chambers and those halls!
All of pasties stand the walls,
Of fish and flesh and all rich meat,
The tastiest that men can eat.
Wheaten cakes the shingles all,
Of church, of cloister, bower and hall.
The pinnacles are fat puddings,
Good for princes and for kings.
Every man take what he will,
80
81
82
83
84
85

Robert. C. Schehr, 1997, p. 106.

Jacques Derrida, Della grammatologia, Jaca Book, Milano, 1969.
Robert C. Schehr, ibid, p. 165.
Robert. C. Schehr, ibid, p. 135.
Pamela Neville-Sington and David Sington, in Robert. C. Schehr, ibid, p. 136.
Cockaigne was translated from the German kakan, cake.

25

As of right to eat his fill.

All is common to young and old,
To stout and strong, to meek and bold.
Everyman may drink his fill
And needn't sweat to pay the bill.
The daily hardships suffered by the lower classes cause the imagination to seek a fantasy place
where only the needs and wishes of the common people are satisfied. In putting forward a criticism
of the opulent monks and their exaggerated wealth, they depict instead a land of extravagance,
exuberance and excesses available to those who usually are excluded from such pleasures.
Here abundance and freedom from work are the main themes and everything desirable is accessible
and available to be fully enjoyed. Robert Schehr remarks that what began as a literary genre which
gave clear expression to a kind of counter-hegemonic hedonism, later gives rise to popular festivals
celebrating freedom from rules. Here, the Roman Saturnalia must be mentioned, the medieval
festivals of fools (festum fatuorum, festum stultuorumm, festum hypodiaconorum, or fte de fous)
celebrated mainly in France, but also in Spain, Germany, England and Scotland; and also, Carnival
in the Christian West. They were times of social licence, departure from morality and also
suspension of legal regulations (partially a period of lawlessness according to Jean Carbonnier86).
In the opinion of Robert Schehr, considering the innovations made by the legislator and jurist
Solone (638 - 558 BC) in Athens during the seventh and sixth century BC and by the mythological
figure of Lycurgus of Sparta (9th-8th century BC) on one hand, and on the other, the passionate and
popular representation of the Cockaigne, it is possible to grasp the underlying reasons for the
Utopian dream as it appears in the 20th century. However, the author holds that between these
important historical moments and the 20th century, there is a literary current which changes the
future of the Utopian dream.
Several works of Utopian persuasion appeared during the Renaissance, partly inspired by the great
discoveries of the time in various fields. The real turning point, however, is the work of the
statesman Thomas More: although his description of an imaginary Utopia scarcely differs from
those of the Renaissance humanist tradition, his comparison of Utopia with the English reality of
his time is a new departure.
More, who develops his story in two parts, is inspired by the explorations of his contemporaries and
especially Amerigo Vespuccis travel tales of the New World.87 Hythloday88, the protagonist of
Mores novel, after setting sail with the famous navigator, travelling beyond known waters,
discovers Utopia. Krishnan Kumar89 holds that if the second part, which was written first, is a
playful and intelligent portrayal of the political, economical and cultural relationships on the island,
in the first part, More develops a criticism of the Tudor middle classes of his time. In this way,
More depicts the imaginary qualities of the island of Utopia where property is held in common,
education is extended to all men and women and where freedom of religion prevails. More thus
offers a criticism of the social relations of his time, which were characterized by widespread
86 Jean Carbonnier, 1997, p. 29.
87 Amerigo Vespucci's travel accounts are very successful in their time. Thirteen editions are published in Latin over
the four years following the first edition. At that same time, German, Italian and French translations are published.
According to Armand Mattelart, Vespuccis story, although a mixture of day dream and reality, represents the first
global event in history and Vespucci is a milestone in this world revolution, an unprecedented revolution in the way
the universe is seen. - Armand Mattelart, Storia dell'utopia planetaria. Dalla citt profetica alla societ globale,
Einaudi, Turin, 2003, p. 12-13.
88 Hythloday literally means shrewd carrier of nonsense - See Thomas Long, 2003, p. 1440.
89 Krishnan Kumar, Utopianism, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1991.

26

corruption.
If he had merely written a novel about the exploration of the imaginary island, portraying it only as
no place and good place, says Schehr, his legacy would probably not have differed much from that
of the popular Cockaigne, since it would have lacked that extra element needed to spark the critical
imagination in the minds of the lower classes. Instead, the creation of Utopia is presented as
something that it is possible to create somewhere. Fuelled by criticism, with one foot in reality and
the other suspended in the universe of possibilities, the outcome is an eternal search, a hunt, a chase,
a journey.
Robert Schehr, quoting George Sorel, Karl Mannheim, Ernst Bloch, Walter Benjamin, Paul Ricour
and James Scott, reaffirms the transformative power of the Utopian vision and of mythological
reminiscences when juxtaposed with current reality. It is acknowledged that the work of Thomas
More, initially meant for an educated audience and translated into English and French in the 1550s,
represented a significant precedent, although in the imaginative dimension, of the many conquests
of contemporary Western society, from economic and social equality to rational thought and
religious tolerance.90 It is also certain that the literary work of Thomas More inspired many
experiments of communal living during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Between the 16th and the 17th centuries, coinciding with the growing number of sea voyages and the
emergence of a literary genre which excited the imagination of the deprived masses, victims of
political oppression and economic exploitation, there is a rediscovery of classical texts like Platos
Republic; at the same time distortions of the Latin version of the New Testament offer an open
affront to the authority of the Catholic Church. This criticism first appeared with the publication of
the New Testament in Greek by Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466 -1536).
Amongst others, the work of the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is worthy of
mention. Inspired by Platos Timaeus and also by Mores Utopia, Bacon imagines Utopia as the
New Atlantis: here king-scientists govern the city of Bensalem, the life and organization of which
revolves around the development of scientific studies, carried out with the Baconian method, with
the aim of improving society.
William Metcalf holds that despite the fact that the Utopian dream was often suppressed by various
factions, the works of Francis Bacon and Thomas More contribute significantly during the
Renaissance to keeping the little flame of Utopia alight.91
Right from the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, colonized America is conceived as
something other than a mere replica of the Old World in the New one; moreover, both lay and
religious groups try to put into practice the Utopian dreams which various authors had so far only
described. According to Thomas Long, Pennsylvania is a paradise for many a dissident European,
whilst Maryland, a Catholic enclave, proves itself open to that freedom of worship which
characterized Thomas Mores Utopia.
Whereas the American revolution, like its French counterpart, proves itself to be a project in which
Reason acts as the protagonist, the ideal and the fundamental driving force, the newborn republic
turns out to be a vigorous laboratory of different lay and religious (e.g. Mormons and Shakers)
Utopian experiments. While the political Utopias born from the French and American revolutions
90 Neville- Singrton and Sington, 1997.
91 William Metcalf, 1986, p. 93.

27

develop and become concrete in the 19th century, also through the works of socialist intellectuals
(such as Saint-Simon, 1760-1825, Charles Fourier, 1772-1837, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, 18091865) and in the activities of many different social explorers, Karl Marx is the author of a broad
historical, economic and social analysis, the influence of which continues throughout the 20 th
century. Ironically, his predictions do not come true in those societies where the contradictions
brought by the new capitalist system appear most obvious. His political influence was instead
greatest in prevalently rural countries like Russia, Cuba and China.
The oppression by various regimes and counter-ideologies which developed in Italy, Germany and
in Spain (Fascism, Nazism and Franchism), inspired an anti-Utopian literature, as for example
Brave New World (1932) by Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) and 1984 (1949) by George Owell (19031950).
After World War II, the Utopian dream is fed by the American counterculture of the 1960s and
1970s, which attempted to put it into practice by setting up communes, mostly rural, designed to
create an alternative to the dominant capitalist system with its technological development and
sexual conventions. Many of these experiments are inspired by the book Walden by Henry David
Thoreau (1817-1862), a text which I believe is still referred to today in many community contexts.
According to Alberto Magnaghi, the history of Utopia through the centuries has been marked by a
move towards a tangible human and earthly reality. 92 Mythical visions of a Golden Age lost in time
and space, visions of perfect societies in perfect cities, governed by Reason and characterized by
fixed roles and hierarchies, to be found only at the end of time, have gradually given way in modern
and postmodern93 times, to social projects located in the here and now, projects which are
ambitious in their impact yet clearly circumscribed within ecological and cultural strongholds.
The Anabaptists were amongst the first to make a successful attempt to achieve Utopia on this
earth, within well-protected social and cultural, as well as physical, enclaves. Karl Mannheim holds
that the Anabaptist movement represents the first real protest movement and challenge to
mainstream culture, masked by a Utopian fantasy94; according to Cohn they constitute the longest
success story in the long history of Utopia95 and in fact, Hutterites, Amish and Mennonites represent
the Utopian success of the Judaeo-Christian tradition.
The Utopian communities of the 19th century, like the Anabaptists, placed their confidence in the
power of human agency to create the perfect society. Especially for Robert Owen, Charles Fourier
and the other contemporary Utopian socialists and philosophers, Utopia is an alternative and
delimited social project, (Fouriers Falansterio, Godins Familisterio) compared to industrial
relationships based on wage-earning work. Whereas until that time, Utopia was seen as an
imaginary and ideal republic, difficult if not impossible to achieve, Friedrich Engels (1820-1895),
in his Utopian Socialism and scientific socialism, gives a much broader meaning to the concept of
92 Alberto Magnaghi, Il progetto locale, Bollati Boringhieri, Torno, 2000.
93 If we take as a modern phenomenon a belief in an objective foundation for the influential narrations of the Western
tradition (like classical science, a certain type of progress, of development, of emancipation...), then postmodernism
is instead characterized by disbelief, or rather, by a the relativization of every kind of meta-narration. The postmodern attitude does not aim to create new explanatory theories in substitution of the existing ones; on the contrary,
it manifests as scepticism and works through pragmatic practice and research. Among others, see Gary Minda,
Postmodern legal movements: law and jurisprudence at century's end, New York University Press, London New
York, 1995.
94 Karl Mannheim, Ideologia e utopia, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1999.
95 N. Cohn, The pursuit of the millennium, Oxford University Press, New York, 1970, in Metcalf, 1986, p. 93-94.

28

Utopia, which includes, as well as the inevitable class struggle and social revolution, all those social
projects which reject the division of society into classes.96 This Marxist definition of Utopia will
later become widely accepted97.
From this time on, the role of the believer in Utopia undergoes a profound change: not only is the
vision situated in time but the social actor is clearly defined.
He is in no way a dreamer, nor a builder of fantasies. He possesses the knowledge about
the social alterity which lies in the future and in his own hands. His role and mission
consist mainly in helping this future to emerge 98.

To progress, now, beyond the narrow concept of a definitive end to the contradictions of human
experience on earth or in the afterlife, in the vain hope of ultimate salvation from existential
afflictions, our social planning will need rethinking. The primacy of cognition in the devising of
ideal models of life and society, which has been a characteristic of the mainstream Western tradition
from Platos time, may have to be called into question.
This challenge involves working towards the emergence of a new symbolic and normative system
which may be better able [on the one hand] to interpret the inner contradictions between
determination and indefiniteness and [on the other hand], on a practical level, to resolve the
problem of what conditions would enhance the individual and collective capacity to deal with those
same contradictions, in the absence of absolute points of reference and final solutions99.
I think I can state that we are witnessing a progressive evolution, starting with the Anabaptist
communities of the 18th century, the Utopian communities of the 19th century and increasingly in the
communes and intentional communities which continue to exist and are being founded today,
towards visions which can be transferred from the realm of the imagination and put into practice in
actual day to day living. This process subsists, quite apart from any desire to see these developing
norms recognized and to some extent legitimated by mainstream legislation. The future, from an
ontological viewpoint, seems closer than ever before and human beings, more than ever personally
involved in its creation.

96
97
98
99

Friedrich Engels, Socialismo utopistico e socialismo scientifico, Nerbini, Firenze, 1903.

Maria Luisa Berneri, Viaggio attraverso utopia, edited by M.A. I. Carrara, 1981, p. 242.
Roberto Fregna, La citt di utopia, CLUEB, Bologna, 1987.
Franco Crespi, Crisi e rinascita dell'utopia, introduzione in Lewis Mumford, Storia dell'utopia, Donzelli, Roma,
2008, p. XIII.

29

1.2. The postmodern version of the intentional community: cohousing

communities and ecovillages.
1.2.1. Cohousing communities

The cohousing community of

Munkesoegaard, Denmark.

Over the last few years, since its foundation in the year 2000, the cohousing of Munksgrd has
been populated by children, adults, young and elderly people in accordance with the living
arrangements established by the first group of project creators. Five groups of houses, for a total of
one hundred apartments, are a mix of privately and communally owned properties providing
housing for approximately 225 people. The elderly and young people (the under 31s), due to their
particular housing needs, each lived in given group of houses the other three groups of houses
were occupied in different ways by adults and families.
In a guided tour, Helle100 showed me and the friend accompanying me all the energy-saving
technical features. Houses built of wood, eco-compatible paints, a urine collection system designed
to irrigate the surrounding 24 hectares of organic farmland and a rain-water collection system to
supply water to the laundries located in the five common houses... are just some of the innovations
which make Munksgrd the biggest eco-compatible building project in Denmark, as well as the
first mainstream eco-compatible project. In Munksgrd, residents associations take on the role of
managing the various tasks concerning recreation, maintenance, organization and so on of the
community. The various common houses one of which is built with straw bales by the inhabitants
themselves - are used for collective activities and sharing of meals one, two or more times a week.
In 1967, an article appeared in one of Denmarks most important newspapers suggesting that it is
far better for children to grow up in an extended family as opposed to growing up within the
modern model of the (nuclear) individual family household.101,102
The following year, Jan Gudmand-Hyer, inspired by his architectural studies at Harvard and by his
encounters with some of the Utopias in the New World (amongst others, Twin Oaks commune in
Virginia - www.twinoaks.org), publishes the article Det manglende led mellem utopi og det
foraeldede en familiehus [The missing link between Utopia and the outdated single family house],
100 Real names have been substituted to respect privacy.
101 Jan Martin Bang & Peter Bakker, "Intentional communities in Scandinavia and the Netherlands", in K.
Christensen and D. Levinson, et. al. (eds), The Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual
World, Thousand Oaks, USA: Sage, 2003, pp. 748- 752.
102 Bodil Graae, "Brn skal have Hundrede Foraeldre" [Children should have one hundred parents], Politiken,
Copenhagen, April 1967.

30

contributing to the beginning of this phenomenon in Denmark103. In 1967, fifty families come
together in a common project. In 1972, they found Sttedammen which is, today, the oldest
cohousing project in the world. About twenty buildings, arranged around the circumference of a
common area, are the prototype of a trend which developed over the following years especially in
Denmark, Holland and Sweden. With the neologism cohousing, (from the Danish bofoelleskaber,
living community), in 1988 the Californian architects Kathryn McCamant and Charles Durret
present the U.S. population with the Danish solution to the perceived social problems of
contemporary, post-industrial society.104
According to Durret:
Cohousing residents are looking for alternatives to the isolation associated with
conventional single-family houses located in subdivisions and urban areas. [] People
believe that their personal lives will be more economical, practical, convenient, and fun
in cohousing than they would be if they chose a single-family house or other
individualized arrangement.
- Charles Durret, Cohousing, in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, et. al. (eds), op. cit.,
p. 197 -

The advantages of a community lifestyle in a Danish bofoelleskaber, as in the Dutch centraal

wonen or Swedish kollektivhuser, were soon recognized in the three Nordic countries, so much so
that the development of this option soon appeared to the collective imagination as feasible
alternative for the entire population. In 1992, the architect Katrin Palm Lindn suggests that
Denmark, with approximately fifty thousand of its population residing in over a hundred and fifty
different projects, holds the world record for community living projects.
In a cohousing project, each person can usually choose the extent of to which they participate in
community life, sharing some common areas, as well as equipment and facilities (laundry, car
sharing etc.), taking part in management activities, periodical decision-making assemblies, while
still maintaining external social contacts and participating in the market economy in quite a
conventional way. William Metcalf writes:
Cohousing is a recent style of intentional community, attempting to enjoy the
economic, environmental, social and cultural advantages of communal living, while
maintaining separate family dwellings, with members working and participating within
mainstream society.
- William Metcalf, Community living, Findhorn Press, Forres, UK, 2004, p. 77 -

An urban and suburban location allows individual members to keep a job outside the cohousing,
benefiting at the same time from shared facilities in a non-hierarchical structure which aspires to a
participatory mode. Far from the forms of shared economy which characterize other types of
intentional communities, in a cohousing project, there is often a liberal and diversified urban
culture which emerges from the mixture of people from different backgrounds. Sometimes the
environmental ethic is much less evident, being replaced to a certain extent by socially inspired
103 Jan Gudmand-Hyer, "Det manglende led mellem utopi og det foraeldede en familiehus.", Information, 26th June
1968.
104 Kathryn McCamant and Charles Durrett, Cohousing, a contemporary approach to housing ourselves, Habitat
Press, Berkeley, 1988.

31

motivations.
In this housing option, compared to the traditional concept of commune, individual needs on the
whole take priority over collective needs. As William Metcalf points out, in this day and age, most
people would not live in an intentional community if this meant having to give up a certain degree
of individualism.
Graham Meltzer, a scholar of the cohousing phenomenon, states:
Cohousing is a mainstream option and intentionally so. It is not an 'alternative'
lifestyle but one deemed appropriate for the broad majority of people.

According to William Metcalf, in the United States and Canada many cohousing groups are
springing up, and this is certainly a key part of the future of the North American intentional
community movement.105 A few projects are to be found in New Zealand, Australia and Japan,
while Stroud has recently hosted the first experiment of this kind in the United Kingdom106.
In the year 2000 the definition of the term cohousing appears in the American Heritage Dictionary
of the English Language (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, forth edition).

Cohousing, a contemporary approach to housing ourselves by Kathryn

McCamant and Charles Durret introduces the subject in the United
States. In the first month following its publication, 3000 copies are sold
and five successive editions are printed until 2002. The first cohousing
in the United States is Muir Commons - http://www.muircommons.org/
- (Davis, California), personally planned by McCamant and Durret; the
first inhabitants moved in in 1991.
In the United States, the first people to adopt this lifestyle are
Caucasians belonging to the upper-middle classes. Today there is a
wider range of social backgrounds. Most of the cohousing participants
come from single-family homes and this is certainly why they prefer to
choose cohousing rather than more communal types of intentional
community.
People who choose cohousing, as well as finding a home, are certainly
looking to take part, on some level, in communal life.
The elements which constitute a cohousing are six107:

105
106
107

shared planning, an effort from the bottom: building the project,

choosing the various possible solutions; each collectively made
decision is supposed to strengthen the social cohesion, the
collective commitment towards that particular, localized design,
and is in effect what makes the future residents feel involved;
architectural solutions which facilitate on the one hand the need

William Metcalf, ivi, p. 31.

Jonathan Dawson, Ecovillages. New Frontiers for sustainability, Green Books, Bristol, 2006, p. 23.

Charles Durret, Cohousing, in K. Christensen and D. Levinson, et. al. (eds), op. cit., pp. 194-198.

32

for community and on the other, the need for intimacy. Some of
the architectural solutions planned to create a good mix and
satisfy the different desires of the inhabitants as regards relating
with each other are: car park at a distance from the houses and
reached by a route which is adjacent to communal living areas;
private house kitchens and respective work places (eg sink)
facing communal areas whilst the living rooms are relegated to
more private areas; the communal house visible from all the
other houses, etc.
presence of equipment and services for communal use. The
private houses may be made smaller (reducing costs) because a
large guest room, workshops, childrens playrooms, laundry
rooms are all situated in communal areas. The aim of shared
planning is just this: it makes some of the practical and social
aspects of life easier and cheaper;
collective management by the residents: monthly meetings
usually plan future developments for the twenty to thirty groups
which make up a cohousing unit. A consensus is sought and
when necessary it is backed up by vote (the method is decided
by those involved).
A non-gerarchical structure. Usually the sharing of internal
chores and work is based on the specific inclinations of each
individual, whereas in the case of any some internal aspects
requiring a temporary leader, the entire community shares the
responsibility of all the decisions made, without any one person
dominating the process;
separate incomes. No type of shared economy ensures the
economic wellbeing of the residents and each nucleus is
responsible for itself. The community has a communal budget,
financed by monthly contributions, which takes care of
insurances, long and short-term maintenance and occasional
costs, eg. childcare during the collective meetings.

According to Durret, the ideal number of housing units is twenty to

twenty-five. This is so as to enable a harmonizing of communal costs, to

enjoy a sufficient diversity of people and to allow a successful collective
management practice.

1.2.2. Ecovillages
According to Albert K. Bates, ex-president of the Global Ecovillage Network and a permaculture

33

and appropriate technology teacher living at The Farm in Tennessee108, there are few things which
are more attractive and interesting, not to mention more difficult to put into practice, than the idea
of living in harmony with the natural environment and ones neighbour 109. And yet, it is this
challenge which forms the basis for the birth and establishment of those particular forms of
intentional community which from the mid-70s like to define themselves as ecovillages.
The term was coined in 1975, when Mother Earth News, an alternative American magazine, used
the word ecovillage to describe the experimental context in a farm in Hendersonville, North
Carolina, where they were working towards the construction of renewable energy sources, buildings
designed to save energy as well as focusing on organic agriculture. Around about the same time, the
use of the word kodorf (ecovillage) appeared in West Germany, when environmental activists
attempted to create a small village based on the principles of respect and ecological sustainability in
an area designated for the stockpiling of nuclear waste in the rural area of Gorleben in the north of
the country.110 According to Bates, this initiative was suppressed by the biggest deployment of
police ever seen in West Germany since the end of the Second World War. In 1985 the first issue of
the magazine kodorf Informationen appeared. The magazine was later to evolve into Eurotopia.
Directory of intentional communities and ecovillages in Europe, which in recent years has also been
translated into English.111
In the 80s and early 90s, In Context, an American magazine of modest circulation, published
accounts and interviews on ecovillages as strategies and models for a sustainable human culture. In
1990 Gaia Trust, a Danish association under Hildur and Ross Jackson, commissioned the magazine
to carry out a study aimed at uncovering and cataloguing the various intentional eco-sustainable
community experiences established around the world, trying to outline the emerging principles and
philosophies. The following year the document Ecovillages and sustainable communities was
drawn up. This document defines an ecovillage as
a human-scale, full featured settlement in which human activities are integrated into
the natural world in a way that supports healthy human development and that can be
successfully continued indefinitely.

Pausing to dwell on the meaning of this first definition, a human-scale settlement may be
considered a settlement which is small enough so that residents know each other, as well as giving
each person the possibility of feeling they have a direct influence on the decisions and directions
taken by the group as a whole.112 The requirement of full featured settlement is satisfied when all the
108 The Farm, an intentional community and ecovillage founded in 1971 on the community and ecological inspiration
of seventy or so hippies, today boasts approximately two hundred residents. Between the late '70s and early '80s, a
period when the village hits its demographic peak, the community oscillated between 1,200 and 1,600 inhabitants
living on a surface area of 800 hectares. Based on principles of non-violence and respect for the ecosystem, during
its 39 years the ecovillage has distinguished itself, among other things, for its dedication in the field of renewable
technologies (especially solar power, bio-fuels, building techniques based on using local and eco-compatible
materials), for its various and continuous activities of solidarity and its support for natural birthing techniques
thanks to an active group of internal midwives.
109 Albert K. Bates, Ecovillages in K. Christensen and D. Levinston (eds.), The encyclopaedia of community: from
the village to the virtual world, Sage, Thousand Oaks, USA, 2003, p. 423.
110 In Germany the environmentalist issue came to the public attention only at the end of the 60s. Before this period,
any discussion on nature, harmony or holism was considered to be politically suspect as these topics has been
central to the Nazi and Nationalist credo. For the role of the forests in Nazi mythology, see S. Schama, Landscape
and memory, Harper Collins, London, 1995.
111 Since then guides to intentional communities and ecovillages have multiplied: William Metcalf, in his Community
living, Findhorn Press, Forres, UK, 2004, records thirteen, most of which are constantly updated.
112 In the article What is an ecovillage? present in the portal of the Aam Terranuova magazine
(www.aamterranuova.it), Hildur Jackson remembers how at a conference held in Findhorn in 1995, an important
event in the establishment of the Global Ecovillage Network, the general idea concerning the size of a community

34

main aspects of human existence are envisaged and present in a balanced manner (home, food
supplies, working activities, education, health and care, recreational activities, social life...). The
prefix eco- in the term ecovillage indicates the quality of the relationship between human
beings and other forms of life: the human being intends to move away from a position of dominance
and try instead to understand and find his proper, specific and particular place in the network of life.
In this first definition of an ecovillage, there are echoes of the concepts and normative orientation
characteristic of another, earlier term, sustainable development, an expression already in use at
an international level by 1987. According to the Bruntland Report (from the name of the
Commissions president, the Norwegian Gro Harlem Bruntland) presented by the World
Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), part of the UN, sustainable development
is a development which guarantees the needs of todays generations without compromising the
possibility for future generations to satisfy theirs. The Bruntland report, significantly known as Our
Common Future,113 was sent to all United Nations governments, bodies, organizations and programs
by the General Assembly, with an invitation to take the analyses and recommendations contained
therein into consideration when determining future policies and programs.114
From the report Ecovillages and sustainable communities commissioned by the Gaia Trust
foundation, twenty-six initiatives emerge, presented in the document as shoulders to stand on for
the whole movement.115 These include real-life examples of traditional villages, cohousing
communities, rural and urban alternative communities, a permaculture project in Nepal and a
Philippine network dedicated to promoting sustainable development from the bottom up.
According to Jonathan Dawson, former president of the Global Ecovillage Network, the main thrust
of the research work consists of the attempt to extrapolate from the experience of these realities.
Thus we could have an overview of those topics and characteristics which are common to the type
of community which could act as a pioneer in the transition towards a truly sustainable human
society. The document does not suggest some idealistic return to the past, but analyses the potential
improvement of skills and practices for a light footprint on the Earth.116
In 1993, a small group of Danish intentional communities founded the Danish network of
ecovillages, Landsforeningen for kosamfund ((LS), the first network of its kind and a model for
the larger network and movement which would emerge a few years later.
In 1994, at The Farm in Tennessee, the first Ecovillage Training Center was established - which in
the same year presented itself at an international level, as well as in a virtual format
(www.ecovillage.org). Meetings and national and international conferences have followed, giving
greater importance and consistency to the increasing awareness both outside and inside the
movement.
In 1996, at the Habitat Conference of the United Nations held in Istanbul, the Global Ecovillage
Network was presented as a global confederation of people and communities that meet and share
their ideas, exchange technologies, develop cultural and educational exchanges, directories and
newsletters, and are dedicated to restoring the land and living 'sustainable plus' lives by putting

113
114
115
116

was that it should be of approximately 500 members. In fact there has never been a disposition given from on
high with regards to the demographic and social size of ecovillages, which have developed and been established
more than anything else on the basis of internal dynamics.
G. H. Bruntland Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, 1987; G.H. Bruntland, Il futuro di tutti noi,
Bompiani, 1989.
Thornton Justine, Beckwith Silas, Environmental law, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2004, pp. 563-564.
The term movement is used here mainly (and above all) because this is how their followers define, describe and
recognise them.
Jonathan Dawson, 2006, p. 13.
At Mercatale di Vernio, in the summer of 2005, representatives of the Italian ecovillages held a conference which,
significantly, was called Ecovillages: the ecological footprint of he who treads lightly.

35

more back into the environment than [we] take out117. The G.E.N. is dedicated to promoting the
evolution of sustainable settlements all over the world. This is done through internal and external
orientation services and the facilitation of the flow and exchange of information on the subject of
ecovillages and illustrative sites. They also network to co-ordinate different fields of interest
pertaining to sustainable settlements through co-operation and international partnership, above all
with the United Nations. The GEN officially registered in Germany as a NGO -, gains the
recognition of consultative status at the United Nations in 1998.
The Gen-Europe (which also includes the African regions), the Ecovillage Network of the Americas
(ENA) and the Gen Oceania and Asia have all been established.
In 1997, the Russian network of ecovillages was founded, whilst in Australia, international
communities which had already made permaculture a fundamental premise for their existence and
development become pioneers of lifestyles based on ecological awareness. At the recent
International Climate Change Conference held in Copenhagen in December 2009, the Findhorn
Foundation and the GEN are officially represented, in the forum intended for main talks (Bella
Centre), at the Klima Forum intended for the expression of civil society, and at the Bottom Meeting
set up by the Danish volunteers belonging to or close to the GEN.
The European network of ecovillages (Gen-Europe) organized several conferences which saw the
participation of communities and ecovillages from different countries and many national networks
emerged as a consequence. This was the case of the Italian network, founded in Alessano (Lecce) in
December 1996, at the time of the conference entitled Ecovillages, a solution for the future of our
planet, organized by the local authorities together with the Csmos Centre for Studies in Milan.
The resulting document entitled Un mondo migliore possibile (A better world is possible) reads as
follows:
The purpose of the network it to publicise community experiences considered fertile
social and economic experiments, where it is possible, although on a small scale, to
live the Utopian dream of a society based on solidarity, co-operation and ecology.
The Italian ecovillage network have community experiences which differ widely from
one another in terms of orientation, philosophy and organization, but they are all
inspired by a lifestyle which is sustainable from an ecological, spiritual, socio-cultural
and economic point of view. The term sustainability is here taken to mean the aptitude
of a group of human beings to satisfy its own needs without diminishing, but rather
improving, the prospects for future generations118.
The communities adhering to RIVE (Rete Italiana Villaggi Ecologici Italian Network
of Ecological Villages) are open ecovillages, and can be visited if a time and date is
agreed upon beforehand.119

Around 15 communities make up the Italian network and they are, as the extract above makes clear,
very different from one another. Some communities were established in the late 70s, mainly on the
ideological, political and counter-cultural wave of the times, others have only been in existence for
a few years. The RIVE (Rete Italiana Villaggi Ecologici) assumes an official status in 2005, as a
117 Jonathan Dawson, ivi, p. 19.
118 The definition of sustainable development as defined in the Bruntland report in 1987 is adopted also in the Italian
version. It is interesting to note that the term sustainability, which is more comprehensive, replaces the expression
sustainable development used in the international document. According to Klaus Bosselman: Both advocated and
critics of the concept of sustainable development agree that the original meaning of sustainability has been
obscured by the Bruntland definition. The report remained simply silent about the meaning and central
importance of the principle of sustainability - Klaus Bosselman, The principle of sustainability, Transforming
law and governance, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire, England, 2008, p. 25, p. 30.
The actual coining of the term sustainability (Nacthaltigkeit) is said to date back to the 17th century and is
attributed to the German engineer and environmental scientist Hans Caarl von Carlowitz.
119 http://www.mappaecovillaggi.it/article6130.htm

36

non-profit association. At the RIVE meeting, which took place in the Valle degli Elfi in July 2009120
at which about five hundred people were present, new projects emerged from many different areas,
ranging from Sicily to Friuli Venezia Giulia; this last, pronounced by many of those present to be a
very concrete reality, catalysed and attracted much interest over the following months, which were
dedicated to its design and realization.

1.3. Key word: sustainability

We can never speak about nature without, at
the same time, speaking about ourselves.
-Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics, University
of California Press, Berkeley, 1975, p. 77 -

According to Hildur Jackson, what distinguishes an ecovillage from a cohousing community is not
really the choice of a rural location over an urban one, but rather the commitment towards a greater
and deeper lifestyle transformation compared to the mainstream culture.121
The central concept which emerges from my research is that of sustainability. My research is based
on information from the GEN portal, the various meetings and conferences on this subject, the life
experiences I have had the opportunity to observe in some of the communities which make up the
network122 and from the discussions I have had with the supporters and participants in some of the
projects examined. A Community Sustainability Assessment, including the ecological, social and
spiritual dimensions, has been proposed as a self-evaluation tool for the individuals adhering to
communal projects.123
The concept of sustainability, essential for understanding the lifestyle of an ecovillage, must be
considered as a particular mode of relating to the environment, and in general with other people,
within the vocational framework. The sustainable approach (a term which has become a current
phrase at an international level) is the result of particular historical, social and cultural trends. The
concept of sustainability, far from being recent, is thought to have accompanied the relationship
between man and the environment at least up until it was pushed aside by the spread of the
industrial revolution in the Western context. It later reappeared with a new focus on sustainable
development where, however, the accent on ecology gave way to an increasingly technical
dimension.
120 The RIVE, as well as a number of assemblies for members, organizes an annual meeting which is open to anyone
interested usually halfway though July in an Italian ecovillage.
121 Hildur Jackson, Integral societies: from cohousings to ecovillages, in Hildur Jackson, Karen Svensson (eds),
Ecovillage Living. Restoring the Earth and her people, Green Books, Davon, Uk, 2002, p. 156-158.
122 I have personally visited, and stayed for various longer or shorter periods of time, in: Valle degli Elfi (PT),
Campanara (FI), the Archeus project (VI), Bagnaia (SI), I cavalieri del sole (PG), Damanhur (TO), Amusa
Quidesso (PR), Granara (PR), Forteto (FI), Basilico (FI) and assisted in the work for creating Terrabase, with
regards to Italy; Svanholm, Christiania, Munksgrd, Fri Og Fro (free and happy; ecovillage started in 2005,
were the houses have been built and will continue to be built mainly from straw) and Thorup in Denmark;
Katajamki, Keuruu and Vinl (theosophical community) in Finland; Findhorn in Scotland and Ces in the Swiss
Alps.
123 Presentation of the tool will be dealt with later.

37

An understanding of the changes in the relationship between man and nature through time, of the
transformation of the concept of nature, can help us place in context something which, as from the
late Sixties, goes by the name of sustainable development, environmental sustainability and
ecological sustainability124 and with the understanding of its real life meaning in an ecovillage.

1.3.1. On natures
What is nature? According to John Urry and Philip Macnagnten, talking about nature may be
misleading if we want to understand it. It would instead be more appropriate to talk about natures,
or rather different concepts of nature which throughout history have contributed towards
determining the human approach to existence.125
What is the relationship between man/the cultural product and nature? Is it separation, interaction,
dependency, domination, progressive emancipation one from the other? Nature has many
significances: both chains of necessity and a kingdom of freedom and wild innocence; the feminine
and disorder, the uncontrollable to be tamed; a book open to investigation; the product of divine
will with a precise place in the order of the universe; as well as the ultimate, ceaseless mechanism;
an inexhaustible material resource at the complete disposal of human needs and desires; beauty
generating feeling and an inspiring muse; a place and a landscape for leisure and pleasure which
requires protection and must be separated from industrial activities and human interference; an
environment; a living system, a mother suffering from the lack of harmony caused by human action
and capable of revenge126
Within the Western tradition, the pre-Socratic Greeks were the first to see nature as a distinct and
separate, abstract entity, singular compared to the multiplicity of lived experiences, although they
held differing and sometimes opposing ideas about nature, society and the position of mankind in
relation to these. Physis is taken to mean what naturally exists and grows independently according
to an innate law, a kingdom which is separate from nomos, an artificial product of the human
consortium, thus not natural.127 Nevertheless this distinction is not absolute.128 Although the book of
nature is regarded as open to investigation and is, through an effort of the human intellect,
comprehensible, the instrumental use of technology to force nature beyond itself is viewed
negatively and considered destructive.129 Plato and Aristotle display concern regarding the attitude
of the Greek polis and particularly of Athens with regards to the surrounding environment. Man
should never set himself against nature. Answering the question of whether man should moderate
124 The ecological highlight underlines a more critical approach compared to the type of development Western society
tends to use as a reference. Cf. Klaus Bosselman, op. cit.. In his text, Bosselman proposes sustainability as a
fundamental concept as indicative of civilization as justice and equality.
125 P. Macnaghten, J. Urry, Contested natures, Sage publication Ltd, London, 1998.
126 On the hypothesis of a vindictive planet Earth, put forward in the Gaia teory, see James Lovelock, The revenge
of Gaia: why the Earth is fighting back and how we can still save humanity, Allen Lane, Santa Barbara
(California), 2006.
127 In Kairs, Alma Venus, Multitudo, Antonio Negri claims the power of the multitudo against the predominance of
idealism and trascendentalism, identifying materialism as the irreducible other as distinct from power, for the
constitution of an ethical constitution. See Antonio Negri, Kairs, Alma Venus, Multitudo, Nove lezioni impartite
a me stesso, Manifestolibri srl, Roma, 2000.
128 Donald J. Hughes, An environmental history of the world: humankinds changing role in the community of life,
Routledge, London, 2001, p. 5.
129 Haavio Ari, Approaches to man's relationship with nature. Tracing the origins, in Green Moves, political
stalemates. Sociological perspectives on the environment, edited by Annmari Konttinen, Turun Yliopisto, Turku,
1996, p. 10.

38

his wishes or increase production, Plato unhesitatingly upholds the former option. He holds that the
reasonable man moderates his wishes; he who wishes to live as a good farmer or a good philosopher
should not follow the example of the rude speculator who hoards wheat nor of the base courtier who
tricks the speculator who had hoards the wheat.130 According to Plato, and likewise the
Pythagoreans, the cosmos is a living organism of which all creatures are a part and to which they
are, by their very nature, similar. The ethics which derive from these teachings prohibit injuring or
damaging any form of life. The Pythagoreans not only follow a vegetarian diet but also cut out
beans and all seeds from their diet.131 Only once the multiple variety of phenomena which surround
us is conceptualized and defined as physis, a separate entity, abstract in its objectification, may
nature be personified. In Western history, nature is initially a goddess, then a divine mother, an
absolute monarch, a minister, a constitutional jurist, and is, at last, natural selection.132
Indeed, the way in which nature has historically been made singular, abstract and
then personified provides key insights as to how people thought about themselves,
their place in the world, their relationship with each other and with the land, and their
sense of general power and powerlessness in shaping their lifeworlds.
- Phil Macnaghten, John Urry, 1998, p. 8 -

Quoting Williams, John Urry and Philip Macnaghten go on to say that in the affirmation that man
can intervene in natural phenomena lies the implication that it is possible to act or think of acting
otherwise. To do this, nature must be thought of as separate from man.
Some see in monotheistic religions, strongly centred on the human dimension, an important cause
for the deterioration of the environment.133 Ari Haavio says that it is a small step from the governing
and domination of nature to its exploitation.134
In sociological literature, Max Weber is the author of a major analysis of the main world religions
which have influenced the course of history. Rejecting a materialistic conception of history and
conceding less importance to the Marxist class struggle, Weber considers that ideas and values have
influenced society in the same way that economic conditions have done. Hinduism, Buddhism,
Taoism, ancient Judaism, otherwordly forms of religion which preach a turning away from the
physical world for the sake of a more authentic spiritual life, and which are disinclined to control
and process materials, are thought to have contributed to shaping societies which were substantially
different from European society, where ascetical Protestantism was very influential. This last, a
form of salvation religion, is thought to have played a fundamental role in the emergence of the
capitalistic attitude, of bureaucracy and of the rational and legal State, only in the West.135
The idea of a separate nature, of an objective and independent world out there, sets the scene in the
130 Lewis Mumford, Storia dell'utopia, Donzelli, Roma, 2008, p. 29.
131 According to Donald J. Hughes, the teachings on the care and protection of the environment found in many
religions and philosophical traditions do not necessarily result in positive attitudes towards the environment:
Therefore the fact that environmentally positive teachings can be found in ancient religions and
philosophies does not always surely indicate that they were put into practice. The desire to
maintain power and the search for resources to maintain it, undoubtedly took precedence in most
cases. - See Donald J. Hughes, op. cit., p. 78.
132 R. Williams, Ideas of nature, in J. Benthall (ed.), Ecology: the shaping inquiry, Longman, London, 1972.
133 Arnold Toynbee, The religious background of the present ecological crisis, International Journal of
Environmental Studies 3, 1972, pp.359-367.
134 Ari Haavio, 1996, p. 11.
135 Max Weber, L'etica protestante e lo spirito del capitalismo, in Sociologia della religione, Comunit, Milano,
1982 (Die protestantische Ethick und der Geist des Kapitalismus, in Gesammelte Aufstze zur
Religionssoziologie, Mohr, Tbingen, 1904-1905).

39

17th century for the birth of a mechanistic conception of the universe, which was one of the
conditions sine qua non for the emergence of classical science. From then on, any kind of scientific
investigation implied the search for so-called natural laws, considered to be always true,
unchanging and accessible, even in their complicatedness136, to the human intellect.137
Such an approach to the other, to the object of investigation, was a distinguishing feature, in the
mid nineteenth century, of the birth of sociology as a social science. According to Jrvikoski,
sociology, with its claim to be an exact science on a par with biology, takes as its object of study,
society and social facts138. He thus highlighted the nature-society antithesis and the predominance of
the latter over the former along with the modern mechanistic conception of the world.139 The object
of the new science is other with respect to the wild, to that which is beyond control and which is
outside the city walls140.
The aim of this new social science is to investigate the phenomenon of the human consortium as a
distinct entity, removed and separate from the kingdom of nature. This removal, separateness and
distinctness imply a liberation from ties, an emancipation. As well as objectifying society,
separating and distinguishing it as a means of obtaining scientific knowledge, sociology advances
using a methodology which is the result of objectification, thus removing itself from other
(narrative) forms of knowledge, in the hope of being recognized worthy of the title of science.
Similarly, the objectification of so-called primitive society in the second half of the 18th century,
helped grant a scientific nature to emerging (juridical) anthropology. A feature of past and present
savages, whether intrinsically good (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)141 or not, was thought to be the
magical-religious mentality (Lucien Lvi-Bruhl), behindhand in the economic and modern
development of civilization, and practically unchanged since the Paleolithic or Neolithic. In The
reinvention of primitive society. Transformations of a myth, Adam Kuper shows how absolutely
wrong and misleading theories may become the basis of academic research as well as the
justification of political programmes.
What idea of nature prevailed in the public opinion at the end of the 1960s, when the term
environment became current, triggering the internationalization of environmental politics and law?
136 Complicated (from the Latin cum plicum the fold of a sheet of paper -), as opposed to complex (cum plexum knot, tangle), refers to the linearity of the folded paper; a complicated problem may always be explained by its
folds, through an analytical approach; the whole will always be equal to the sum of its single parts and may be
expressed in an equation. See Alberto F. De Toni and Luca Comello, Prede o ragni, Uomini e organizzazioni
nella ragnatela della complessit, Utet Libreria, Torino, 2005, pp. 13-17.
137 The reversal of the trend occurred at the end of the 1800s beginning of 1900s with the birth and development of
quantum physics.
138 This was how Emile Durkheim, one of sociologys founding fathers, defined the object of this new science.
139 Timo Jrvikoski, Sociology and nature, in Green Moves, political stalemates. Sociological perspectives on the
environment, edited by Annmari Konttinen, Turun Yliopisto, Turku, 1996.
140 On the subject of walls, the first human construction which marks a separation from the natural environment,
Donald J. Hughes, (op. cit., p. 34) writes: The wall is the symbol not of the city alone, but also of a new view of
the world, which entailed a "Great Divorce" a sense of separation between culture and nature that came about with
the origin of cities". Representing protection from the enemy, walls constitute a tangible sign distinguishing what
is inside from what is outside: "within was the ordered lifestyle of a city; and outside was a comparatively chaotic
world." It is in Mesopotamia, where Gilgamesh is (also) remembered as a "builder of walls", that the first cities in
the history of our civilization arose.
141 According to Adam Kuper, the mythicizing of the savage nobility, while being in harmony with the natural and
mostly uncontaminated environment, is today undertaken by the native people's movement, in a romantic
reaction against science and civilization. Cf. Adam Kuper, The reinvention of primitive society.
Transformations of a myth, Routledge, London, 2005, pp. 201-218.

40

It is thus important to my study to understand the idea of nature that underlies the conception,
planning and constitution of an ecovillage. What is the significance, for a man or a woman
committed to living in an ecovillage, of living sustainably?
As mentioned above, the concept of sustainability was not new in human history. At least until the
beginning of the 19th century, up until the dawning of the industrial revolution, the normative
arrangements, mostly local and in a context of collective ownership and management, are thought to
have been, in some way, driven by this principle. Kaus Bosselman writes:
Judging by the success of sustainable forests and pasture management, environmental
law had been rather effective until 1800.
- Klaus Bosselman, op. cit., p. 15 -

The Industrial Revolution, comparable in size only to the earlier Neolithic revolution, leads to a
profound transformation of the territory and of the use of natural resources. What emerges is a new,
modern economy, distinguished by its short-term orientation and an intensive exploitation of the
resources.
The law mirrored this shift. It left its sustainability-oriented, localized and public
character more and more behind, adopting a 'private free enterprise' approach. At the
beginning of the nineteenth century, public environmental law virtually disappeared.
The emerging system of private law and absolute property rights was largely ignorant of
environmental protection, let alone sustainability. The Prussian Land Law of 1811, for
example, granted individuals complete dispositional powers over their crops, land and
ecosystems.
- idem -

In the same spirit, paragraph 544 of the French Civil Code, sanctioning a relationship of ownership
of the individual over the natural world, indicates de jouir et disposer des choses de la manire la
plus absolue, legalizing every possible natural destruction by human hand.142 In the same spirit, the
preceding Bill of Rights, in the American Constitution granted the right to the private citizen
(owner) unprecedented individual rights which were based on a marked anthropocentric conception
(cf. chap. 3, footnote 24).
In 19thcentury-England, which was the driving force of the Industrial Revolution at that time,
progress chiefly signified domination and control over nature. The first significant body of
environmental laws appeared in that particular cultural, political and juridical context as
components of that positive law as we know it today.
These regulations involve limitations on the pollution of the environment; the spirit of the law, far
from being inspired by ideas of conservation and protection, or by the need for respect towards
something which has dignity in itself143, are a response to the unpleasant social conditions created
142 Vittorio Olgiati, The janus-headed role of positive law in environmental risk management, in Sustainability,
development and environmental risk, edited by Enrico M. Tacchi, Foxwell & Davies, Uk, Ltd, 2004, p. 191.
143 As regards the discussion on the possibility of granting legal status to every living being, see Cormac Cullinan,
Wild law. A manifesto for earth justice, Green Books, Devon, UK, 2003; Godofredo Stutzin, Natures rights.
Justice requires that Nature be recognized as a legal entity, Resurgence Magazine (January/February 2002, n.
210); Thomas Berry, Rights of the Earth. Recognizing the rights of all living beings, Resurgence Magazine,
September/October 2002, n. 214.
In the rewriting of the Ecuadorian Constitution, a series of articles have recently been approved under the heading
Rights for nature, according to which the State should recognize and guarantee the right for the natural life cycles
to maintain and regenerate themselves. According to the writer and journalist Eduardo Galeano, the constituting

41

by pollution, overpopulation and the spread of illnesses. This first body of environmental law,
inspired by the protection of the rights of individual property, is revealed as an inefficacious and
inappropriate solution to the new and widespread social consequences of the process of
industrialization, which was seen by the majority of people as a natural - and holy - continuation of
the divine work.
Far from reflecting ecological awareness or an organic vision of existence, this aspect of positive
law is thus the product of a reaction ad hoc to specific social problems and public order.144
The environmental law which develops in Western Europe from the 1960s feels the effect of this
division, which, according to Bosselman is caused by its departing from the principle of
sustainability. Over the past decades an idea has emerged amongst those who make public decisions
that a weak approach to sustainability is sufficient, that it is possible to have your cake and eat it:
care for the environment as well as economic growth (that is to say, sustainable development).
Modern legal systems have their origins in European civilization. Their 'formalism' is
due to the increasing separation between morality and law which has occurred since the
eighteenth century and the dominance of positivism. By the 1960s, when the first
modern environmental laws were drafted, the separation was complete. Existing laws of
unfettered use and exploitation of resources expressed in property rights, civil codes
and public statutes- were complemented by conservation laws, but not in an integral
manner. They were not intended to alter an unsustainable development. The very
existence of environmental law as a distinct subject area is proof of the fact that
sustainability values have not found their way into the legal system. Both domestic and
international environmental law are characterized by the absence of integration and
ecological sustainability. Moreover, with their anthropocentric, resource-oriented and
non-integrative approach, they tend to foster modern industrialism rather than changing
it.
- Klaus Bosselman, op. cit., p. 15 -

A certain degree of ecological ignorance in modern and non-modern environmental law is well
documented in literature.
In 16th-17th century Holland, a certain utilitarian rationalism is thought to have inspired the attitude
to nature, to the enemy Ocean, on the part of an essentially urban world constantly threatened by
water. In a language derived from humanistic philosophy, Andries Vierlingh (15071579), a creator
of dams and polders
saw the waters as wild, natural elements that had to be schooled and trained: bent to
the will of civilized man before they could be made benign. The tidal currents and
assembly maintained that they identified their goal of a national renaissance with the sumak kausai ideals. Sumak
kausai, in the Quechua language means life in harmony: harmony amongst human beings and harmony with
nature which generates us, feeds us and protects us and which has its own life and values (Eduardo Galeano, La
natura non muta, ne Il Manifesto, venerd 18 aprile 2008). See also Jessica Loudis, The 'rigths of nature', in
Open Democracy. Free thinking for the world, 8 December 2008
(http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/environment/jessica_loudis/rights_of_nature_ecuador).
The antithesis between the early English environmental laws and the Rights for nature in the new Ecuadorian
Constitution shows how different ideas about nature and of the position of human beings and society in nature are
partly responsible for determining the differing contents of legislation.
144 Such is the case, for example, of the Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act in 1853 and of the Alkali Act in 1863; the
latter establishes the bases for the foundation, in the following year, of the first governmental department on
pollution, the Alkali Inspectorate.

42

streams [] were [] like naughty children that must be educated in their infancy.
Those that resisted this correction were described as though they were socially
delinquent and, to use one of Vierlingh's recurrent terms, had to be strangled into
nonexistence before they joined forces with other unruly waters to form a hostile and
violent force.
- Simon Shama, The Embarassment of riches. An interpretation of Dutch culture in the
golden age, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1987, p. 43 -

Moreover, unlike the rest of Europe, an excessive cleansing characterized their behaviour on dry
land, for which functional explanations are adopted by contemporary and modern historians.145
Early environmentalism, of a preservationist and conservationist nature, was, in the English world,
inspired by the Romantic and Enlightenment movements. In the former case, according to Thoreau,
Walden and Muir, nature is beauty that moves, inspirational and defenceless that should not be
contaminated but on the contrary protected and preserved from uncontrolled human interference;
for the Enlightenment, nature is something which is best managed, controlled, modified and
improved upon by man who, because of his reason, is the legitimate heir of divine creation.
John Ruskin, together with William Wordsworth (one of the leading lights of the English Romantic
movement, as well as, according to some, one of the first proto-environmentalists), criticizes the
unnaturalness of the transformation of the English landscape due to progressive industrialization.
Some of these consequences deplored by Ruskin, considered as unnatural for the first time, include
the railway network, industrial pollution, rubbish, artificial reservoirs, machine made or mass
produced objects, cities springing up around an industry, suburban areas, plate glass 146. The
criticism has a nostalgic tone to it which, to a certain extent, will characterize certain environmental
attitudes to this day.
In 1865, the first national, voluntary association for the conservation and the enjoyment of natural
landscapes as an amenity, was founded in England. This occurred in response to the awareness of
the damage caused by industrialization and urbanisation. The Commons Preservation Society is
founded with the intent of maintaining common land within the London area free from
indiscriminate urbanization, and of safeguarding the open spaces, preserving them for public
recreation147. After this first association, many others, focusing on preservation and conservation,
will follow. From the 60s onwards, with the foundation of Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace
they undergo a transformation, sharing the characteristics with the so called New Social
Mevements.
Whereas until the late 18th century nature was seen by the inhabitants of cities as essentially
inhospitable (impenetrable forests, scary wild animals, unreachable mountain peaks, hostile
demons, unhealthy and repellent locals, repugnant smells coming from fissures in the earth), a
slow gradual process of culture148 will create new eyes, which will see powerful forces, spectacular
beauty, fascinating views, sublime grace. Wordsworth points out how the concept of landscape,
145 Simon Schama, idem, p. 387.
146 Phil Macnaghten, John Urry, 1998, pp. 12-13.
147 N. Haigh, Public perception and international influences, in G. Conway (ed.), The assessment of environmental
problems, Imperial College, London, 1986, p. 17.
148 William Wordsworth, The illustrated Wordsworth's guide to the lakes. (P. Bicknell ed.), Book Club Associates,
London, 1984, p. 193.

43

dominated essentially by the sense organs of sight, is of recent origin. However, although it
encourages a different attitude to nature, even green Romanticism does not generally differ in
attitude from the attitude which becomes progressively dominant within the mainstream Western
tradition. Nature, now idealized, still remains marginal, objective and non participating.
The alternative conception of nature which did emerge in the nineteenth century, from
the Romantic rather than the Enlightenment tradition, was more escapist than visionary.
[...] Instead of efforts to reinvoke a morality and ethics within nature by thinking
through new ways to rework nature into the social, nature sustained her separation by
departing from the predominant human sphere to the margins of modern industrial
society.
- Phil Macnaghten and John Urry,1998, p. 13 -

In such a context, nature comes to be seen as something passive, non-acting, often female, tameable
and to be tamed by means of industrial economy, reason and science. Plumwood writes:
To be defined as nature is to be defined as passive, as non-agent and non-subject, as
the environment or invisible background conditions against which the foreground
achievements of reason or culture take place. It is to be defined as a resource empty of
its own purposes or meanings, and hence available to be annexed for the purposes of
those supposedly identified with reason or intellect.
- V. Plumwood, Feminism and the mastery of nature, Routledge, London, 1993, p. 3, in
J. Urry and P. Macnaghten, ivi, p. 15 -

In 1864, an Act of the American Congress established Yosemite Valley in California as the first
natural reserve. A wild and uncontaminated, sacred place to protect and contemplate, which proves
to be a key development in the evolution of the concept of a national park. Later national parks,
initially in English-speaking countries, will continue to be characterized by a mix of
preservationism and conservationism, midway between a romantic desire to preserve nature in its
original state, unaltered by human hand, and a desire to regulate and tame it through rational and
efficient management.149 According to a 1916 Act of Congress, the scope of the parks was to
conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for
the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the
enjoyment of future generations".150 In some parks, the behavior of the visitors is regulated by a
code of conduct - prohibiting visitors, for example, from walking in areas other than artificially
created foot paths. The wild, banished to the margins of civilization, once approached, is
experienced through the mediation of romantic and/or scientific attitudes. The area of the Grand
Canyon in Arizona - for the protection of which the then president Theodore Roosevelt expressed
support as well as being nominated in 1908 as a national monument151 of the original American
landscape and as a site of uncontaminated and wild beauty, is expressly recognized as a laboratory
in which to observe and study wild life. In fact, the majority of national parks have proven to be too
149 In 1916 there are already thirteen National Parks on American territory. In Italy, the first National Park is the Gran
Paradiso, founded in 1922.
150 U.S: National Park Service Act, 1916, The Statutes at large of the United States of America from December 1915
to March 1917, Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, 1917, vol. 39, part 1, 535, quoted in Donald J.
Hughes, 2001, p. 155.
151 On the role of monuments in creating and heightening national and nationalist sentiments, see Eric J. Hobsbawm
and Terence Ranger, The invention of tradition, Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Philip Macnaghten and John Urry (1998, p. 36) highlight the fact that a preservationist and nationalistic spirit,
claiming to be authentically English, identified the real homeland with the countryside the very countryside
which had in fact disappeared from the natural landscape decades before, due to human intervention.

44

limited to protect the most important members of the ecosystem, in particular the larger animals. It
is significant that the first proposal regarding the foundation of national parks foresaw the inclusion,
along with the fauna and the flora, also of the native populations as an object of protection152 - the
prevailing concept of a national park which has now become accepted sees man as a source of
danger for protected nature.
Donald J. Hughes notes how the new ecological awareness which began to emerge in the second
half of the 19th century is highlighted by the coining of new terms which refer to life with all its
interrelations, understood as community and as a system of animate and inanimate beings. In 1866,
just when an increase of economic demand leads Europe into a new ecological and food crisis (also
due to an increasingly drastic deforestation process), the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, with the
term kologie refers to:
[...] the body of knowledge concerning the economy of nature the investigation of
the total relations of the animal both to its organic and inorganic environment; including
above all, its friendly and inimical relations with those animals and plants with which it
comes directly or indirectly into contact in a word, ecology is the study of all those
complex interrelations referred to by Darwin as the conditions of the struggle for
existence.
- Donald J. Hughes, op. cit. p. 7 -

For the new science of ecology, the concept of sustainability is considered central in the adaptation
of mankind to natural equilibriums certainly Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, with his organic
views, was significantly influential.
In 1877, the American zoologist Karl Mbius, describing the totality of organisms that grow on an
oyster bank, coins the term biocnosis, meaning biotic community, biocommunity, the most
extensive form of which, comprising the totality of life on earth, is referred to as the biosphere.
Following this line of thinking, in 1935 the ecologist Arthur G. Tansley uses the term ecosystem
referring to the biotic community and the nonliving elements such as water, gas, the mineral
substrate and the various forms of energy.
At the end of the 19th century, the French physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher of
science Henri Poincar153 (1854-1912) hypothesised that it is possible for nature to escape the neat,
well-known Newtonian and Laplacian laws of mechanics, and display non deterministic behaviours.
This is the dawning of something that will later go by the name of Chaos Science, which,
dormant for about a century, only comes to the attention of the mass media in the second half of the
last century. The advent of the computer in the 1970s enables the mathematician and meteorologist
Edward Lorenz to rediscover and analyze what will later go by the name of the butterfly effect:
he demonstrates how a minute variation in initial conditions can lead to chaotic and indeterminable
effects in unpredictable spacetime dimensions.154

152 Donald J. Hughes, 2001, pp. 155-162.

153 Henri Poincar is considered by some to be the last scholar to have the specific expertise enabling him to
comprehend the complex mathematics of his time whilst also being a philosophical thinker. Because of his
research in various different fields and his approach, based on the aesthetics of science and numbers, he is
regarded as one of the last great universal scientists.
154 Paolo Magrassi, Sfruttare il Caos. La scienza si confronta con la complessit. E dovr fare ricorso alla
contaminazione tra cultura diverse, from Il Sole 24 Ore Nva Review, n. 4, September 2008.

45

Most people hold that it was the Russian chemist Ilya Prigogine and the physicist Murray GellMann who, towards the end of the 1960s, founded the first studies on the theory of complexity. 155
In the fields of physics and chemistry, the analytical approach, though excellent for certain goals, is
in fact seen to be reductive in the presence of non-linear and non-deterministic systems - which
actually represent most of the systems occurring in nature.156 In order to see beyond the limits
implicit in analysis, the new scientific method tends towards an approach which is multidisciplinary, synthetic and holistic. In the 1990s, this new framework will also begin to intrigue
the social157 and legal158 sciences. A different approach to nature and the knowledge of nature is
emerging and with it a different perception of mans place within the network of life.

1.3.2. Nature becomes environment

Environmental problems have no technical solution:
they require a fundamental extension in morality
- G. Hardin, The tragedy of the commons, in Science
n. 162, 1968, pp. 1243- 1248 -

In 1962, the American journal New Yorker published Silent Spring in three parts. This work,
considered to be a milestone in the development of a new environmental awareness, would, in the
years to come, win international fame. The American biologist and zoologist Rachel Carson warns
readers about the effects of the increase in the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides on plants,
animals and humans. This prophetess of doom predicts a global catastrophe:
155 In reality it is not, strictly speaking, so much a scientific theory but more complexity thinking within an
epistemology of complexity - Edgar Morin, Introduzione al pensiero complesso. Gli strumenti per affrontare la
sfida della complessit, Sperling & Kupfer, Milan, 1993 (0r. Introduction la pense complexe, 1990) -, an
interdisciplinary collection of studies on complex adaptive systems, chaos theory, systems theory, artificial
intelligence, cybernetics, meteorology, ecology, thermodynamic phenomena far from the state of equilibrium. See
Tullio Tinti, La sfida della complessit verso il terzo millennio, in Novecento, year 18, n. 12 (December 1998).
156 Edgar Morin writes: We live under the dominion of the principles of disjunction, of reduction and of abstraction,
which together form what I call the paradigm of simplification. [] This paradigm, which rules the adventure of
Western thought from the 17th century onwards, has undoubtedly allowed for the enormous progress of scientific
knowledge and philosophical thought; its extremely harmful consequences only begin to appear in the 20th
century - Edgar Morin, op. cit., p. 7.
157 See, for example, Byrne David, Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction, London, Routledge,
1998; Kiel L. Douglas and Euel Elliott (ed. by), Chaos theory in the social sciences: foundations and applications,
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1996; Eve A. Raymond, Sara Horsfall, Mary E. Lee (eds.), Chaos,
complexity, and sociology: myths, models, and theories, Sage, Thousand Oaks, 1997; Cristoforo Sergio Bertuglia,
Franco Vaio, Nonlinearity, chaos and complexity. The dynamics of natural and social systems, Oxford University
Press, New York, 2005.
158 See, for example, Dragan Milovanovic, Chaos, Criminology, and Social Justice: The New Orderly (Dis)Order,
Greenwood Press, 1997; Donald T. Hornstein, Complexity theory, adaptation, and administrative law, 54 Duke
Law Journal, p. 913; Andrea Matwyshyn, Organizational code: a complexity theory perspective on technology
and intellectual property regulation, Journal on Technology Law & Policy, University of Florida, June 2006, vol.
11, n. 1;. J. B. Ruhl, J. Harold , Jr. Ruhl, The arrow of the law in modern administrative states: using complexity
theory to reveal the diminishing returns and increasing risks the burgeoning of law poses to society, 30 U.C.
Davis Law Review 450; Mark J. Roe, Chaos and evolution in law and economics, 109 Harvard Law Review 641,
643-65, 1996; Daniel A. Farber, Probabilities behaving badly: Complexity theory and environmental uncertainty,
37 U.C. Davis Law Review 145 (2003); J. B. Ruhl, Regulation by adaptive management is it possible?, 7
Minnesota Journal of Law, Science and Technology, p. 21, 2005. For a list of the works on the application of the
complexity theory or some of its aspects in relation to law and to the legal system, see the site:
http://jurisdynamics.blogspot.com/2006/07/complexity-theory-in-legal-scholarship.html

46

While previous concerns had centred on the aesthetic of suburbanization, or local

pollution incidents or the loss of particular habits, Carson's critique centred on the
representation of nature as systematically threatened by modern industrial processes.
- Philip Macnaghten, John Urry, 1998, p. 45 -

The text will be strongly opposed by multinationals of the chemical and food industries, to the
extent that Time publishes an article in 1999 which says:
Silent Spring [...] gored corporate oxen all over the country. Even before publication,
Carson was violently assailed by threats of lawsuits and derision, including suggestions
that this meticulous scientist was a "hysterical woman" unqualified to write such a book.
A huge counter attack was organized and led by Monsanto, Velsicol, American
Cyanamid indeed, the whole chemical industry duly supported by the Agriculture
Department as well as the more cautious in the media.
- Peter Matthiessen, Rachel Carson. Before there was an environmental movement,
there was one brave woman and her very brave book, in Time, 29.03.1999 -

Despite the attempts to discredit Carsons scientific activity, her publication is considered
responsible for setting in motion the American environmentalist movement, and was influential in
the founding of the Environmental Protection Agency and in the banning of DDT in 1979.
In 1968, a meeting is held of the Club of Rome, founded by the manufacturer Aurelio Peccei, the
Scottish scientist Alexander King, together with various Nobel prize-winners, political leaders and
intellectuals. Four years later, the study group produces the Meadows Report, The limits of
development: with the aid of computer simulations, they demonstrate how the predictions of Sir
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834)159 on the capacity of the planet's resources to sustain the
growing world population are likely to become true in the near future. The exponential economic
growth imperative would cause an environmental crisis of unprecedented dimensions, with severe
food shortages, famines and a depletion of resources by the end of the century.
Although with limited expectations, the 1968 Conference on the Biosphere was the first time that
the United Nations showed an interest in environmental issues, thus sanctioning international
attention for the relationship between man and nature. The conference report concludes that the
human race has the capacity and the responsibility for influencing the future of the environment.
However, the report states that there is a lack of organic policies on environmental management, an
increase in public concern and a need to move away in very clear terms from past policies.
At the beginning of the 1970s, concern at national and local levels generated by perceived
environmental degradation was thus finally being voiced at an international level160 partly due to
the influence of early texts which raised environmental awareness, such as Rachel Carsons Silent
Spring (New York, 1962), The closing circle. Nature, man and technology, by Barry Commoner
(New York, 1971), This endangered planet by Richard Falk (Toronto, 1971), The limits of growth
by Donella H. Meadows et al. (London 1972).
In June 1972, the United Nations holds the Human Environment Conference (UNCHE) in
Stockholm which is the first international meeting to take human environmental activities into
consideration. The United Nations thus initiates and leads the debate on international political and
159 In 1798 the book by Sir Thomas Robert Malthus called Essay on the Principle of Population is published.
160 Patricia Birnie and Alan Boyle, 2002, p. 37-38.

47

strategic cooperation on environmental matters.161

This conference, at which 113 nations162, 19 intergovernmental agencies and 134 Non
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) take part, sees the creation of the United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP), a body whose general roles include environmental safeguards
and the sustainable use of natural resources.163 Within the framework of the complex organizational
system of the United Nations, one of the main contributions of the UNEPs work will be to promote
environmental awareness both within society and inside the United Nations.164
In fact, the principles approved during the conference prove to be a compromise on which both the
northern and the southern countries couldn't avoid to agree; among these the fundamental right of
all peoples to live in an environment which enables them to enjoy a dignified and serene quality of
life.165
The later conferences, reports, research programmes, documents and texts produced by the UNEP,
based on the new concept of the environment as a global entity in need of protection, 166 become an
obligatory point of reference for national and local politics.
For the first time, the dangers of pollution are taken into consideration on a global scale, going
beyond regional and national borders especially in the collective imagination. 167 In many countries,
5th June, the anniversary of the Stockholm Conference, is commemorated as the World Environment
Day.
In 1983, the United Nations establish the World Commission on Environment and Development
which, four years later, would establish the concept of sustainable development.168 This is a new
conceptual stronghold, and from then onwards, it is an increasingly important reference point for
international environmental law.169
The principle of sustainable development was drawn up within the context of the Cold War,
highlighting once again the transnational nature of the environmental problem (exploitation of
resources, acid rainfall, greenhouse effect, hole in the ozone layer), clearly reaffirming how
today, more than ever before, there is the need for the contribution of every country, be it from the
north, the south, the west or the east of the world.
161 In the Treaty of Rome, which in 1957 founds the European Community, the subject of the environment was not
mentioned.
162 The Soviet Union and the Eastern European states emerge as the main absentees. What was then Eastern
Germany, since it was not recognised as an independent state, was excluded from United Nations meetings.
163 Unlike the next two conferences on environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and in
Johannesburg in 2002, the 1972 conference is not an Earth Summit, since the only state functionaries attending are
the Swedish prime minister and host Olaf Palme, and the Indian Indira Gandhi.
164 On the problem of the role of the UNEP and on the fulfilment of its goals by another institute, the Commission on
Sustainable development (CSD) see Sumudu A. Atapattu, Emerging principles of international environmental law,
Transnational Publishers, Inc., Ardsley, NY, 2006, p. 170-171.
165 Stockholm Declaration, first principle.
166 Thornton Justine, Beckwith Silas, 2004, p. 6.
167 As regards the internationalization of environmental risk and the invention of British environmentalism see Philip
Macnaghten and John Urry, 1998, p. 46-49.
168 The first definition of sustainable development will later see some subtle but significant changes made to it. On the
different interpretations of this term between 1987 and 1992 (the year in which the first Earth Summit is held in
Rio de Janeiro), see Patricia Birnie and Alan Boyle, 2002, p. 44-47. During the Earth Summit on Sustainable
Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002, the concept and meaning of the phrase will be further
specified, emphasising its importance in international law in the evolution of economic development, social
development and environmental protection.
169 A homogenous code of international law does not in fact exist, rather there is a series of measures which refer to
different aspects of the environment, together with the formulation of some general principles.

48

What is being presented is a new vision that highlights the positive relationship, and thus the
inevitable connection, between economic development and environmental sustainability.170
In 1992, as recommended by the World Commission on Environment and Development, the first
Earth Summit, Environment and Development (UNCED) is held in Rio de Janeiro. One hundred
and seventeen Heads of State, 178 governmental delegations, 1400 NGOs, 8000 journalists and a
total of over 30000 people participate in the drafting of important documents on environmental
matters: the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, the Statement of Forest Principle, the Biodiversity
Treaty171, the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the last two documents being legally
binding at an international level. For the first time, the majority of the worlds governments
explicitly acknowledge the danger of a global crisis, and try to work together to formulate common
rules to guide future policies.
The principle of sustainable development is publicly underwritten and is now a leading concept for
global environmental politics: we all have to live within the defined ecological boundaries of the
planet, we ought to satisfy our needs without endangering the needs of future generations 172 by
recognizing the importance of integrating development and the environment. Whilst safeguarding
the sovereign right of each state to the resources within its national boundaries 173, the protection of
the environment is seen as part of any developmental process.
According to Aristotle and other ancient philosophers, phyein means to grow, following models or
intrinsic intention, as in the case of a plant or other organism. Nature, physis, is the growth
process, which manifests development. Nevertheless, when such an image is taken from biology
and applied to another semantic field, for the purpose of narrating the course of history, there is a
substantial difference in its significance. In a natural organism, birth is followed by growth then
there is decline and death. In contrast, exponential economic growth as understood today essentially
describes development with no limits and development becomes an end in itself.174
Most of the historical models and cultural norms which described and at the same time
accompanied the history of the second half of the 20th century, adopted development as a
dominant theme: possible research into the arts and sciences, a healthier and richer environment,
authentic and more satisfying social relations generally appeared less important compared to the
need for ever-growing production and marketing.175
The approach which shapes the various discussions in Stockholm in 1972, as also in Rio twenty
years later, although it includes the new environmental theme, does not differ much in its general
170 In an interview conducted by Nadia Scardeoni which appeared in the magazine L'cole, the French economist and
philosopher Serge Latouche says that sustainable development is an imposture, an oxymoron - a dark light
since development, the only development we know, is the one which arose in England during the second half of
the 18th century, from the Industrial Revolution, which is an economic war against men and of men against
nature. Cf. http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/interlinea/latouche.html
171 According to J. Hughes, the weight of the discussion [...] was not on the need to preserve species and ecosystems,
but the desiderability of assuring sustainable economic development for nations, and to distribute equitably the
gains realized from the development of biological resouces." Significantly, one of the reasons in favour of the
preservation of the forests has been the recognition of the forests as special habitats for useful and medicinal plants
and animals: all of a sudden, the economic value of diversity is discovered - Donald J. Hughes, 2001, p. 230-231.
172 What the interests of future generations are appears, however, to be an intrinsically problematic concept.
173 This principle will be reconfirmed at the next conference of the United Nations in Johannesburg.
174 In the second half of the 19th century, when anthropology establishes itself in the academic world, evolutionism
becomes the dominant paradigm. According to this view, different human cultures are at different evolutionary
phases; within each culture each stage is considered more evolved and thus better compared to its preceding
stages.
175 Cf. Donald J. Hughes, 2001, p. 9.

49

framework from that epistemology of development which characterized the model dominating the
whole post-war period. Economic development becomes recognized as a right, as also the
indisputable principle of national sovereignty - with the right of the single states to make the best
possible use of their own natural resources, along with the responsibility for environmental damage
beyond their own national borders.176 In this regard, environmental safeguards, though now
recognized, are often not a primary priority.177
What emerges from Stockholm as also from Rio is an approach to environmental issues which is
technical and scientific rather than cultural and normative. The new element in this cultural
paradigm is the fact that, from then on, economic development - undeniable in its trend - has to
acknowledge objective, scientifically defined limits.
In the vocabulary on globalized environmental issues which develops in the 1970s the emphasis is
on limits, and on planning and rational management as an appropriate response. If anything, the
debate is between those who try to impose limits to progress and to industrialization and those
holding an optimistic view on the capacity of technology and human ingenuity to resolve the new
problems. John Urry and Philip Macnaghten hold that what prevails is:
[...] a modernist tradition in which the limits of 'natural' processes can be defined
unproblematically by science, where public policy and global management strategies
can derive from scientific understanding, and where such understandings can engage
and mobilize the wider public the combination of which leads to the ultimate goal of
sustainable development.
- John Urry, Philip Macnaghten, 1998, p. 218 -

Between the lines, in this linear vision, the wider public is implicitly recognized as a rational
agent: if the grand narrative, science in its authority, through ever more sophisticated programs,
explains the state of things and creates rational knowledge, the necessary consequence would be
for ordinary people to adapt their behaviour accordingly. None of these documents acknowledge
the fact that development as understood in this sense could be criticized for its epistemological
foundations.
With the same technical-scientific view which emerges in Stockholm and in Rio in the 1990s,
Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees developed the concept of the ecological footprint. Whereas
in previous calculations, the quantity of resources necessary to support a given population were
worked out, as was done in the famous study by Thomas Robert Malthus, the vantage point is now
reversed: the calculation of the ecological footprint shows how many planet Earths would be
needed to support humanity if everybody was to enjoy a given lifestyle. This worldwide method of
calculation shows how, in fact, all the Western democracies demand a lot more than nature can
provide and regenerate.178
Significantly, at the United Nations conference which marks the ten year anniversary of Rio de
Janeiro, the term "environment is omitted. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD), which takes place in Johannesburg in 2002, the work is essentially focused on the
reduction of poverty, considered to be one of the main obstacles to economic development and the
safeguarding of the environment.
176 This principle will be reconfirmed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002.
177 This will occur mainly in the following years when the influence of institutions like the World Trade Organization
(WTO, founded in 1995) and the World Bank will contribute to the creation of policies within a normative
framework, the contents of which derive from the dictates of classical economics - according to which the natural
world is an agglomerate of resources and goods - rather than being inspired by an ecological vision.
178 Mathis Wackernagel, William Rees, Our ecological footprint: reducing human impact on the Earth, New society
Publishers, Gabriola Island, B. C., Great Britain, 1996.

50

"While recognizing that "the global enviroment continues to suffer" and

acknowledging the loss of biodiversity, the depletation of the stocks, the progress of
desertification, the evident adverse effects of climate change, as well as the pollution of
the air, of water and of the sea (para. 13), the Declaration mainly focused on
development and eradication of poverty, especially in the poorest countries."
- Kiss Alexander and Dinah Shelton, Guide to international environment, Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, 2007, p. 44 -

Thus, globalization, a concept which formally entered the international legal vocabulary on the
environment during the WSSD, is considered a positive process. In the Implementation Programme,
the passage on Sustainable development in a globalized world reads:
Globalization offers opportunities and challenges for sustainable development [...]
globalization and interdependence are offering new opportunities to trade, investment
capital flows and advances in technology, including information technology, for the
growth of the world economy, development and the improvement of the living standards
around the world.
- WSSD, Plan of Implementation, para. 45, in Elli Luoka, International environmental
law. Fairness, effectiveness and world order, Cambridge University Press, NY, 2006, p.
47 -

The multinational companies - in a climate which confers high political status on the rules of the
WTO whilst relegating environmental law to the sidelines - are considered the main actors in the
political and moral commitment to stop and reverse the trend of planet Earths deterioration by the
actions of mankind.179 It is no surprise that some fringe groups at the Summit felt a deep sense of
pessimism.180 Although Mbeki, the Secretary General and President of the State of South Africa,
began by referring to the Earth Charter181 as a guide for the Summit, according to Klaus
Bosselmann at Johannesburg in 2002 states again moved away from the firm commitment to the
principle of sustainability.182
Cormac Cullinan, the author of the book Wild law, a manifesto for earth justice, which was
presented at the same Summit, recalls how the non-governmental organizations left the room to
show their disappointment and to protest at the lack of commitment and incapacity of world
governments to support clear action in front of the incontrovertible evidence of the harm that we
are doing to this unique, living planet. According to Cullinan one of the things that the WSSD
demonstrated most clearly is that we cannot simply leave it up to the governments of the world to
safeguard Earth. [...] The challenge facing each one of us is to take personal responsibility.183
It seems that the World Summit on Sustainable Development, in focusing almost exclusively on the
traditional imperative of economic development whilst undersigning the commitment towards
sustainable development (a concept developed and recognized as being based on the three
179 Kiss & Shelton, ibid.
180 Sumudu A. Atapattu, Emerging principles of international environmental law, Transnational Publishers, Inc.,
Ardsley, NY, 2006, p. 126.
181 The most recent edition of The Earth Charter, a declaration containing fundamental ethical principles, the product
of a decade of international and intercultural discussions, was presented in the year 2000; it represents the widest
consensus ever reached on the principle of sustainability. In the preface which appears in almost identical form
in the sixth paragraph of the Declaration on Sustainable Development - there is a reference to the responsibility of
each person towards his neighbour, to the wider community of life and towards the children of the human race.
Bosselman notes that it is the first time that an international, legal document explicitly refers to the community of
life. - Klaus Bosselman, op. cit., p. 38.
182 Ibid, p. 37.
183 Cormac Cullinan, Wild law. A manifesto for earth justice, Green Books, Devon, UK, 2003, p. 7.

51

principles of economic development, social development and environmental protection), has failed
to move away from the trend seen in the preceding Stockholm and Rio de Janeiro conferences. The
WSSD thus failed to produce and use strategies and approaches that could halt destructive human
activity on the environment.184
The above-mentioned events mark the arrival of the environment as an issue taken on by the
international bodies and the definition of what sustainable development is185. In order for the
concept of sustainable development to enter public awareness and be perceived as a necessary
normative issue in the new world order, it was necessary for a series of empirical events to be
perceived as a problem, and for there to be certain groups committed to bringing this problem to the
attention of worldwide public opinion.
In the post-war period, nature becomes environment not so much through advances in
scientific discoveries, rather as the emergence186 of an idea arising from multiple, interrelated
factors. These factors include the English Romantic movement, the preservationist tradition, the
criticism aimed at the process of modernization, the scientific criticism of unlimited growth, the
development of a science of ecology, the countercultural movement, the increase in the influence of
the media, the development of different forms of social criticism and of new social movements, the
development of a sense amongst some sections of society of belonging to a global culture, and so
on. All these things contributed to shaping a particular cultural attitude.
Key events came to be interpreted by national states, by non-governmental organizations and
especially by the media, using definitions implying that the environment is global and systemic
rather than local and separate. After World War II, there is an attempt to establish that, beyond the
local reality there is one single environment which requires attention and protection. Gradually, the
environmental agenda becomes accepted and incorporated as a legitimate part of the new world
order.
Within this framework, the epistemological grounds justifying the current approach to development
are called into question outside the institutions where treaties and documents are drawn up. In these
years, the new environmental movement, which also gathers momentum from its disappointment
with the outcome of these meetings, is inaugurating a new cultural style, based essentially on postmaterialistic values and looking very different from the social movements which characterized the
north of the world until the 1950s.187
What emerges are new forms of association, the structures and strategies of which are recognized
as deriving principally from what, in the 1990s, are termed new social movements:

184 In the Declaration on Sustainable Development, the formal outcome of the conference, the intention is expressed
[to] assume a collective responsibility to advance and strengthen the interdependent and mutually reinforcing
pillars of sustainable development - economic development, social development and environmental protection - at
local, national, and global levels" (Para. 5). Whereas the previous conferences of Stockholm and Rio had produced
formal documents containing only principles, the Johannesburg conference is a declaration of political
commitment. For considerations on this subject, see Sumudu A. Atapattu, 2006, p. 91.
185 On the persistent uncertainty regarding the real and practical meaning of sustainable development, and
consequently the uncertainty regarding its legal status and the principles which derive from it, see Patricia Birnie,
Alan Boyle, International Law & the Environment, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 3.
186 Emergence is taken to mean the appearance of collective properties which do not reflect the mere sum of the parts
of the whole. This English term comes from the language of the new science of complexity the foundation of
which, in the 1960s, most people attribute to the chemist Ilya Prigogine.
187 See Ronald Inglehart, Culture shift in advanced industrial societies, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1990.

52

The emergence of new sociations in the sphere of the environment suggests that
particular forms of social identity are emerging which imply the breaking down of the
relatively separate spheres of society and nature, and in forming a kind of reconstituted
civil society.
- John Urry, Philip Macnaghten, 1998, p. 28 -

Such new sociations often appear closer to the specific world-view put forward in the hypothesis
posited by James Lovelock. According to this scientist, planet earth is a living, organic being and its
various components, including humans, are deeply interconnected. According to this approach, the
dominant view of development, which focuses mainly on the technical and economical dimension,
causes Gaia to suffer in a way which is damaging to global harmony and thus to the human race. 188
Any changes to this self-regulating system, difficult to predict and especially difficult using the
deterministic paradigm, are the outcome of the interaction between the physical, chemical,
biological and human components.
According to McCormick:
"[...] if nature protection has been a moral crusade, centered on the non-human
environment, and conservation a utilitarian movement based on the rational
management of natural resources, New Environmentalism addressed the entire human
environment. For protectionists, the issue was wildlife and habits; for conservationists,
the issue was natural resources; for the New Environmentalists, human survival itself
was at stake."
- J. McCormic, The global environmental movement, Wiley, Chirchester, 1995, op. cit.
in John Urry, Philip Macnaghten, ibid, p. 45 -

188 The publication and media coverage of the photograph of Earth, taken during the first orbital explorations, surely
influenced the image of the Earth as a living organism.

53

Chapter II
The norm perspective as a frame through
which to look at the phenomenon. The social
construction of norms within a complex
field.
In order to investigate the social construction of norms in the context studied, the Valley of the
Elves, a context of resistance to western main stream culture, I will avail myself of the Norm
Science perspective, according to insights that have been developed at the Institute of Sociology of
Law of Lund University. A systemic view will be the framework - framework that is not meant to
be conservative, according to that complexity perspective that has been applied also1 to social
sciences since the end of the 1980s.2
In Robert C. Schehr's opinion, sociological classical theories of social movements, that is to say
Collective Behaviour Theory, Resource Mobilization Theory and the most recent New Social
Movement Theory - just to mention some names, Herbert Blumer, Talcott Parsons, Turner, Killian
for the first mentioned; della Porta, Tilly, Jenkins, Klandermas, Zald, McAdam for the second;
Alberto Melucci and Alain Touraine for the last mentioned - miss a very important - or the most
important - characteristic of the resistance existing at the local level, in the lifeworld. In his opinion,
classical sociological theories inspired to the theoretical teachings of Rudolf Heberle3 have in
common a kind of commitment to positivism, a tendency to a sort of Enlightened-based
ontologization that emphasizes the moments of birth, grow and decay, together with necessary
defining features for a social movement in the form of opposition to the state and a fight for
political success.4 According to Schehr, this evolutionary-model perspective, and
1 Natural sciences, and physics especially, were the first field of application of the complexity perspective, at the end
of 1800s.
2 The Santa Fe Institute (SFI) is a non-profit research center, located in Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States. It was
founded in 1984 with the original mission to spread the idea of a separate interdisciplinary research area, complexity
theory referred to at SFI as "complexity science. Studying far-from equilibrium thermodynamic systems, Ilya
Prigogine is recognized to have founded complexity theory; at Santa Fe scientists have been focusing on complex
adaptive systems (CSA), that is to say living systems systems that are able to self organize (exhibiting new forms
of organization) in order to adapt and change (to evolve) according to individual and collective experience. The
most famous scientists that have been working at the Institute are the Nobel prize winners Anderson, Arrow and
Gell-Mann (Gell-Mann is also one of the co-founders). Since 1984, several complexity institutes and departments
have been created around the world - like CCS and CSCS at the University of Michigan, the CSE at UC Davis and
the New England Complex Systems Institute. In Italy, the Istituto dei sistemi complessi (ISC), founded in 2004, is
part of the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. The institute is physically located in Roma, Tor Vergata,
Monteliberti and Sesto Fiorentino (Firenze).
3 Rudolf Heberle, Social movements, Meredith Corporation, New York, 1951. According to Robert C. Schehr, the
theoretical insights of Rudolf Heberle informed all the XX century literature on social movements.
4 Robert C. Schehr, Dynamic Utopia. Establishing Intentional communities as a new social movement, Bergin &
Garvey, Westport, Connecticut; 1997, p. 113.

our zest to categorize, label, and thereby ontologize collective behaviour [...] serve to launch
perhaps the most prodigious segment of movement potential - the activity occurring within the
lifeworld - into theoretical obscurity.
- Robert Schehr, op. cit., p.106 -

In other words, what classical theories miss taking into account is the dynamic and heterogeneous
articulation of cultural capital at the local level, an activity not primarily directed at the state. 5
According to Schehr, the experience of contemporary intentional communities constitutes a
significant aspect of contemporary social movements, being a micro-level articulation of cultural
capital.
[...] at the symbolic level intentional communities represent what is perhaps the most allinclusive affront to dominant efforts at intensifying rationalization. But more important,
beyond the level of symbolism, I will argue that contemporary intentional communities be
recognized by sociologists as a social movement complete with their own domestic and
international modes of communication (books, newsletters, lectures, and conferences),
researches, education, production, distribution and interpersonal non-violent conflictmanagement techniques, each of which represents alternatives to the proliferation of
dominant cultural capital, and, while primarily directed at the lifeworld, the possibility of
broader system-level change.
- Robert Schehr, ivi, p. 9 -

Norm perspective within a complexity theory framework appears to be a valid tool for theoretically
facing the fact that the dynamic range of resistance has largely been overlooked in sociological
theorizing,6 so as to grasp the micro-level diversity within local resistance to dominant cultural
capital.7
Norms, as social constructions and in their in-action aspect, are the object of my empirical
investigation. Norms are here considered as socially constructed orderings of experience, as
interpretations and re-interpretations of social action the researcher being considered an integral
and fundamental part of it. Differing by nature from legal rules, the systems of social norms are
here understood as probably open to change and development, never fixed, mostly experienced and
expressed in a non-written form. Norm creation takes place following both bottom-up and top-down
processes, in a relationship of complementary dynamics. According to the contingent situations,
norms evolve individually and as clusters, thus contributing to the structuring a normative system as
a defined sense system.8
5 Far from been considered as persisting essence, culture is here intended as a cluster/system of shared meanings,
constantly negotiated - and renegotiated.
6 Robert Schehr, ivi, p, 8. On the other hand sociology and social sciences more generally have a remarkably poor
record in terms of understanding the dynamics of, let alone predicting significant social change - Grame Chesters
and Ian Welsh, Complexity and social movements. Multitudes at the edge of chaos, Roultledge, Londra, 2006, p.
129.
7 According to Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri resistance to dominant cultural capital would no longer be marginal,
but at the center of a new kind of networked society, within the real novelty of the historical processes we are
witnessing today (p. 8) - Michael Hardt, Antonio Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, London,
2001.
8 For a further investigation on norms building on each other and thus establishing new practices (in the field of
environmental work), consider Minna Gillberg, From green image to green practice: normative action and selfregulation, Sociologiska Institutionen, Lund Universitet, Lund, 1999.

This is an interpretative interaction among the social actors within the sense system that determines
the living norms; the latter derive validity and legitimacy from the particular social framework, and,
to differing and varying extents, take part to a communicative interaction with other external
sense/normative systems.
The normative system, in its dimension of stability and evolution, appears to be shaped by the
collective symbolic interpretation of material and immaterial elements. As illustrated in the image
below, concurring elements contribute in defining norms:

the actors cognitive universe, influenced by personal characteristics like age, gender,
education, ethnicity, life experiences, etc. The cognition of the self defines the actors actual
knowledge and perception of the (functioning of the) system, key element towards the social
construction of the norm;
the personal power within the social dimension, the set of interests, the active/semiactive/passive participation to religious, political groups and/or organizations, the sharing of
believes, attitudes and behaviours, etc., produce values, driving forces to define the actors
will towards the definition of norms;
the possibilities and limitations offered by the system conditions. Social actors live everyday
life acting and interacting within specific natural, physical, biotic and social frames, each of
them, in relation to one another, being endowed of characteristic features, necessities,
contingencies, rules and orientations.

Actors knowledge about the functioning of the system, actors will towards the fulfilment of aims,
goals and desires, together with the implications of the system conditions, together contribute
towards the definition of a sense system that guides individual and collective attitudes in the
relationship with the self, with the 'other' - individually and collectively considered - and with
'nature', thus delineating and characterizing the human-to-human, human-to-nature, male-to-female,
one-to-whole, etc. relationships. Norms, the target of observation, are then to be consider as
analytical tools for the creation of knowledge about the driving forces of human activity at the
societal level.
The model presented below has to be intended as a frame, a perspective from which to consider
social practices in their interpretative function of the normative system. According to what has been
so far argued, the model does not posses a normative content in itself, rather it has to be filled with
one, depending on which area it is applied to.

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Prerogative of the Norm Science perspective is its inclusive potential: it allows contributions from
different knowledge fields, thus aiming at a synthetic and more adequate knowledge of the
normative-social phenomena. The concept of norm in fact has the potential to be used as a
synthesizing tool aiming at holistic knowledge. Hydn notes that using norms as the point of
departure for analysis [...] opens a window of opportunity for weighing-in such important factors as
emotions, aesthetics, and other elements that are often left out of social scientific explanations.9
It is significant that the resultant normative system might differ slightly or even widely, from the
legal norms legitimately ruling civil society.
Norms, far from arising deterministically out of a linear process so that a given cause would give
rise to a given effect, are considered as emergent events: qualitatively-different interactions
resulting from self-assembly of qualitatively-different elements create unique and irreversible
processes and outcomes, characterized by levels of complexity that would be greater than the sum
of the single parts. From simple and defined behaviours of the single elements, a global behaviour
emerges, not-anticipated by the investigation from an individual consideration of the different parts.
The normative orientation, the 'spirit' of the investigated subject, would be the property arising from
a system characterized by complexity, that is to say considered from a complexity perspective. It is
in fact the eye of the observer, of the researcher, that consciously and unconsciously adopts some
9 Hkan Hydn, Nine reasons for norms, paper presented at the "European Ways of Law: First European Socio-Legal
Conference" Onati, 2005, p. 6.

'glasses' while leaving others aside. The observer itself is considered as perturbing actor in the same
field he/she is investigating and in shaping the out coming systemic knowledge. The emergent
property is considered as a rare, or unique, event of a complex system that seek to adapt to a
contingent situation in order to best manage the survival.10 Creativity is part of the process11 and
empowered system's agents both a prerequisite and an outcome.
The outcome of system's agents' self assembly presents a different level of complexity, each level
endowed with properties not existing at the previous level.12 Thus levels of complexity arise
according to the variety and quantity of the elements and of the interactions.
In this perspective, knowledge about the emergent normative system can never arise as the product
of an analysis, in the sense that if it were logically in a mechanistic sense - reduced to its
components, we would be blind to its real meaning. 13 Only the single elements of the system can be
considered in an analytic way; the connections, the interrelations and dynamic outcomes what
finally endow the system with its own meaning, with its 'spirit' - have to be considered holistically.
This approach thus appears in contrast with the classical reductionist vision of scientific knowledge,
whereas in fact it represents a clearer vision.14
The reality of a complex system with these characteristics can only be identify, qualify and finally
told as a narration in a dynamic and circular way, never deterministically explained. The language
10 Donald Hornstein, quoting Axerod and Cohen, refers to systems that contain agents or populations that seek to adapt
as complex adaptive systems - Donald Hornstein, Complexity theory, adaptation, and administrative law, 54
Duke Law Journal 913 (2005).
11 According to Edgar Morin, it is necessary to acknowledge what has never appeared in evolutionary theories:
inventiveness and creativity. Chomsky has pointed at creativity as fundamental anthropological phenomenon. We
have to add that creativity marks all biological evolutions more greatly than historical evolution the latter one been
far form re-discovering all life inventions, first the wonderfulness of the cell. - Introduzione al pensiero complesso.
Gli strumenti per affrontare la sfida della complessit, Sperling & Kupfer, Milano, 1993 (0r. Introduction la
pense complexe, 1990), p. 51.
12 According to this new vision of evolutionism, phenomena characterized by greater complexity, like life itself,
knowledge and culture would be isolated phenomena, and most likely rare www.santafe.edu
13 Anthony A. Leiserowitz and Lisa O. Fernandez write: This approach [reductionism], however, has been recently
challenged by the findings of systems and complexity theory, which demonstrate the existence of emergent
properties unpredictable from the interaction of their constituent parts in the systems ranging in size from
microscopic to cosmological, in disciplines as diverse as chemistry, ecology, and astronomy. Likewise,
interdisciplinary research has received increasing attention and funding, as scientists and funders have recognized
the importance of holistic and systems perspectives at play in both natural and social phenomena and the
environmental crisis. Yet interdisciplinary research typically remains woefully underfunded and often either
unrewarded or even actively discouraged by academic system of tenure and promotion. Further, scientists tend to
self-replicate. They tend to train students and grant tenure to people who look like themselves, i.e. disciplinary
specialists. - Leiserowitz Anthony A., Fernandez Lisa O., Towards a new consciousness: values to sustain human
and natural communities. A synthesis of insights and recommendations from the 2007 Yale F&ES Conference, Yale
School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 2008, p. 21.
14 For a deeper examination on complexity and chaos theory, Bertuglia Cristoforo Sergio, Franco Vaio, Nonlinearity,
chaos and complexity. The dynamics of natural and social systems, Oxford University Press, New York, 2005;
Byrne David, Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction, London, Routledge, 1998; Kiel L.
Douglas and Euel Elliott (ed. by), Chaos theory in the social sciences: foundations and applications, University of
Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1996; Grame Chesters and Ian Welsh, Complexity and social movements. Multitudes at
the edge of chaos, Roultledge, Londra, 2006; Alberto F. De Toni and Luca Comello, Prede o ragni, Uomini e
organizzazioni nella ragnatela della complessit, Utet Libreria, Torino, 2005; Raymond A. Eve, Sara Horsfall,
Mary E. Lee (eds.), Chaos, complexity, and sociology: myths, models, and theories, Sage, Thousand Oaks, 1997;
Tullio Tinti, La sfida della complessit verso il terzo millennio, in Novecento, anno 18, n. 12, pp 7-12, p. 25
(dicembre 1998); John Urry, Global Complexity, Polity Press, Cambridge, Uk, 2003.

will then be appropriate to this new episteme15 - while assuming language as a cluster of beliefs.
According to Dragon Milovanovic, this postmodernist approach16 constitutes the advocacy of the
marginalized, disenfranchised, disempowered, and otherwise excluded voices,17 those excluded
from the dominant grand narratives of different meaning systems (science, economy, medicine,
law...).
In order to grasp the normative 'spirit' of our experimentation context, a non-conservative and open
systemic approach, that is to say a complexity perspective, will be taken. 18 According to this, living
organisms organize their autonomy, their closeness, within and through openness something that
has actually been ignored and hidden by mechanistic physics and by the Cartesian/Western
metaphysics.19
Between order and chaos, between rules of laws, that are nowadays strongly influenced by our
positivistic traditions, and Carbonnier's non-law, on the edge of a possible imminent ecological
crisis (the ecological, social and political threat often reported in the media, of which ecovillage
dwellers seem to have a deeper consciousness20, is well known) ecovillages can be considered as
(complex adaptive) systems, engaged in social, cultural, technological, normative experimentation
in order to survive successfully.
By recognizing and accentuating local knowledge, we become more aware of the
multiple sites of knowledge production, perceptual differences and competing truth
claims. There is, in this schema, no all-encompassing Truth, no master plan, no
singularly correct way to arrange cultural, political, or economic institutions and their
consequent social relations. Here the language of the possible is free to circulate in
narrative creativity through the vehicle of folklore, critical memory, nostalgia, tales and
myths. Rather than anticipating closure, accentuation of the local recognizes the
instability of life: the unanticipated emerges as the norm.
- R. Schehr, op. cit., p. 18 -

According to Martin Albrow, if a phenomenon overcoming modernity appeared, it would be in the

practice, as a result of bottom-up actions - in opposition to modernity as strongly characterized by
15 Dragon Milovanovic would be the progenitor of the application of the insight of the theory of chaos to sociology
and especially to criminology. His first writings on the matter were published in 1993-1994: Borromean knots and
the constitution of sense in juridic-discursive production, Lacan's four discourses, chaos and cultural criticism in
law and The decentered subject in law: contributions of topology, psychoanalytic semiotics, and chaos theory.
16 Considering the belief in the objective foundation of any argument in one of the 'grand narratives' or 'metanarratives' of western tradition (science, progress, emancipation, etc.) to be modern, then skepticism of all metanarratives has to be considered as 'post-modern'. Cf. J.F. Lyotard, La condizione postmoderna: rapporto sul sapere,
Feltrinelli, Milano, 2001 (La condition postmoderne: rapport sur le savoir,LesEditionsdeMinuit,Paris,1979).
17 Robert C. Schehr, ivi, p. 16.
18 Cristoforo Sergio Bertuglia and Franco Vaio write: Cybernetics, in reality, can be considered a science that
anticipated complexity in the investigation of dynamical systems, precisely because it was the first to make use of
concepts such as isolated or closed systems that regulate themselves by means of internal feedback cycles. [...]
complexity has overtaken cybernetics because it makes use of new concepts such as, in particular, self-organization
and emergence [...]; in other words because it considers systems that evolve towards new states that do not have
negative feedback cycles - Cristoforo Sergio Bertuglia, Franco Vaio, Nonlinearity, chaos and complexity. The
dynamics of natural and social systems, Oxford University Press, New York, 2005, p. 264.
19 Edgar Morin, op. cit., p. 18.
20 People voluntary choosing to take part to ecovillage projects seem to be the ones more familiar, materially and
symbolically, with main-stream capitalistic culture.

top-down socio-legal projects.21

The practical interaction between the physical actors playing in the above mentioned
physical/cultural/social/political/legal context would give rise to an eventual normative system that
is supposed to be 'other' in its interaction and maybe competitive with the dominant legal-positivist
tradition.
The approach that has been illustrated has constituted the chosen frame that guided my entering the
field of investigation, besides the actual construction of meanings about the ecovillage experiences I
encountered both as a scholar and as a person.

21 Martin Albrow, The Global Age, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1996. In this sense, postmodernism is not expected to be
a further theory, but a practice, or a series of practices.

Chapter III
In the Valley of the Elves
Come into that space, [] This is a positive invitation of mine. A
message from that marginal place which is a place of creativity and
power, an inclusive space where we rediscover ours and act with
solidarity. [] Come into that space, lets meet there.
- bell hooks, Praise of the margin, in Gianmarco Navarini, Etnografia
dei confini: dilemma clinico e polisemia, Rassegna Italiana di
Sociologia 42, n. 2, 2001 -

I met the Elves and their place, the Valle dei Burroni, about 13 years ago, in December 1997. At
that time, I was just over 20 years old and the search for a different way of life, a concrete
alternative to the crisis of modern times and a certain desire for community had led my curious
footsteps along the paths of a world in apparent contradiction with the present day. On closer
inspection, however, this other world was certainly not just a nostalgic return to the past.
Men and women living in various restored farmhouses, merry children, incredibly agile and aware,
farmwork, handicrafts, candles and fireplaces, but also stories of enriching journeys, homeschooling, the talking circle, incredible full moon parties, hospitality for every possible kind of
person and multiculturality really did exist in these little strongholds of dignified and refined
sobriety.
This is how Giovanni, an elder and a recognized authority of the group, briefly describes who the
Elves are. He highlights the underlying values on which their specific lifestyle is based. This is a
lifestyle which, although unique within the Western context, is in line with other more recent
practical experiments that, despite differences in development, have common roots in the
countercultural movements of the 1960s.
The Elves began in 1980 with a group of four people who, weary of city life and compromises,
decided to go and live in Pesale (which they call Gran Burrone), a small abandoned village on the
Tuscan-Emilian Appenine at an altitude of 880 mt above sea level and which can only be reached
on foot. There was an immediate dispute with the police who warned them to leave the premises
and gave those present written injunctions to leave as well as searching them. The group, instead of
giving up their project, organised a petition, and with a few hundred signatures from the residents of
the surrounding villages, obtained a document in which the owner authorized them to live there
until such time as they were able to buy the place. The magistrate revoked the orders to leave and
the squat spread in a short time to other villages of the area: Piccolo Burrone, Case Sarti and
Pastoraio.
Later attempts by the authorities to integrate the community into official, productive, projects were
always rejected by the Elves, who took great pride in their independence and self-suffciency.

In order to hold talks with the local authorities, not as individuals but as a group, the Elves founded
two associations: Il Popolo Elfico della Valle dei Burroni, an unofficial association, run by a
committee and the Il Popolo della Madre Terra, a non profit association.
Between 1980 and the present time, the Elves have spread over the whole mountain, renovating the
abandoned houses, transforming them from ruins into comfortable homes although without a road,
electricity or gas, in accordance with their lifestyle. They use wood fires for cooking and heating
and solar energy or candles for illumination.
Since the beginning of the project, over 120 little Elves1 have been born on those mountains (the
oldest is now 23 years old). The children brighten up those places which would otherwise be
condemned to desolation were it not for the Elves who inhabit these places, love them, take care of
them, cultivate them and have brought them back to life.
The relationship with local people is one of neighbourliness and there is often an exchange of
favours and reciprocal help, although at first there was a bitter war lasting over 10 years with the
local hunters who felt defrauded of part of their hunting territory because of the presence of so
many Elves. Fortunately, in recent times things have quieted down on this front and it seems as if
reason is prevailing over intolerance.
Many people admire us for our brave choice, but we think it takes more courage to live in cities, in
small apartments, suffering boredom and solitude, harassed by economic problems, in a constant
rush to be on time, compared to the freedom of living in the forests, eating the fresh produce of the
land.
Today there are over two hundred Elves in thirteen sites, be they independent houses or villages.
They have maintained their frugal lifestyle although every basic necessity is met. They have
managed not to get trapped by mainstream fashions and the trends of consumer society. A track
over 5 km long through the forest separates them from civilization 2; their children attend the
middle and secondary schools in Pistoia or Porretta whereas their primary education happens at
home. Although they lead a different lifestyle, condemning the competitive, profit-orientated way
of life, work-consume-die, which follows an ethic of unlimited development at the expense of
Mother Earth and human nature, they don't however feel at all isolated or out of this world.
Nobody has a stable job, the expenses of the community and of the villages are paid with money
earned making pizza during festivals or by organizing events with affordable prices, whereas each
person is responsible for his own finances, except for cases in which the individual asks the Valley
for a contribution when he's unable to earn enough to pay for some incidental necessity. There is a
fraternal relationship of reciprocity between all the Elves and our non-Elf visitors: all one needs to
do is dive into the magic wave of sharing, natural to human nature when not misled by the
individualism and egoism of present-day society, which has chosen money as its only God,
forgetting the spiritual and human values which underlie conviviality, a value that we regard as
civilized.
1 Not all the children born amongst the Elves, and their respective parents, currently live in the community.
2 Cars and jeeps can be driven along this track which the elves drive along too.

Decisions are taken with everybody's consent, never by majority voting, but only with the circle
method; the circle which is the shape in which we sit to speak, emphasizes the fact that there is no
leader and we are all equidistant from the circles centre, which represents the centre of power or of
the great Spirit. It is a method of discussion and exchange which involves all the members of the
community who speak one at a time when the Sacred Talking Stick, which is passed round the
circle, reaches them. The Stick circulates until all the contrasts are sorted out and a consensus is
reached (which does not imply unanimity - which means everybody agrees - with the consensus
method, someone may not agree but, nevertheless, does not block the decision of the others). This
method has always been used in the Elves circles without ever becoming codified. It is a practice
which works on reciprocal trust and on feeling because people are encouraged to speak from the
heart instead of using cold reason.
A little story which represents the essence of Elfic life and ideology is: [] a businessman was
irritated at the sight of a fisherman lying next to his boat, calmly smoking his pipe.
- Why arent you fishing?, asked the businessman.
- I have already fished enough fish for the whole day.
- Why don't you fish some more?
- And then what would I do with it?
- You would earn more money. That way you could put an engine on your boat and go further out
to sea and catch more fish. Then youd have more money to buy a nylon net and catching more fish:
you would have even more money! Soon you would have enough money to buy yourself two boats
Or even a fleet. Then you could be rich, like me.
- And at that point what would I do?
- You could relax and enjoy life.
- What do you think I'm doing now?
The experience of the Elves has as an importance which goes way beyond the apparent limitation of
a single, marginal experience. This is because its very existence offers a model for a postindustrial, post-capitalist, sustainable and environmentally compatible society, a model which
would be an enrichment for humankind itself. In a historical period still dominated by capitalist
greed which is destroying the Earth's ecosystem and threatening the survival of the human species,
a new paradigm is emerging, based on freedom, equality, fairness, solidarity, cooperation and on
the spiritual evolution of human beings, fundamental values for a rebirth in all areas of social life.
Whilst a model of development, a certain type of civilization and progress are doomed to
collapse and is moving towards a crisis of unprecedented dimensions, there is a growing awareness
and re-cognition of the ancient laws of nature and the spirituality which wells up from them. This
new awareness presupposes respect for the equilibrium of the natural cycles and requires the kind of
interaction which takes into account the biological needs of every species, in order to maintain
biodiversity.
Man is not the absolute master of the planet but a guest, welcome or unfortunate (this depends on us
as we stand on the edge of ecological catastrophe: we know what kind of environmental impact we
have produced!). If you want to preserve life on earth, teach your children to love all beings, from

greatest to smallest, and always remind them that man is only a thread in the skein of life.3
Thus we Elves can now be seen, not as a bunch of adventurous Utopian hippies, dropping out of our
times, but a bastion of cultural, human and natural resistance, incarnating humanitys need and the
need of the Earth for a reconciliation. Although the earth does not speak but expresses itself in
other, more eloquent ways, every individual who is not completely blinded by money (which is
power), can understand that the earth is asking us to change direction, to change our lifestyles and
our mindset, as well as our economic, political and social system.
So all we have done is embody this need, creating a micro-society based on different values. These
values include gender equality, the sharing of belongings and the means of production, the rejection
of roles, an embracing of the extended family, the recognition of the central role in our lives of the
land, the mountain and the peasant way of life both as primary resources for fulfilling humankinds
basic needs and as an intrinsic value for a proper relationship between man, nature and culture. All
these values are intended to safeguard the environment and manage the resources in a manner
which will preserve them for future generations.
We are a micro-society where the basic principles of men and women are respected, for example we
uphold equal rights (and duties) and participation in the choices of the community which are made
using a decision-making system which involves all the members in a relaxed and frank discussion
without the stress of having to make urgent or emergency decisions.
In this micro-society, the elderly have their natural place, passing on their skills and knowledge and
making themselves useful as far as they are able. Likewise, our children are not manipulated from
an early age to meet the needs of a competitive and production-centred society, but their natural
inclinations and learning rhythms are respected, and equal importance is given to both intellectual
and practical skills.
In the creation of a different economy, bartering, exchange and donation are given priority. Thus we
do not follow a principle of market value, but instead, the principal of the value of use, unless
friendship or affection overcomes even this principal of give-and-take.
Economy plays a minimal role, in fact every community seeks to be autonomous and self-sufficient
or uses local products in order to waste less energy for their transport and to enable them to keep
track of the produce, by eliminating the middle men.4 This we do because it is important to know
where the food is from, how it is produced and why, since this kind of awareness and choice can
direct the market and production towards an ethic of environmental respect and of human rights
(think globally, act locally).
To reduce the environmental impact it is necessary to eliminate waste;5 each material is a source of
energy and must be used to the end of its cycle, but in this society, it is dismissed as rubbish and
destroyed in incinerators. This occurs even with things which could still be put to use by poor
3 Quoted from the book La donna dalla coda dargento by Huarache Mamani Hernan, Mondadori, 2005.
4 Some households occasionally buy some food products in discount shops: this is mostly due to restricted means.
5 I remember a conversation with German Kai, in his self-built, one-room, wood and clay house in the middle of the
forest. During the conversation he pointed out that a small plastic bag can contain all the garbage he accumulates
over six months.

people or populations in the south of the world, where people still die of hunger.
The contradictions and hypocrisy of current-day society are so enormous that the consequences
make these errors are easy to see, but it is difficult to change because the political, economic and
military forces behind the powerful multinationals reign supreme everywhere. These multinationals
use all the means at their disposal to weaken or corrupt the healthy and natural life of local
communities (or of indigenous tribes who organize and managed their own affairs on the basis of
their own local culture, resources and requirements). But when the collective conscience of
humankind as a whole becomes aware that it is impossible to continue in this way and the
disasters that nature will visit upon us will force us to understand - then, if we are still in time, we
will change our lifestyle and give up the illusion of unlimited development.
Nature and patience have a limit. A different way of life is possible and already exists...
Oh Cosmic Mother, beloved Mother, you permit our life to flourish in your body, thank you for
the opportunity of being here, thank you for nourishing me, thank you for protecting me 6

A methodological note
The long journey, first by train or car, then on practically empty public transport, sometimes
together with Elfin children on their way home from school, the slow walk in the forest under the
weight of a rucksack holding the bare necessities and a gift or two always helped me to leave
behind the bustle from down below. Physically and mentally I left my everyday life behind as I
prepared to cross the threshold into a very particular way of thinking embedded in and transpiring
from the everyday life of the Elves.
Entering the Elfin territory, across well-defined and yet also fluid physical and symbolic borders, I
find a warm, hospitable, jovial world. I am welcomed as a girl, a woman, a traveller with whom to
share moments of real sincerity, potentially enriching moments. My being a researcher is
experienced ambivalently, especially at the beginning: some people offer to help me in my work
and others, recalling the often gratuitously intrusive and opportunistic attitude of some journalists,
declare they have no intention of acting as an object of study and discourage me from entering their
village to carry out research activity.
The fact that I had recently become a mother made me feel much closer to other women who are
mothers: the sharing of common feelings naturally made me feel more involved as a person. At
each moment of each visit, my identity, together with that of my interlocutors, is constantly
evolving and sometimes aspects of ourselves which had so far been present only in the background
were revealed. This reminds me that each encounter and its outcome are unique.
Knowing that my presence influences the context under observation, I have taken on the rhythms
and joined in with the activities I encountered bending my experience to the lived moment,
sometimes troubled at the thought of making notes, other times pleasurably absorbed in the
waves which so easily allow one human being to tune into another and share experiences. This
6 Idem.

perturbation however has a double effect, as it enables the researcher to explore personal
reactions to new and unexplored boundaries of personal identity. Sometimes, moments of apparent
inactivity, of letting myself be drawn into the lives of other people, of living alongside that were
definitely at odds with the note-taking mode, enabled me to experience rich moments and to
really grasp the specific emotional or rational states that I was caught up in.
It is the very fact of allowing oneself to become absorbed, as Leonardo Piasere says, which really
enables one to write an ethnographic account, ones own ethnographic account, the unique and
unrepeatable outcome of first-hand experience. An experience made up of physical presence7,
sensory perception, cultural background, social background, relational background, emotional
background -.8 On this matter, Piasere talks of perduction:
The concept of perduction or perductive method, refers to consciously or
unconsciously acquiring cognitive-experiential schemas which resonate with previously
interiorised schemas. This acquisition occurs by accumulation, overlapping,
combinations, jumps and explosions through a continuous interaction or rather through
a prolonged co-experience in which attention and empathic processes of abduction and
mimesis play a fundamental role
- Leonardo Piasere, Letnografo imperfetto. Esperienza e cognizione in antropologia,
Edizioni Laterza, Bari, 2002, p. 56-

Perduction, an intentional and conscious experiment which is an extension of experience outside

ordinary, day-to-day life, a kind of impregnating resonance, living and dynamic, should make a
unique and un-reproducible form of knowledge possible.
What does the ethnographer do? He writes says Clifford Geertz, thus underlining the inevitable
and critical nature of ethnographic interpretation and marking a turning point in the interpretative
view within the anthropological world.9
Writing it all down is in fact complementary to the experience in itself, an action in which the
ethnographer assigns meaning and seeks knowledge through his own cultural setting. He thus
attempts to avoid the claim of neutrality by trying not to deny the reciprocal relationship between
subject and object and also tries to avoid excessive personalization by raising the researchers
experience to the status of sole interpretative key.
It is very simple, reassuring and over all misleading to look for easy, quick analogies. Remaining
inside the tangle of complexity, refraining from proposing cognitive cause-effect relationships,
practicing believing in schemas and metaphors belonging to semantic fields unknown to me and
attempting to create a dialogue between multiple analogies10, enabled me to contextualize the
particular in the wider and more comprehensive generality. I was thus able to search for
appropriateness and the sense of things instead of the truth with all the possible cognitive and
7 According to Ernst Mach, in every knowledge process its not possible to not start from ones own body. See Ernst
Mach, Conoscenza ed errore. Abbozzi per una psicologia della ricerca, Einaudi, Torino, 1982, pp. 8-10.
8 Impregnation or imbombegamento acts when attentinon is not payed. See Leonardo Piasere, Letnografo
imperfetto. Esperienza e cognizione in antropologia, Edizioni Laterza, Bari, 2002, p. 160.
9 Clifford Geertz, Interpretazione di culture, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1988 (or. 1973), p. 29.
10 Dennis Tedlok, Verba manent. L'interpretazione del parlato, L'ancora, Napoli, 2002, pp. 293-294 (The spoken
words and the work of interpretation, 1983)

emotional tools at my disposal.

In attempting to gather the specific social organisation of meaning which is also the norm in action,
the tools I used in my study context were mainly of a qualitative type: being there 11, observation,
interviews, analyses of literature available on site.
Re-creating my own home context by going for a short walk amongst the olive trees or in the
woods, or musing at night in my sleeping bag allowed me to see things through different eyes and
render unfamiliar what was now familiar to me; it allowed a new light from different angles to be
shed on a reality with which I had, in fact, felt comfortable right from the beginning.
Below I present three different contexts in which the social construction of a norm is at work in my
object of study; the hope is that to manage successfully in the area of research that has been
chosen is a first important indicator of the adequacy of my own understanding12, an understanding
which, by its very nature is an on-going, non-linear construction which is a dynamic process in
continual evolution.

3.1. The relationship with the earth

In as far as people move away from nature they spin further and further from
the centre. Simultaneously a centripetal rotation is established and the desire to
return to nature grows. But if people let themselves get caught only by the
reaction, moving left or right according to the circumstances, the result is only
more activism. The motionless point of origin, which resides outside the
kingdom of relativity, is surpassed without being noticed. - Masanobu
Fukuoka, La rivoluzione del filo di paglia. Un'introduzione all'agricoltura
naturale, Libreria Editrice Fiorentina, Firenze, 1980, p. 49 (Shizen noho wara
ippon no kakumei, Hukujusha editore, 1975) -

When, in the autumn of 2005, after a fortnight at Avalon, I say goodbye to the community to return
to my home and job, Iani, of Cretan origin but born in Germany, gives me this poem as a present.
Although he wrote it some time ago, this beautiful poem still seems extremely relevant to him.

11 See Clifford Geertz, Opere e vite. L'antropologo come autore, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1990.
12 b. Glaser and A. Strass, 1967, in Mario Cardano, Etnografia e riflessivit. Le pratiche riflessive costrette nei binari
del discorso scientifico., Rassegna Italiana di Sociologia 42, n. 2 , 2001.

A pitchfork and a piece of land

Today I dug a piece of land
I overturned with the pitchfork
the soft soil piece by piece
I weeded long-rooted couch grass
With its untraceable beginnings and limitless
growth like pointless
thoughts begun and never finished.
I removed the worms from the tines
they too are living beings
to be respected
though they damage the
deliberate sowing the seeds we really want -

like bad memories, hidden, well protected but

disturbing ones own healing.
I removed some stones at least the big, hard ones
which are like inflexible thoughts
so heavy you cant lighten up
I removed the brambles which, when laden with sweet fruit, we forget are covered in prickles
you touch them and they are painful.
Today I overturned that piece of land
Today I overturned my life
A pitchfork and a piece of land were all that was needed.
- Ioannis Maravelakis - Avalon Gratitude for a beautiful morning with our feet in the earth and pitchforks in our hands.

How do the Elves feel about nature? What are a man or a woman seeking when they take part in
and contribute to the creative revival of a specific awareness for the environment? What does the
particular relationship with nature consist of and feed on? What does it mean for an Elf to inhabit a
place, that particular place?
These and other similar questions guided my coming into their space and my behaviour, my
questioning, listening and reading in my attempt to come to an understanding of this specific aspect
of acted out norm as an essential part of a clearly defined normative orientation.
The Elves history begins with the squatting of Gran Burrone in 1980, on 14th July as tradition has
it, coinciding intentionally with the Taking of the Bastille, icon of the French revolution. 13 The first
Elves, who came from the 1977 Italian youthful protest movements, were dreaming of a place
which would be opposite of the repressive way of capitalism, far from the noise and chaos of the
city, in a search for a renewed relationship between people and the land.14 In this, their drive was
mainly spontaneous and creative need rather than based on any kind of militant politics.
For many Elves, meeting the community and consciously deciding to remain in it meant and
continues to mean, especially a return to the land and, through this, a search for a deeper meaning
to their existence, for deeper bonds, for a more refined sensitivity towards oneself, towards others
and towards the surrounding environment. Nature is instinctively felt both as an ordering principle
which regulates the life rhythms with which we need to harmonize and as a great Mother,
because she nourishes us and gives us life (Giovanni). There seems almost to be a prevailing
awareness of sense reality as an act of sexual love, repeated over and over again day by day: the
participation of the human being in this dynamic force unites him with the rest of nature in a
13 Since 1996, the presence of the Elves in the territory has been made official through the purchase, right of use,
leasing or the concession of real estate.
14 Mario Cardano, Lo specchio, la rosa, il loto. Uno studio sulla sacralizzazione della natura, Seam, Roma, 1997, pp.
65-66.

relationship of universal love. The search itself for this unity of feeling gives rise to deep inner
healing, the curing of ancient and even repressed (and thus darker and harder to heal) inner splits.
Living together in an environment featuring purity, that is to say, uncontaminated by a spirit of
domination and mere utilitarianism, seems like an ideal frame for an absolutely personal and unique
journey in which the other becomes a kind of masked double15 with whom to establish an open
relationship. Nina says:
Doing things together, finding moments to do things together, like planting potatoes,
gathering chestnuts... having parties, is very nice. Parties occur naturally, birthdays, full
moons16... But I feel its important to continue working on the land. The land is
fundamental. I came here at first, yes - for the community experience too but mostly
for the land, nature [To live out my relationship with the earth] made me understand
its not that we have to destroy a whole world. I was in a negative phase. Everything
you know looked black to me, the self-destructiveness, progress that ruins everything,
pollution, conflicts in society, everything looked negative to me, shut off and
destructive, everything to be fought against. Thats OK for a while, but in the end we
have to do something about it. This was my way of doing something. Another way of
life. The return to the land, but also deeper relationships - which are very important to
me, relationships which I still have difficulty finding outside this place. To live
together, at such close quarters, it makes you go deeper. If I have a problem with you,
then I used to think; Thats it! Im off! - No, lets work it out, get to the bottom of it.

This day to day building of lived reality, of ones own environment, far from being a dream or an
undefined Utopia, turns out to be a necessity, a possibility of salvation, giving back pleasure and
meaning to life, a chance to go further and develop. (Antonio)17
In the 1987 founding statute of the (unofficial) association, Il popolo elfico della Valle dei
Burroni (seven years after the first settlement in Gran Burrone), there is a mention of respecting
natural rhythms, regulating the hunting activity, as also of fishing and tourism, facilitating the
development and practice of organic and biodynamic agriculture, permaculture and experimenting
with other natural agricultural practices, promoting the restoration of abandoned rural buildings,
the respect of small-scale, low-energy farming economies and the recuperation of hilly and
mountainous marginal land where unpolluted farming is still possible. The aims are to experiment
and put into practice alternative technologies using non-polluting, renewable energy sources,
defend groups of young people and farming communities, which have already been living and
operating with these aims for some years, in absolute respect for nature, the environment and
15 For an analysis of the masked double in literature, history and mythology, see Chiodi Giulio M. (edited by), La
contesa tra fratelli, Giappichelli, Torino, 1992.
16 For the Elves at Valle dei Burroni, the full moon is a monthly chance to meet up, share experiences, and have a
party.
17 In one of his later books Der Abbau des Menschlichen (The decline of mankind) the Austrian ethologist Konrad
Lorenz draws attention to the fact that the decline of mankind is faster that the decline of nature. He sees the mind as
the system which is most at risk. Cf. Konrad Lorenz, Il declino dell'uomo, Mondadori, Milano, 1987 (or. 1983).
During the first national meeting CONACREIS (Coordinamento Nazionale Associazioni e Comunit di Ricerca
Etica, Interiore e Spirituale) sponsored by the Region of Tuscany, the Provincial and Local Authorities of Florence,
the lecturer Grazia Francescato (honorary President of the Italian Green Party), ending her report Understanding
that everything is connected quotes the politician and author Andr Malraux, according to whom the 21st century
will either be spiritual or not happen. Francescato ends with an optimistic vision. Cf. AAVV, Conoscersi per
crescere, crescere per conoscersi. Atti del primo convegno nazionale Conacreis, Firenze 26-27 Novembre 2005.

peaceful cohabitation. It is seen as important to eliminate the use of chemical products from
cultivation and regulate deforestation, encouraging the use of animals for agricultural work and for
the transport of wood into the valley, with the aim of avoiding bulldozing disastrous and useless
roads while waiting for the establishment of an agrarian community which respects these kind of
rules, rules still to be written.
In 1999, twelve years after the first statute and following the foundation of the Non Profit
Organizations of Social Unity (ONLUS), Legislative Decree N. 460, 4.12.1997, the non profit,
volunteer association Il popolo della Madre Terra is founded. Its name is highly significant. The
associations aim is to improve the quality of human life and of the environment, taking account of
their reciprocal interdependence. Those who recognise themselves in the association will act
respecting the natural cycles and in harmony with nature on the basis of their personal
knowledge, seeking a wider awareness of the problems which afflict humanity and the planet. 18
In the statutes, the agricultural section is described as the environment towards which the greater
part of our energy is directed because it is the source of our livelihood.
There is a commitment to the development of :
a culture which, basing its raison dtre on biodiversity, unites all peoples and all
nations in a common interest, that of preserving the species, threatened by ecological
catastrophe as a consequence of human action.19

The association will promote:

those activities which are meant to place man in symbosis with nature. These
activities will need to be respectful of the natural cycles and will have to take the
delicate ecological and ecosystemic equilibrium into due consideration, both in the
short and the long term. All fields will be addressed (considering that they are
interconnected, they are hard to understand if taken separately): the environment,
music, art, culture, nutrition, care, energy, health, historical, ethical, scientific and
spiritual research, pedagogy, amateur sports, experimental research, publishing, etc.
Thus all those activities that the relevant legislation permits (whilst recalling that the
associations main area of concern is that of environmental action). The associations
purposes are just related to social solidarity and to further this, it cannot act within the
framework of the rules of mainstream culture, where the economy is based on profit,
competition and the maximum exploitation of natural and human resources. It is thus
necessary to evolve a blueprint for a new model of development which is more humane
and more compatible with the environment. This model would be based on free and
18 According to Owen Barfield, the evolution of human awareness is inseparable from the evolution of the natural
world; the author describes its expansion as a result of interaction with nature. Cf. Barfield, Owen. Saving the
Appearances: A Study in Idolatry, Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, Conn., 1988 (or. 1957); Raymond P.
Tripp, Thoreau, Dickinson, and Barfield and the world as window of opportunity, Journal of Evolutionary
Psychology, 01.03.2002. The works and thoughts of the philosopher have been particularly successful in the United
States.
19 In 2001, UNESCO, widening the concept of sustainable development, says that cultural diversity is as necessary to
humanity as biodiversity is to nature [] cultural diversity is one of the roots of development, understood not only
as economic growth but also as a means of leading a more satisfying intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual
existence. (Art. 1, art. 3, Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity, UNESCO, 2001).

voluntary cooperation, on solidarity and social equality, non-violence and self-directed

activities, to be practiced both in the field of work and in interpersonal and social
relationships and in the relationship with nature.

The changes foreseen in the field of work, interpersonal relations and in the relationship with nature
are welcomed and seen as vital if we want to avoid the self-destruction of the human species. The
use of technology, seen here as an interference in the relationship between another person and
oneself, should be downscaled because from being a friend to man, reducing his work and
increasing productivity, technology has now changed into mans enemy, ruling his life.
Technology has now become overwhelming, dominating daily life and its relationships,
poisoning the environment and transforming ecosystems. 20
The various activities with the earth are essentially inspired by principles of love, care and
respect towards the earth, recognised as a Mother. In practice, this means least possible
invasiveness, no use of chemical fertilizers, no use of heavy machinery but the careful use of
observation. The knowledge on which the Elves base their relationship with the land in order to
provide a livelihood for about two hundred people (there are actually far more if we consider the
numbers of guests arriving daily), draws on various practices such as Mosanobu Fukuokas natural
agriculture, biodynamic agriculture, permaculture, synergic agriculture and the ancient peasant
farming skills passed down the generations mainly by word of mouth.
Mosanobu Fukuoka (1913-2008) was a soil scientist who showed how shaky the foundations of
modern agricultural science really were and developed a method, based essentially on a reduction to
a minimum of human intervention. To his way of thinking, all the farmer should do is facilitate the
natural processes which are at work. On his Japanese farm, Fukuoka tried to reproduce the natural
equilibrium of his place as faithfully as possible by not ploughing the land and by sowing close to
the surface, using clay balls to protect the seeds until their germination. Under this system, the land
should be deprived as little as possible of what would naturally live in it. Making more use of
attention to detail than hard work, this method has given remarkable results, reducing the work load
by up to 80%, reducing costs to a minimum and yet giving a yield either comparable or sometimes
higher and definitely of a superior quality, compared to the techniques employing the latest
technological and chemical adjuncts.
The books by Fukuoka which are well known and which brought the attention of the world not only
20 Already in 1954 the French sociologist and theologian Jacques Ellul wrote La technique ou l'enjeu du sicle
(Armand Colin, Paris) it. La tecnica. Rischio del secolo, Giuffr, Milano, 1964; the English translation The
Technological Society del 1967 (Vintage, New York) presents an introduction by Robert K. Merton -. According to
many it is the most important work of Ellul, La technique ou l'enjeu du sicle, points the finger at the artificial
system in which efficiency is raised to the status of a necessity by the rationality of the technical, eliminating or
subordinating the natural world. Instead of serving man, technology creates men which fit in with it, thus accepting
a radical change. Technological development risks dehumanizing the human, making people mistake for
development something which is not really development at all. Ellum was one of the first contemporary holders of
ecological politics it is interesting to remember that in 1957, when the Treaty of Rome founded the European
Community, there was no mention of the environment. In his writings Ellum also defended the idea that anarchy and
Christianity held the same social goals.
During a seminar at Cromford, UK, in September 2007, I was amazed at the numbers reported of American adults
and children who would take medication in order to fit into a tecnological world - Wild law: a response to climate
change. Weekend workshop at Lea Green, Derbyshire, September 21st 23rd, 2007, lecturer, amongst others,
Andrew Kimbrell. The sponsors of the seminar were UKELA (United Kingdom Environmental Law Association),
The Gaia Foundation and ELF (Environmental Law Foundation).

to the method, but also to the philosophy of non intervention which underlies the method, are:
The one straw revolution, The organic farm and The road back to nature: regaining paradise lost.
Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), philosopher and visionary, spent his life investigating various aspects
of existence. In his later years, in the course of various conferences, he stated some general
principles applicable to agriculture, which his followers then developed and tested. A systemic and
cosmic vision underlies biodynamic farming, according to which the position and the movement of
the planets influence the vital energy of matter and thus of the soil, plants and fruits. Astrological
knowledge as well as biodynamic preparations made from manure, quartz powder or organic matter
in homeopathic dilutions are precious tools for the alchemist-farmer, who shares a vision of life
which is impossible to test by traditional scientific analyses based on a reductionist approach.
Biodynamic experiments and cultivations are carried on in different parts of the world; the
internationally recognized body which certifies biodynamic products for farmers and consumers is
called Demeter.
In the 1970s in Australia, the idea of human settlements that would be sustainable over time
inspired David Holmgren and Bill Mollison to search for a possible permanent agriculture and a
permanent culture. This lead the two authors, and over time thousands of researchers all over the
world, to plan solutions in which the social factor would be an integral part of a truly sustainable
system. A systemic view, careful observation of the shape of complex environmental relationships
would give humanity the chance to be part of the complexity of natural life in a more harmonious
way and in an active and productive way without profit as the goal. Various international
conferences (the last one held in the ecovillage of Ithaca, NY21) and the emerging of national
associations (in 2006 the Accademia Italiana di Permacultura was founded), have contributed, over
about thirty years, to outlining a philosophy and life ethic to which the international movement
could refer. Integration rather than segregation is sought, as well as the use and appreciation of
diversity and whatever is seen as marginal, through small, creative, slow and responsive steps.22
From the English permaculture movement springs the idea of transition towns, towns which
intentionally make their economy local, reduce dependence on oil and oil derivatives and generally
reduce their ecological impact in preparation for the future post oil peak era.23
The difficulty of readapting Fukuokas teachings to climatic and environmental conditions in
Europe and the United States inspired Emilia Hazelip to come up with a new method of relating to
the earth which takes the name of synergic agriculture. Instead of plundering the soil, forcing it
to reach the condition which agrarian engineers would see as optimal, the aim of this method is to
understand how to interact with living soil which is capable of producing order out of chaos (only
something alive has this capacity). Thus the idea is not to till the land, not to use fertilizers or
chemicals, not to compact the soil, so that nothing external is put into the system and what is
already present is reorganized at higher levels of complexity - the wilder the earth is, the more
21 www.ecovillage.ithaca.ny.us
22 In Italian, see Bill Mollison and Reny Mia Slay, Introduzione alla permacultura, Aam Terranuova, 2007
(Introduction to Permaculture, 1978).
23 The first transition towns are Totnes in England and Kinsale in Ireland. The idea was an inspiration of the
environmentalist Rob Hopkins. Cf. Rob Hopkins, The transition handbook: from oil dependency to local resilience,
Green, Totnes, 2008; Felicity Lawrence, Pioneering Welsh Town begins the transition to a life without oil, The
Guardian, April 7th 2007.

fertile it is considered. By close observation, one would realize how naturally associated plants are
not in competition but rather in a relationship of reciprocal cooperation. Plants dont weaken the
soil, as conventional agriculture holds, but rather, if left to take their own devices, enrich the soil
immeasurably. The farmer should try, through creatively experimentation, to understand nature,
discovering the best synergy thus becoming the creator and a holder of culture.
These various visions concerning human intervention in the material world all share the belief in the
need for attention, respect and care towards a wounded Earth. In this view, humanity, losing sight
its role as earths children, increasingly claimed ownership of the earth and the right to exploit her,
thus betraying Mother Earth, with disastrous consequences.24
The natural methods and techniques of biodynamic, permaculture and synergic farming reflect a
holistic vision of the world, an awareness of the interdependence of the various components of life
on earth, an attention to walking lightly in mystery and sacredness.25 To perceive oneself as held
in the web of life leads one to seek, not only environmental but also cultural, spiritual and socially
sustainable attitudes.
Lucia, one of the Elves, at the end of her article called Amici della Terra!, after the creation of a
synergic garden in the ecovillage of Campanara (Palazzuolo sul Senio, Florence) says:
I am convinced that sharing experiences gives good fruits. I experienced pleasure
working together with all of you in great joy and harmony. I feel this is what we all
need to do, to come together, in touch with the environment that surrounds us and
which has no borders. The earth needs to rest and re-energize itself and thus needs to
be touched with respect with love. The earth is tired of being attacked and needs our
help more than ever before, I hope to see you soon a hug.
- in Corrispondenze e Informazioni Rurali n.18, September 2007 (self-produced
magazine) -

In the editorial of the CIR (Corrispondenze e Informazioni Rurali) n. 19, a magazine which comes
24 The founders of the American Constitution (1787), concerned to free themselves from the authoritarian control of
European monarchies, established an unprecedented set of individual rights, especially rights concerning the
possession and use of property without state restriction. Cormac Cullinan writes that: [...] the American
Constitution [] exalted the property-owning citizen beyond anything known previously in the history of political
establishments. The difficulty is not exactly with the rights granted to humans, the difficulty is that no rights and no
protection were granted to any non-human mode of being.
From its beginning the American Constitution was clearly a document framed for the advancement of the human
with no significant reference to any other power in heaven or on Earth. In the Bill of Rights, added as the first ten
amendments, a detailed listing of the rights of individual persons were given. Human had finally become selfvalidating both as individuals and as a political community. This self-validation was invented and sustained by the
union of the commercial-entrepreneurial powers with the legal-judicial powers to sustain the assault of the natural
world. - Cormac Cullinan, Wild law. A manifesto for earth justice, Green Books, Devon, UK, 2003, p. 13.
Cf. Thomas Berry, "Rights of the Earth. Recognizing the rights of all living beings", Resurgence,
September/October 2002, n. 214.
In 1886 the US Supreme Court, model for an universal justice, grants private corporations the human rights. For
more than a hundred and twenty years, still today, private corporations are joining the right to life, the right to free
expression, etc., and any other right a human person holds.
25 Ecovillaggi: l'impronta ecologica di chi cammina in punta di piedi (Ecovillages: the ecological footprint of those
who tread lightly) was the name of the meeting held in Mercatale di Vernio (Prato) the 24th September 2005.

out three or four times a year to which the Elves contribute, I read a significant passage regarding
the sacred vision of nature, which despite cultural relativity, invites us to a consecration of our
own attitudes, actions and life:
Proclamation of the four sacred things
The Earth is a living and conscious body. Like many other civilizations in different
times and places, we proclaim these things sacred: Air, Fire, Water and Earth. Whether
they are seen as the breathing, the energy, the blood and body of Mother Earth or as a
Creators gifts to humanity or as symbols of interconnected systems which support life
on this planet, we know that nothing lives without them. To call these things sacred is to
say that they stand as precious in their own right, beyond their importance for man and
that they are a value against which to measure our actions, our economy, our laws and
the ends we pursue. Nobody has the right egoistically to take possession of them. Any
government which does not know how to protect them renders itself illegitimate. []
To honour what is sacred means to seek conditions in which nourishment, support,
habitat, knowledge, freedom and beauty prosper. To honour the sacred consists in
rendering love possible. To this we dedicate our curiosity, our will, our courage, our
silence and our voice. To this we dedicate our life.

In harmony with the principles of Deep Ecology and James Lovelocks Gaia hypothesis, that is,
moving away from an anthropocentric view and considering the planet Earth as a self-regulating,
living organism, the sacredness of the natural elements is experienced as an interlocutor in an
unspoken pact. This pact is a common commitment towards the regeneration of nature and along
with it, human life.26 Both from reading the various documents written by Elves and non-Elves
accumulated over the years, and from my thirteen years of visits to the community, I consider that
this pact was established way back in 1980 when the first settlements appeared.
During one of my last stays in Avalon (May 2009), between the courtyard in front of the house and
the garden, I noticed some symbols marked on a wooden disk at the edge of the garden:

26 It is interesting to note that the expansion of civilization has had a punitive effect on many native practices which are
expressions of an intimate relationship with nature, practices considered manifestations of pagan idolatry. The
dignity of the feeling of communion with nature was suppressed, initially in the name of god and later in the name
of civilization.

The tacit agreement which has been maintained and cultivated for years between the human and the
plant world seems to have been symbolically codified some months back. In the symbol of the pact
it says:
With this writing we make an alliance with all the spirits of Nature of this place. With
our signatures we commit ourselves to protecting and respecting you and you commit
yourselves to helping our material and spiritual growth. Avalon, March 2009

Below are the signatures of the people who were present in the ecovillage at that moment.
Papavero27 tells me that:
At Avalon, recently consecrated as a place of worship of the Great Mother, a group of
people made a pact with all the nature spirits of the place, as was done at Findhorn and
Damanhur. This is a place of communion between man and plant, between the earthly
and the divine. A place we want to consecrate every day with our work and with our
attention, to harmony. A place of healing, where body, mind and spirit may go hand in
hand, where each persons path may entwine with the paths of others and create
richness, spiritual richness.

In reply to my questions about the meaning of the symbol I see drawn, Papavero clarifies:
Theres a circle of wood with some symbols marked with red paint.
The central symbol indicates the sacred place, the temple, the natural temple, the temple
of nature, the garden, the woods, the infinite universal place of death and of rebirth, of
sowing, of growth, of flowering and of re-sowing, and so on. Plant and human. A
powerful place between the Earthly and the Divine. A place where one may seek a
deeper communion with oneself and with the divine spark which is in each of us.
On my right, from this symbol, three others develop which represent healing, care for
the body, through love love for oneself, love for others, love for the place, attention.
On the left there are other symbols which mean: richness, inner richness, awareness of
ones path, awareness of the path which we are pursuing at that moment, and of
knowledge which nourishes everything.
At the top is the pact of union between the plant world and the human world.
At the bottom theres an appeal to victory, to light, to light on our psyche, on our soul.
It is the REAL LIFE journey, of living in the moment.

Without going into lengthy explanations, Papavero tells how these are the symbols of ancient
Atlantis, researched by many people, including those from Damanhur.
27 The name of the plant after which this person is called recalls his Damanhurian origins.

3.1.1. The house of the cultural creatives

An Elf interacts with the natural environment, immersed in its sacredness, trying through his actions
to find beauty, sacredness and equilibrium. However in other moments, in the evening, during meal
times, particularly in winter, on cold or rainy days, at night and during many parties it is, instead,
the house that becomes the merry centre of activities because of the cooking, weaving, the chorus of
adult and children's voices, a guitar being played, the dim light of a few candles or of a weak light
bulb powered by small photovoltaic system. How do the Elves experience their home? What is their
relationship with their homes, which are always rebuilt or built by themselves, mostly of stone, or
of wood, sometimes a teepee or a yurt? Patrizia Barchi, after devising 33 questionnaires answered
by Elves between the ages of 4 and 57 years old, writes:
For the population of the Elves, communitarian life, individual life and respect, love, devotion for
the plant and animal world are in a state of wonderful harmony. Those living in the community
work the land and at the same time try to renovate the stone houses, which have been abandoned for
years, to create homes reflecting their needs and their ideals. From the questionnaires on the subject
of living emerges the picture of a deep, gut bond with the earth and with the natural place which
has been chosen. Inhabiting means putting down roots, settling a place and establishing a living
relationship, of care, respect, attention and understanding towards it. Inhabiting means to become
completely part of a place, to evolve a kind of symbiosis between man and earth. Inhabiting is also
sharing in a pacific cohabitation with family and friends: the house is also a shelter, a nest, a safe
and stable place in which to rest, create, share, feel at ease, at peace with oneself and others and in
harmony with the surrounding environment. Inhabiting is a kind of merging, a continuum between
man, home and the environment from which the essential elements of livelihood are derived. But
what is a house for the elves? A house is first of all a shelter, a den, a refuge to shelter from the
cold, from the snow, from the rain, but it is also a safe place, tranquil, intimate, cosy, a place for
friends to meet, a necessary place, welcoming and harmonious. The home has a soul, intimacy,
warmth, it is a sacred place where the borders of the outside world are placed. At home one can
spend time with ones children, work, love, dance, draw, think, chat with friends. It is important that
it is comfortable, that it is built or modified according to one's needs because the house reflects
ones personality and must be in harmony with environment, that is, it should have the lowest
possible environmental impact. Nature is an integral part of a house: the house cannot be
conceived of as isolated from the environment. The house must be welcoming, warm, bright,
spacious, it must suit the person who lives in it, maybe with rooms for the children and rooms for
adult's work. It is important for it to be built with local, natural materials like stone, wood, straw,
mud and that it is as eco-compatible as possible, which means it is in harmony with the
surrounding environment, like a nest which hidden in the landscape. It would be better if the houses
were less damp, were well built, the roofs mended to stop the leaks. An ideal house has annexes, a
hay barn, a shed, a fire-wood shelter and hen house and is surrounded by a garden with flowers and
trees, and perhaps some simple games for children, like a sandpit and a wooden beam, allowing
them to use their fantasy and creativity. Home means peace, fun, sharing, welcoming: it need not
necessarily be built to traditional Western architectural standards. It may be raised above the
ground, it may have a straw roof, and hidden, secret rooms and openings or whatever. The

important thing is that it is an integral part of the environment. Home has an important emotional
value, we can establish a dialogue with it, a friendly and respectful relationship; the home protects
us, loves us, cares for us and so we should, in turn protect it, love it and care for it. 28
Creativity, a sense of belonging, good feeling, the sense of making a mark on the place where one
lives thus characterizes the inhabiting of those mountains, hills, meadows, woods, houses which
were deliberately chosen as their environment; life there should be basic, simple, frugal, and far
from mainstream standardization.
Similar attitudes to everyday life have been an object of study for the American sociologist Paul
Ray and the psychologist Sherry Anderson, according to whom a new type of human being is
emerging, the so called cultural creative. Cultural creatives are all those people who are
spontaneously and actively busy creating a new culture, thus marking the beginning of a unique
and important cultural change. According to sociological research carried out in the United States,
in Italy, France and Japan between 60% and 80% of the whole population is really worried about
climate change, widespread pollution, social unrest and inequality, and over a third of these people
are actively engaged in trying to create a peaceful world, a sustainable environment, an ethical
economy and a high quality of life through personal growth and the elective use of holistic healing
methods. Whereas to date these areas of interest were separate and disconnected (and very few
studies highlighted their common ground), in recent years alliances seem to have been found across
the board, forming the roots of a possible new culture beyond traditional political boundaries.
This new emerging culture seems to reject the normal underlying assumptions such materialism,
the blind belief in science, unlimited economic development29, indiscriminate exploitation of nature,
competitiveness without rules, individualism; instead it promotes different values of a healthier,
more pacific and eco-compatible nature. According to research by Ray and Anderson, whereas in
the 1970s (when information on other world cultures becomes widespread enabling one to go
beyond the local specifics) this new way of seeing things involved 1.1% of the adult American
population, by the 1990s it had already risen to 25%.
For the cultural creatives, negative information is a call to action, whilst moments of crisis tend to
produce, not so much a vain attempt to return to some comforting status quo, as a search for a new
cultural framework. Today, this creative and optimistic group of people, appearing all over the
planet and especially in the more industrialized countries, is the leading edge of cultural changes
which may have an enormous influence on society as a whole.30

28 In Ermanno Baldassarri, Progetto Comunit abitativa degli Elfi della Valle dei Burroni, unpublished document,
pp. 13-15. The draft of this document, completed in March 2009, aims to request the legal status of protected area
for the Elfin settlement.
29 In Seminasogni F.O.L.K. (finch ognuno li kolga), a small journal which circulates amongst the Elves, who
sometimes write for it, there is a quote attributed to the famous economist and critic of the mainstream economy,
Serge Latouche: anyone who believes that exponential growth can continue infinitely in a finite society is insane,
or he is an economist. According to classical economics, natural resources are considered merely as a resource,
not in relational terms. Cf. Serge Latouche, Obiettivo decrescita. Verso una societ armoniosa, in Seminasogni
F.O.L.K. (finch ognuno li kolga), bimestral supplement of Stampa Alternativa, Autumn 2008, n. 34.
30 Cf. Paul H. Ray, Sherry Ruth Anderson, Cultural creatives: how 50 million people are changing the world, Three
Rivers, New York, 2000; Enrico Cheli, Nitamo F. Montecucco, Creativi culturali. Persone nuove e nuove idee per
un mondo migliore. Una panoramica delle ricerche internazionali, Xenia, Milano, 2009.

3.1.2 Efforts towards a legal status

In harmony with their feeling part of the place, the gut sense of belonging which makes them part of
it, but without any desire to own the land or the houses, the Elves have attempted to take a specific
step towards a legal status, requesting the denomination of common land for the land which they
have squatted or own. In the collective imagination the commons (which, in the various Italian
regions, go by different names), are almost extinct: these are properties free from private ownership
and intended, according to very ancient custom, for the collective use of the resident population.
The provision of common land (which before the 1927 Serpieri law, could also apply to private
property) was intended to guarantee rights of cultivation, pasturing, the cutting or gathering of
firewood, the harvesting of wild fruit, etc. in certain areas for those who needed it for their own
livelihood, under a collective, participatory management.
Between the end of the 18th century and the 20th century, the participative use of recognised
commons came under fire from the emerging constitutional states. The new, emerging middle class
in a bid for political as well as economic power, was interested in the creation of legal forms of land
ownership which would facilitate exploitation of the land, in place of certain pockets where
unchanging, inefficient agricultural practices abounded. In line with this trend, the direct common
use of private property was abolished in Italy by the legislation in 1927 and converted into the right
to a corresponding lump sum (the so-called liquidazione). As an exception to the Serpieri law,
which also bans the extension of legal status of commons to other real estate, the Elves have
requested that the land of which they see themselves a part should be redefined as property free
from private use or use by the local Mountain Authority (Comunit Montana), assigning its
management to those who actually use it for their livelihood and who repudiate any speculation,
private or public.31
At this time in history, bringing the subject of common land and its use back to the attention of the
public (a few million hectares throughout the entire national territory, a mapping of which does not
exist), is seen as a specific way of giving voice to ecological awareness in order to preserve places
which are still clean.
Anyway, what better future for the land, seeing that industrial agriculture is a source of
poisoning with its pesticides and chemical fertilizers, that urbanization has become
widespread leaving little natural environment, that the forests which are the lungs of the
earth are cut every day for human greed? It is the local communitys duty to use those
lands, that territory, but also to preserve it in a good state for future generations, since
the restriction [to common use] has the purpose of passing the land on. Little remains,
however, in the present day attitude, of the concept of collective heritage because in
recent times there is a tendency to corner the market, speculate each for himself and
everyone thinks only of his own profit. [] The population of ordinary people, or the
new farmers who go back to the land even with their meagre experience, must be
helped and, over time they will learn the art of observing and reading the territory for
the purposes of their own survival []. It is not easy to be farmers but, faced with the
crises of ideals, of energy, of the environment and in all areas of social life, where
31 The Italian law DPR 616/77 delegates, amongst other things, control of the commons to the Regional Authorities.
The tendency of many local Authorities is to proceed with the elimination of what remains of the commons,
especially in areas which were used as pasture land and are now areas of tourism.

dissatisfaction, alienation, solitude, degradation, overriding individualism and poverty

reign, to go back to the land is the most appropriate choice and it is ecologically
sustainable. To go back to the land being able to use common and state-owned land is a
step within everybodys reach [] The commons must return to the management of the
collective []
- Quotation from an article which appeared in Corrispondenze e Informazioni Rurali n.
19, pp. 2-4 -

Given the current context, where very few people know about these rights and the authorities are
mostly disinclined to have the commons recognized and are sometimes desirous of actually selling
them off, the denomination as commons of the lands inhabited by the Elves seems still a long way
off. Indeed, Giovanni says that the procedure is a parliamentary process and thus there is very
little hope with current-day political attitudes.32
Another effort initiated by the Elves together with other associations sharing a similar awareness 33,
is the gathering of signatures to press for legislation which recognises the role and value of small
farmers, freeing them from the bureaucracy which is often more paralyzing than useful. The petition
concerns small peasant farmers, an unknown number of people practicing small scale farming,
tailored to a household economy, aimed at personal consumption and direct sale; a manner of
farming with a low or null environmental impact, based on a lifestyle where the values are sound
health, ecology, justice and solidarity instead of profit. This level of farming activity is almost
invisible to the market economy but it is fundamental in maintaining the fertility of the land
(especially in the mountains and in economically marginal places), in maintaining the rich diversity
of landscapes, plants and animals and in preserving traditional knowledge, skills and local products
as well as keeping the countryside, and especially the mountains, populated.
Present day taxes, as well as health and hygiene regulations, seem unsuited to the survival of a type
of farming which differs both in scale and, especially, in spirit from industrial agribusiness. Bigscale industrial agriculture focuses on extensive and specialized production, is highly mechanized
and uses chemicals, generally prefers monoculture and aims at selling through the mainstream
distribution channels or to the food-processing industry which usually means to the
multinationals.
The petition, amongst other things, asks for the permission: to process and package the products
which derive from small-scale farming, in those places which are traditionally used for such
activities (e.g. the domestic kitchen), using common domestic tools and utensils; to sell food
products (including seeds) and handicraft products direct to the consumer without this being taxed
as an act of commerce; to butcher livestock for personal consumption on the farm; to host up to 10
people, without needing permission, having to pay taxes or observe health regulations. The petition
also asks for work exchanged between farmers to be made free of state and pension taxation; for
more elasticity on planning permission for building sheds, greenhouses and other annexes and for
the abolition of limitations on agrarian contracts based on barter as long as they are in favour of the
parties in the measure of no less than 70% of the crop yield.
32 From an interview which appeared in Lato Selvatico n. 35, equinozio d'autunno 2009 newsletter edited by
Giuseppe Moretti, which often circulates amongst the Elves. See also www.selvatici.wordpress.com
33 Consorzio della Quarantina (Ligurian Apennine), Civilt Contadina (national), Rete Bioregionale (nazional),
Corrispondenze e Informazioni Rurali (national), Consorzio le Galline Felici (Sicily), Antica Terra Gentile
(Lessinia), Agribio (Emilia Romagna), Wwoof Italia (nazionale), Associazione Solidariet per la Campagna
Italiana, Associazione Rurale Italiana.

The spirit of the petition, for which the gathering of signatures ended in November 2009 (2444
signatures have been collected)34, is clearly to eliminate obstacles to the survival of traditional forms
of farming which exist both in answer to necessity, but also in answer to the ideals of caring for the
earth and the using its fruits (vegetables, fruit, but also firewood...) for family and local
consumption.
According to the organizers of this political campaign, to include two such different agricultural
procedures (one based on household economy and the other based on economic profit) in the same
tax, social security and bureaucratic profile is an obstacle for those wishing to continue living in
marginal areas and, at the same time, prevents the return to the land of young people wishing to
do organic farming or set up teaching farms, farm holiday centres, etc.
Small scale farming is seen as a defender of biodiversity, traditional knowledge, local products and
techniques, repopulating the countryside and mountain areas which otherwise would experience
depopulation leading to the degradation of the land and possible environmental devastation.
According to the promoters of this petition, a truly sustainable society ought to move away from the
ridiculously small numbers of the population currently involved in farming and plan for a more
widespread return to the land.

Conclusion
In the Valley of the Elves, the perception (knowledge, Cf. Norm Model chap. 2) of

an injured Earth, of a Mother needy and worthy of understanding, care, attention,

a mainstream culture based on depredation of Nature and aiming at mere economic profit

as well as the desire (will, Cf. Norm Model chap. 2)

to heal the planet and to heal oneself, both at the level of the individual as body-mind-spirit
interaction and collectively as an intentional community with this aim

in a physical-social enclave, the ecovillage, where experimentation is rendered possible by a

combination of isolation and (often filtered) communication with the outside (possibility, Cf. Norm
Model chap. 2),
giving rise to an acted norm, a particular kind of relationship with the land, characterized by
treading lightly on the earth which, out of a need to enjoy the earths fruits, favours a holistic and
bio-centric view.
The same orientation, culturally speaking, which has allowed the Elves to seek out and recreate
their own values, sees them making a pact with the land and taking care of a territory which is an
integral part of their own being. At the same time, the understanding of this orientation gives a
specific meaning to the commitment, which may help to win recognition from national legislation
34 Lately the petition has been further elaborated. The promoting associations have signed this new document on 7th
June 2010.

so that the vision which is sensitive to cultural and ecological sustainability becomes part of the
legal norms which influence daily life and the future of the collectivity.

3.2. Birth
In the deepest and darkest stages of human existence, the love between a mother and the
being born of her body represents the brightest aspect of life, the only glimmer of light in
the moral darkness, the only bliss in the depths of misery [] the allure of the maternal
principle, which in a life full of violence is the divine principle of love, unity and peace.
In caring for the fruit of her body, woman learns before man how to push ones own
amorous worries beyond the confines of the individual self towards another being []
- Johan Jacob Bachofen, Il matriarcato, Giulio Einaudi Editore, Turin, 1988, p. XLI
(Das Mutterrecht, 1861) -

3.2.1. The birth of Castana

A tranquil expectancy, marked in time by the growing grass and the night extending its
hand to the day... A belly getting bigger every day, every task requiring a little extra
effort. Then, little by little, the baby starts to whisper to you, letting you know that it is
getting ready to make the difficult journey which will bring it into the world among
Mother Natures other creatures. Slight aches, light twinges of pain in the lower
abdomen, then the uterus contracts, it tightens and then relaxes, following the rhythms
of the woman who is about to become a mother.
With a rhythm ever more overwhelming, nature has you in its grip, in a shamanic
trance, and the pain turns into sound, the song bursts forth from the channel which
separates the fear of pain from the joy of giving birth... finally you let yourself go and
everything flows in a relentless rhythm, the people around you are left to watch; some
in silence, some weeping, others running away, the more open of them getting involved
(mostly women) and they accompany the divine song of life then... the impulse to push,
to help the baby in its efforts, to push it out and end this labour. Finally, in a moment
that hangs between agony and an orgasm of the senses, the little maestro slips quietly
into our world, a magical creature from faraway dimensions bringing the energy of light
with it. I hardly dare take it in my arms, this little being full of holiness, but then I pick
it up, the umbilical cord still pulsating, my eyes fill with tears and as he latches onto my
breast, following an instinct as old as the world itself, I fall with him into the ecstasy of
rest after following Mother Natures powerful dance.
- Nascita di un elfo (The Birth of an Elfin), article which appeared in the CIR35
35 Corrispondenze ed Informazioni Rurali (Rural Information and Correspondence), a self-edited newspaper issued
three or four times a year. The drafting of the various articles it includes written by hand or on a computer - is
carried out following a meeting which lasts about three days in a predefined place. During these three days the

Toscana, Summer 2000 -

With these words, Giulia, just a little over twenty, shares with the CIR her first experience of a
woman entering motherhood.
This, on the other hand, is how she described it to me, delighted and still full of enthusiasm, one
evening by candlelight with the baby Castana moving around beside us while we sat on the wooden
floor in one of the houses in the Piccolo Burrone village:
I really wanted Castana36, I really wanted a baby. So from the first minute I knew I was pregnant I
enjoyed everything about it. I thought it was going to be like a journey and I wanted to enjoy it right
from the start. From the very start I really felt I had the job of giving the baby all the positive
feelings I possibly could, [...] I felt there was a strong sense of communication. This little creature
was growing in my belly so I always tried to be happy, to be involved in situations which brought
me the most happiness or joy. And then, as she grew, little by little I began to feel more and more
this... this connection, as if she were already an autonomous being. So much so, that in the last few
months, just to give you an example, I found myself working the land throughout the whole day,
because I felt a real need to feel my bare feet on the earth, the need to sow, to I dont know I
felt I was a source of life, that in that moment I had the energy of life in me, I really felt the need
to to bring it out. So sowing seeds so that new plants could grow in fact I had the best
vegetable patch I had ever had! So during the day I worked quite a lot, maybe hoeing, you know,
sometimes in positions that werent so comfortable for her, or maybe she just felt that I was full of
energy, that I was here, there and everywhere, and she too would be kicking all day long, I could
really feel her kicking all the time. Then, come evening, Id collapse really early as usual.
The birth was wonderful, really a wonderful experience... I was at home with Franz and we
were building a wall for the chicken coop. Then Franz was tired, it was really hot, so he was tired
and went off to rest. So I said, In that case Ill have a nice bath!, there I was outside in the sun, in
the deep tub in the middle of the woods and I was all happy! And I still didnt know I was about to
go into labour! Suddenly I heard a whistle from the path and I said, Yes, someones coming!.
And I was sure, being as we were all alone and everyone used to say: But arent you scared, there
on your own, knowing that youre about to have a baby and I always replied, No, youll see, if
someone needs to arrive, they will, just at the right moment, right?. The same thing had just
happened to Loretta. Someone will surely arrive if they have to arrive! In fact, I heard someone
there on the path. And there was Marta, with the children, because she knew the time was getting
near, in fact I was already overdue. So I stood up from the tub in which I was bathing and I realised
I had lost the mucosal plug and that I was really starting to give birth, yes, going into labour. So I
stayed with Guarani, who was two years old37, so... I stayed with him and the goats38, and I began to
feel stomach pains. And then I went for a walk. So I was with him and the goats in the wood and
and I was really happy! I really wanted to give birth, to see this little baby at long last. I was really
looking forward to it... I really couldnt wait any longer. Then it started to get dark, and then the
persons gathered together form a talking circle. It is difficult to count the number of copies issued as it is
photocopied as required and passed around.
36 The babys name comes from the fact that she was born in an environment dominated by chestnut trees.
In this work, I have substituted the adults' names with invented ones, thus respecting privacy. However, as regards
the names of the babies and children, I have opted for maintaining the original ones, because they contribute to
describing the particular cultural universe.
37 One of Martas four children. Marta is Brazilian.
38 At the time of this narration Franz and Giulia kept goats in the ground-floor cattle shed.

contractions started. It was July so the days were longer and the night came down slowly, so when
it started to get a bit dark and the contractions started, I went away... I felt that there was this
rhythm inside me, like waves coming and starting the contractions. It slowly came and then
subsided. I really felt this rhythm like waves. Drums came to mind. So I felt I wanted to go into
the woods for a while. To find my centre, amongst other things, to be able to centre myself on me,
to concentrate and prepare myself for what was about to happen. I went into the woods and I started
to dance following the rhythm of the contractions I was feeling! While I was dancing, movements
came to me that reminded me of, I dont know, African dances. So, anchored to the ground, I really
felt this energy that came from the earth and linked itself to my uterus. And I moved, following this
rhythm of the contractions. This went on for some time and then I heard... I was interrupted by the
passing of a deer with her Bambi... and so I said, Yes! Look there! A mother with her young! She
has come to tell me something! I was interrupted by this beautiful presence and by now it was
really getting dark so I went home to get the room ready... and... then the children had gone to
sleep. Franz started to sound the horn to signal to those in Aldaio39, you know, Emi, Daniela, who
would come if they could. And in Aldaio they heard the horn and they got here about an hour
before I gave birth. During the labour, there was Marta who placed warm cloths on my belly
because I really felt it was accelerating the birth. As soon as she put the warm cloth on my skin a
contraction came... and this speeded things up a lot, that and the fact that I kept moving, kept
walking... and I felt I wanted to sit down, but the contractions were slower then, walking really
speeded things up. In fact the labour lasted five six hours from start to finish, and I gave birth
straight away and after, yes, it was fast. Castana had her umbilical cord round her neck and Emi
and Daniela... when she was coming out, Emi took it from around her neck, so it was just as well
that they were there too. Then it was wonderful, because then Emi, Daniela and Elisabetta too
arrived and it was great because theyve had a lot of experience in births and they let me lead the
way. Its not as if they told me what to do. They gave me some advice, but then it was me who had
the situation in hand, the timing, I had everything in my own hands! It was me directing things.
They were just there to help and be a support. A support in the real sense of the word, because
when I gave birth they held me up, one on one side under my arm and one on the other side. And so
I gave birth kneeling down, with my legs open, in fact I saw everything, because, yes I saw its little
head, I saw it as it came out, I watched it all... it was just incredible! Then when it came out I said
to myself: What is this little thing? It just didnt seem possible! Id never seen a little baby, not
that little! Just born! And it was really mine! And it was alive, it was there! And I had to do
everything for it! It was a little thing that really depended on me, right? My nipples are inverted so
I was really worried the baby wouldnt be able to suck properly and yet it latched on straight away
and bingo!
[...] And I put it to the breast immediately. As soon as it was out I had it to my breast, only the
umbilical cord was a bit short and it was a bit tricky giving it my breast. So as soon as the cord
stopped pulsating, even though I wanted to leave it attached a bit longer, Franz cut it because it was
still taut. So Franz cut it and we tied it off with some cotton, and then the baby latched on. Then she
started to suck and sucking brings you more little contractions which help the placenta to detach
itself. In fact I pushed it out after about a quarter of an hour. It was whole, because if some gets left
inside you it starts to rot. It was all in one piece. So then the birth is really over, once the placenta is
out and then dah dah! From then on, everything changes.
39 The village of Aldaio is about a 50-minute walk from the Piano where Giulia and Franz live on the other side of the
valley opposite the Piano.

3.2.2. The birth of Jouko and of Elvan Luni

I got to The Cerchiaia one morning at the beginning of May (2005). I came with a group from
Avalon, for Duendes birthday, the second of Emis40 then three children. In the house they were
baking cakes and Sara and Giovanna, from Casa delle Rane and Avalon respectively, had come to
give a hand. The party was to be after three oclock in the afternoon, when Duende and the other
children got back from school in the nearby village.
Loads of baking dishes, pots and various cooking equipment, including a couple of great big pans
cluttered up the kitchens. On the wood stove, water was already on the boil because, they told me,
Lucia had gone into labour. Lucia was living in a teepee with her partner and their firstborn Sangit,
in Campo Mascherina, a few minutes away from The Cerchiaia. Lucia wanted to give birth there, in
Campo Mascherina; a few canisters of water and some cloths had already been taken down ready
for the event.
A little later we saw Lucia appear on the road coming up the hill supported by Sara and Nina and
visibly in labour. Her wish to walk awhile took her to the great beech tree opposite Emi and Pablos
house. The woman in labour lay down on the grass and let it be known that she wasnt going to
move from there. Towels and cloths were brought over. Alberto, her partner stayed by her side,
massaging her sides and silently kissing her. Respecting the delicate nature of the moment, Nina,
Sara, myself and Emi quietly came and went amongst the voices of the children running around and
playing nearby two-year-old Sangit was one of them.
While Sara, Giovanna and I were in the big kitchen sorting out the cakes to be taken outside later in
the afternoon, Nina came in to call for Emi. The moment had come.
Lucia is on her hands and knees. Emi bends down beside her. The few things which need to be said
are said quietly or with gestures. Lucia moves following her needs and her instincts, without any
instructions or suggestions: it is she who holds the reigns of the situation in her hands, those present
acting merely as respectful support. A few moments and a few pushes later a head appears. Amidst
all this attention, which is almost sacred, I cant deny having some trepidation in being present for
the first time in my life at the birth of a child and for it to be in an environment, which appeared, at
least in my eyes, incredibly precarious. I was afraid when I saw that purple head appear! Emi later
explained that this is always the case and that sometimes the whole body can come out purple.
Those around Lucia are calm, quiet and alert. A loop of umbilical cord is around the babys neck,
and with a quick flick of the hand Emi frees it.
Emi quickly sucks its nose and mouth and tells Alberto to do the same. Nina cleans Lucias anus
which has expelled some faeces. Emis and Albertos faces get dirty. A few pushes and the little
baby boy comes into the daylight, a warm sunshine filtering down through the branches.
Emi picks it up, a slight murmur, a cry. She holds him head down and carries on sucking him as
does the father. Lucia wants to hold him.
Sangit was always close by, playing with the other children. When his mother cried out while
40 Emi, Finnish, and Pablo, Spanish, have been living in the Valle degli Elfi for over 20 years. In accordance with a
trend which appears common for many couples/families, after an initial group life they have moved to live in a
different, specially renovated home. Although Cerchiaia is the recognised dwelling of Pablo, Emi and their children,
Elfo (Italian for elf), Peikko (Finnish for wood sprite), Duende (elf in Spanish), Iawi, Hada (fairy in Spanish) and
Kia, the door is always open to any guests or visitors.

expelling the baby, his face was full of fear.

Heres your little brother! the father says to the astonished child.
Giovanna picks Sangit up and takes him away.
Lucia has the little baby resting on her stomach and gradually he moves towards her breast, those
around her try to make her comfortable while she waits for the birth of the placenta.
Giovanna arrives carrying Sangit and her five-month-old son Aiann. With a gesture Emi tells me
to take a child off her. I take Sangit and think its a good idea to take him for a walk. Muu, the
little boys says almost sulkily. I put him on my back and head towards the sound of the cow bell
and he falls asleep almost immediately. I sit on the grass real close to the grazing cows to rest him
on my arm.
From The Cerchiaia comes the sound of the Om accompanied by chants. The repeated sounding of
the horn to announce the birth.
Pablo, Ferdinando and Rebecca walk by and ask me enthusiastically if its a boy or a girl. Theyd
heard it was a girl Shes born! They thought they had heard.
With Sangit in my arms, I walk back up the road to The Cerchiaia. Lucia is still there in the
sunshine under the great beech with the newborn baby in her arms. Alberto, Emi, Sara, Nina and
Giovanna stand around them, protecting them with a blanket. More chants and the Om.
A low bed is prepared for the couple, on the ground, against a low, dry-stone wall outside the door
to the house. Emi brings some food and some beetroot juice, rich in iron (made from squeezing the
vegetable in a cloth) for the new mother. In the first warm sunlight of May, mother and son rest,
attending, a little to one side, the forthcoming birthday party which is about to animate the yard.
I ask Alberto if they have already chosen a name for the little one. Not yet!, he replies, well see
what hes like!. But they already have the name Sole (Sun) in mind, or the equivalent in
Inuit.
A couple of hikers walk by and notice the two of them comfortably resting on the low bed, they ask
if everything is OK and whether or not they should call a doctor. Politely they are told that that
wont be necessary and they go promptly along their way.
If they knew Id just had a baby!, laughs the amused Lucia.
A bed is got ready for Lucia in the house where over the next days she will be able to live the
delicate phase of bonding between her and the little child in peace and tranquillity, without the
worry of other tasks.
This is my story of the birth of Alberto and Lucia's second child.
A few years after the birth of her third child, Lucia wrote as follows:
Life has given me the great gift of three home births. The first birth took place in a community
setting, there were loads of people, a bath full of calendula flowers and the presence of a midwife.
The second birth however was a quieter affair, there were just four other mothers around me. I was
outside, under a great beech tree with the sun shining down through its branches. My third child
wanted to be born at night. [...] For a minute I thought I was going to have to do it all by myself,
with just the help of my partner. I hoped though that a dear friend of mine, Emi, herself the mother
of five children born at home, would be happy to come. Shed already been a great help on other
occasions and she inspired in me a great deal of confidence and love. Another mother would have
come with her, she too was always happy to go to births in our community. Luck would have it
she is a great musician; music is my lifes passion and is always with me, it makes me happy and
connects me with Mother Earth.

She immediately started to play some Indian music with a drum, an instrument she had brought
back from India. This went on for a couple of hours. The music caressed and lulled me in its arms. I
felt beautiful and really relaxed. The whole room was full of calm and music. We made some low
sounds, like the Om, or we stayed in silence, savouring the harmony that only music can provide.
In the room downstairs there were other people, come to boil the water, bring towels or simply to
see if they could be of help in any way. Afterwards they told me that the music was so relaxing that
they had fallen asleep on the settee. [...]
At all three births the greatest help has come from my partner. He gives me this great sense of
security. Hes always there to hold me, caress me or massage me. Even if in every day life, we
often find something to argue about, at the time of giving birth our relationship seems as innocent
and pure as the newborn itself. He always brought me that sense of calm and security which in a
moment of pain I had let slip away. For the mother to feel sure of herself and able to feel her own
intentions clearly, in other words to be connected with herself, its really important that all the other
people around at the birth are also calm and confident.
After a few screams born from the pain in my back, and a couple of pushes my third child was
born. His siblings woke up just then, as the new arrival was on his way out. It was two oclock in
the morning, the light of the full moon shone onto the bed. The room was lit only by candles and
everyone was talking in hushed voices. Naked and with the umbilical cord still attached to the
placenta we fell asleep cuddled up on the bed.
Fortunately, every time Ive had a baby Ive been surrounded by people full of so much love.41

3.2.3. The birth of Marco, Oaysi42, Haian43 and Yannawey Silui44

The eighteen-year-old Giovanna gave birth to her first child, an unwanted pregnancy, in a context
of being scared to death and with a sense of inadequacy, without having or remembering the
tools needed for facing this adventure:
[...] my first baby was an experience which at that time I just accepted. However, for
me it was a bit of a particular experience because Id brought up my baby brothers, Id
just finished with my mums baby and then I had my own. It was like an ongoing story.
[...]

She gave birth in a clinic in Naples, but the experience of giving birth and of being a new mother
was so negative that she decided never to have any more babies:
It all seemed too violent a thing to give birth this way. It all seemed so strange. [...]
Violent because when a woman is pregnant in the system, she is a woman who first
and foremost is given no consideration at all. I didnt feel I was worth anything at all
because I was giving birth. It was all so negative. Because its as if anyone having a
baby doesnt have any career prospects in life, its as if theyre having a baby because
they dont have anything better to do in life other than have kids. Your body in its
41 In D'Ingiullo Francesco (edited by), Nati in casa. Le custodi della nascita raccontano, Altica Edizioni, 2009, pp.
267-268.
42 Child's parents have referred to me that the word means brother, in Lakota language.
43 The child's mother has referred to me that the word means for ever, in Lakota language.
44 The child's mother has referred to me that the name means the celestial joy, in Quechua language.

changed state doesnt reflect the figure [...] of a woman. The woman is transformed,
she is no longer beautiful, she is no longer accepted by the standards of the social
system. [...] When you give birth youve got this baby and youre a woman who
depends on others. You need others because youve got to stay with the baby. For
sustenance, if you dont have the means, you need someone to provide for you. Giving
birth in society is not considered something which enriches the group.

After arriving in the community of the Valle degli Elfi, twenty years after that first birth, Giovanna
felt that the context could be welcoming enough to undertake a second pregnancy:
For me, when I decided, I decided, because after twenty years I decided to have a
child, Oaysi, I wanted him knowingly and I wanted to reclaim what has been taken
from me, what I realized had been taken from me. I wanted to know what it really
meant. I wanted to experience the beauty of this whole thing, not only all the
horridness of it as Id experienced it. And I set myself to ask for it. Despite all my
fears. I set it up for myself.

Oaysi was born at home in Avalon, with the support of her partner, challenging all her fears
because I was scared to death all the same, but with a firm decision.
Because I believe that the real place to have a baby certainly isnt in a clinic and not
with people who dont treat you like a person, people who hospitalize you, give you a
number and treat you like... a number, a series of bureaucratic tasks to be completed.
You are just a mechanism, theres no connection. So I was real pleased with myself,
and this whole thing has made me stronger. Because I went beyond. I decided to have
this experience and I followed it through to the end.

She called a midwife friend of hers to support her in this journey, aware that she was not feeling
entirely sure of herself.
This midwife friend of mine came, Lucia. I said to her, Look, right now I dont feel
like going through with this on my own, not completely, like this, with people who dont
have the [full sense] of this experience. This experience that you dont have. But I
feel I said to her quite clearly that she was to be nothing more to me than an
instrument so that I could then be capable of trusting in myself. That I could do this
alone. And she was just the right person, because she didnt intervene in any way and
she let me go along with everything I was feeling. She let me follow the flow, without
interfering at all. More than anything else I needed someone there who would let me feel
what I wanted. That I could, that I who had this baby inside me, that I could say and
no-one else could say whether it was right or wrong or tell me what to do. I didnt want
anyone telling me what to do. So she, whom I had got to know while I was pregnant,
gave me this. I had this experience. I said, Lucia, Im getting to know you, Im not sure
Ill want you there, I said to start with. But I want to start this new relationship with
you. But if anyone interfered, I, who know, I could probably do it myself. Because that
was what was important to me: that I could do what I wanted. That there was to be no
interference. This was with Oaysi, the baby I wanted after twenty years.

About one year later Giovanna is pregnant again. Diagnosed premature, she gave birth to Haian in
the hospital in Poggibonsi45, after running away, already in labour, from the hospital in Pistoia,
45 The hospital in Poggibonsi is renowned for being the top hospital in Italy for taking the greatest care in the

where she really didnt like how she was being treated:
They kept saying to me: Lie down there, Ive got to check the heartbeat you, know,
with all those machines they stick on you you mustnt move. And I was saying: But
what are you doing this to me for? Now you just shut up because were the medical
staff, that kind of thing, they dont take you into any consideration. But I dont want
to do all these things. I know what Ive got to do to have this baby. Youve got to stay
here... and they kept me waiting two hours for nothing, just like that, because the
doctor was I dont know where... without listening to how I felt. I didnt like it. So,
Even if Im about to have a baby, Id rather have it in the car going to Poggibonsi, like
hell Im staying in here. Then on your head be it! Sure, I told them, the babys
not yours. And I upped and went. It was just awful. I went to Poggibonsi, and I went in
all tranquility.

In Poggibonsi
[...] its not as if I wanted to change their way of thinking, their way of doing things. I
knew that thered be superstructures and bureaucratic parameters to be met there too.
But if youre firm and you say so, if you know full well what you want, then you dont
end up with an adversary, you do things in a certain way and you dont end up with the
doctors hating you, you know, like Hey, whos this woman coming in here and telling
us what to do! No, it wasnt like that... I just said how I felt.

Here, the great thing is that you have a baby in a women-only context, talking to them not in a
patient-to-specialist way, but woman to woman, touching and being touched, choosing the most
comfortable position, the most suitable way of doing things, sweetly but firmly holding the
newborn as much as possible, delaying the inevitable cutting of the umbilical cord46, thanking them
when the birth was over for the magical experience shared.
They hadnt understood I was still redeeming that first birth.[...] And the day after they
came to me and thanked me for the beautiful birth experience they had shared with me.
And for me it was wonderful. And I said to myself: had it happened before, a few years
before, or even many years before, I couldnt have lived that kind of experience in a
hospital. Because Idve started saying: here we go, now theyre going to get right on
my nerves, theyre going to start telling me what to do and I dont agree, why have they
got to decide everything? However, for me, and because I had it clear in my mind what
I wanted, I transmitted it to them. When they tried to wash the baby, do some other
stuff, there was someone in the postnatal that kept telling me no the baby this, the baby
that...!, and I said, no, no way, this baby isn't going nowhere, its staying right here
with me. Dont worry, what better place for it than with its mum? Where do you think
youd rather be, here in your mothers arms or all alone in a cradle? And at the end of
the day, they know youre right. I touched them woman to woman [...]

And her last child, at the age of 43, Giovanna had in the woods, in harmony with natures
language, just the way she wanted it to be, with just a few people around, women, only those she
physiological aspects of childbirth.
46 According to Micheal Odent, world-famous surgeon, obstetrician and pioneer of childbirth in water in hospitals, the
cutting of the umbilical cord immediately after birth is a ritual common to many cultures. And yet it appears that
keeping the newborn baby attached to the placenta for as long as possible not only provides physical nutrition but
also gives a more harmonious start to life.

knows and wanted to be there, bringing to a close the circle of her experience of being a woman
in childbirth.
She was born with my partner and friends Emi, Anna and Jean present. Other women
had asked me if they could be present at the birth and I said no. I said As far as Im
concerned there are already too many of us. I only wanted Emi and Taski [her partner]
there. Id said this to Jean... I perceived that each person represented an aspect of me
outside, that in that moment I didnt want to have, to contact. No, I didnt want to
contact... If I felt that a person who asked to be present at the birth, as was the case,
wasnt ready to comprehend the magic, the beauty of what I was living, of what I
wanted to live, it felt like I was desecrating my chances of feeling what I was going
through in its completeness. It was as if, without knowing, they were interfering. The
creator was me, not her! And then maybe she would have released her fear. Whats the
point in that? No, I couldnt accept that. So it was really important for me to be able to
say no to people. Because that made it easier to understand what I was feeling. So I
said, No, thanks, but no, I dont want loads of people around. As a matter of fact,
maybe I would like to, maybe, who knows what will happen, but I know I dont want
loads of people around. If I had to choose Id sooner be on my own than with loads of
people. Because its such an intimate experience, intimate and profound, contacting
your own forces, you receive messages, from the universe, I dont know where they
come from. And nature is at one with you. You can hear it talk the same language as
this wave that grabs you, this inner message that is so like the external message of
nature itself.

At long last, Giovanna managed to live the experience that had been taken away from
her, in total awareness and with a sense of power.
Because I didnt want any human aspect around me. The least humans possible.
Because this sensation is so strong, so primordial, so wild it comes over you, this wave
that grabs you... I felt any human interference would have reminded me of the last time,
of old experiences or experiences that I didnt need any longer.
I had the chance now to listen to other languages, the languages of nature. The words of
man, man in the sense of a human being, not in the sense of a male, werent enough
because I didnt feel the need to be calmed down, supported by a human being. The
only tranquility that I could have was my inner voice. The voice inside me that helped
me to feel nature. Because it gave me a sense of tranquility, of communion, that I feel
and when I give birth I feel this thing so strongly.

This last child, named Yannawey Silui, is the daughter of Giovanna and Taski, a South American
man with origins in an Amazonian tribe. The eldest of all his brothers and sisters, he lived the first
eighteen years of his life in his tribe and then a further ten-fifteen years visiting other tribes in the
region. Once in Europe, he arrived and settled in the Valle Degli Elfi, because theyre quite
primitive even here, he said to me with a smile when we met. Taski brings a part of his own
culture with him from over the seas and what most impresses Giovanna is the way in which
pregnancy is lived and interpreted.
Hes told me a few things. He says that pregnant women... for them its an extremely
important event. Each new child is added wealth to the tribe. And if a woman was
chosen to bear a child, it meant she had been kissed by the universe. [...] Chosen on an
energy level, a spiritual level. And so if the woman had been chosen, it means the

universe was in contact with her. For this. It had contacted her. She could speak with
the mystery. Only a woman when she is pregnant can talk to the mystery, is in
communication with this mystery. For men to perceive this mystery they have to do
other things. A woman has it by having a child. [...] and the experience of having a
baby with him was really beautiful, because he, not only throughout the pregnancy, but
also at the birth he had a faith in the birth, a faith which gave a really powerful
energy. Why should it go wrong? You have been chosen. It never goes wrong.
[...] births go wrong because women are afraid. Fear of childbirth doesnt exist for
them. Because for them it is so natural to have children. Its only over here that theyve
made us scared, theyve filled us with fear, and sometimes we accept things, but we
never contact our real fears. Because in our minds we are convinced we want to do
things. You get stuck there, youre convinced. And the more information you have, the
more your fear grows. They trust in what they feel. Its lifes mystery to have this belly
which grows, without knowing what its like or isnt like inside...

What in Giovannas eyes is the main difference in the approach towards pregnancy and birth in her
partners culture and the culture in which Giovanna was socialized, is the awareness of self, even of
ones own fears, of what one really wants, of ones needs and the awareness at times, of the need to
delegate:
The moment you decide to have a natural birth, i.e. without any superstructure, you
dont delegate, it means you have faith in yourself. Thats the first thing. In hospital
you delegate everything. Not just the part about giving birth. And its the just the same
if you hire a midwife, youre delegating. But one thing is to delegate in a way that you
say, At this particular moment, I am delegating a part of my experience to you,
because were in this together, me doing it and you supporting me. Because I dont
have all the means to sustain the entire experience of giving birth, but its important to
be aware that you are doing this. Another thing is, if you hire a midwife, its the same
has having a baby in hospital. Because either way its a delegation, an interior
delegation. That you are going to have a natural birth is an illusion. Because maybe
you, in your whole life, would never give birth on your own. But youll always have a
baby with a midwife there, whether you pay, or whether she gives you certain
certainties, reassurances. There are no certainties and there are no reassurances. Except
those that you yourself feel inside. So if you have an approach with a midwife, saying:
I know, I havent at this particular moment I havent everything, havent totally
governed my fears. So Im asking you to support me in this journey. Because on the
one hand Im the one doing it and on the other theres you supporting me. I know that
youre there. Right now, youre giving me a hand, like an escort at the doors I dont
know, the doors of hell, heaven or another door through to a passage, a rite of
passage. Shes an escort, a companion. But if youve got this thing clear in your
mind... Not like your saying: Im not having a baby in hospital, but a midwifes going
to come, Ill call her every five minutes, shell be telling you what to do all the time,
whether what your feeling is right or not... And for many people this is mistaken for a
natural birth. But its not true. Youve only changed position, but inside, youre
delegating all the way.
[...] Then, if you want to give birth with a friend, or someone you most... great,
fantastic, but you have to be aware of whether or not at that moment youre delegating.
If you really want this person there because you want to share the joy of the moment
together, because its an intimate thing, its something... but not that youre delegating
to the other person. Because if you delegate, whats changed? Then at the moment you
delegate, its normal for it to be born in hospital. You delegate, so Im there in my own

way, the hospital tells you. Because you delegated things to me, I act in my own way.
In which case dont moan about it. You have to put up with it, because in a hospital
you know its going to be like that. You delegated. And you know thats the way it
is.47
If youre scared of having your baby by yourself, then its best for you to go into
hospital. There there are certain points which you must have clear in your mind:
what you want and what you dont want from the hospital. But be sure theyll do things
their way. But if you want other ways, dont forget you can ask for them. There are
certain things you can ask for. But dont moan about it. Because theyre doing you a
favour. Theyre doing you the favour of accepting your delegation, its what you asked
of them. Its not their fault. Its because at the moment you need this. Whats the
problem? Whats most important is that you see your fears clearly. And if youre even
only slightly scared, dont do it.48

3.2.4. From rebellion to constructive interpretation. Towards a new type

of awareness
With the progressive settlement in the Valle del Limentra, which later became known as La Valle
degli Elfi, the women began to start having their babies at home. These decisions were first
dictated by the impulse to flee from the control of both social and healthcare aspects, together with
the need for some deep link with the surrounding environment, with nature and its powerful forces,
in a process of self-healing from the spiritual pollution endured in society: tenacity, courage,
together with deep-rooted and radical convictions characterized these first community births in a
context of fear and illegality (most of the buildings were occupied unlawfully, subject to evictions
and periodical police searches looking for arms and drugs), intimidation and dissuasion offered at
various levels. The decision to give birth in a community where hygiene was not exactly optimum
and in buildings in a precarious state of disrepair, started off as a statement of going against the
system, characteristic of the years in which the then twenty-year-olds felt they were outsiders
rejecting urban society.
Significantly, the first baby born in the Valle dei Burroni was named Elfo now a grown man, he
still lives as part of the community. Then came Tao, Peikko ...
Years have gone by, the Elves have changed and the around context has changed too in the last
few years the decision to give birth at home has been re-examined and re-evaluated in Italy, also
following the establishment of associations which promote homebirths and offer reasons for
choosing this.49 From an act of rebellion, giving birth at home never, underlines Baldassarri, an
47 According to Michel Odent, the original midwife would have been the mother of the labouring woman. The mother,
ideally, would be the person who always offers support without being judgmental.
48 Clara Scropetta, in Nati in casa, presents detailed guidelines and possible requests addressed to hospital staff aimed
at an experience of childbirth as untraumatic as possible. Cf. Francesco D'Ingiullo, 2009, pp. 277-284. The chapter
concerned was first published in CIR.
49 Dutch statistics are unique in the context of western Europe, with approximately 30% of babies being born at home
and a very low rate of caesarean sections. On the other hand, in Europe, Italy holds the record for the highest
number of male gynaecologists but the lowest number of midwives and at around 40%, the highest rate of caesarean
sections. In some regions such as Campania, the c-section has become the most common way to give birth. In
Michel Odent, L'agricoltore e il ginecologo. L'industrializzazione della nascita, Il Leone Verde, Torino, 2006, p. 5;
p. 63 (The Farmer and the Obstetrician, 2002).

irresponsible act or decision taken lightly or recklessly50 - becomes an act of awareness, of caring at
the moment of birth, a really significant and important aspect towards the construction of a better
society, in the total conviction that the health and dignity of the mother and child are put first,
before all social regulations and laws (Giovanni). By giving birth at home, in the friendly
community context and in ones own domestic and natural environment, the intention of the Elf
women is to disturb the dynamicity of the event as little as possible, remaining enwrapped in
affection, warmth, true love, comprehension, safety, peace and tranquility, aspects which
increasingly are considered fundamental for an optimum start to a new life.
If in the Seventies it was a question of keeping a hard front against society, institutions, the police,
Church dogma and religion, now, thirty years later, also thanks to experiences such as the
Rainbow Gathering, with its procedures like the magic hat51, spontaneity, non-organization and
absence of leaders, which travels on empathy, on the heart, with its magic spirit of cooperation and love between people - a spirit of the American Indians which lives once more
among us, [...] a brotherhood between us and all living things, [...], a rite of purification, of healing
- there are no enemies to fight against any longer and it has changed the life style, the attitude
oriented more towards both nature and human beings. There is a pacifist approach which differs
from the political approach which was characteristic of the previous years. There is on the other
hand a more cosmic, more universal vision, a love for all living things (Giovanni).
According to Nina, who has been in the Valley since 1993, when she was twenty, there has been a
general Elfin evolution, from a less sophisticated approach to a holistic vision of existence:
For me the trend in the valley has been the change from something material and down
to earth, to something more spiritual, the growth of the group. I dont know if this is
because this is how I personally experienced it, but there has definitely also been a
change in personal trends and trends in the whole of the valley. At the beginning, it
was a kind of shutting yourself up in a utopian world, a happy island. Were fine, what
do we care, weve left the rest of society behind us, weve chosen this other life, were
fine here, so what do we care? Whereas with wanting to move on from the down-toearthness of it all towards other elements of personal and spiritual growth, there has
also been an opening up towards the rest of the world. Its like understanding that we
are doing some beautiful things here, but there are other people who are working to
create beauty and seek spiritual growth, maybe even in the city, why not? Theyre
doing some great things to bring them about, everyone, even there. [...] It has always
been a bit of a defect, this feeling different, I mean, yeh, ok, were all different but
feeling like were better because of the choices we have made [...]. The greatest task
we have is to take a positive message into society and the world, to unite the people
who are doing this type of work. Theres room, and theres the desire to involve more
and more people, not by closing ourselves in, but by opening up.

Starting out on the path of spiritual growth potentially involves every aspect of individual and
collective life. Even the attention given to pregnancy and the moment of birth and the first years of
life is experiencing this progressive awareness. Up until a few years ago, various women
50 Ermanno Baldassarri, op. cit., p. 65.
51 The magic hat is passed round the circle at the end of each meal which is eaten in a circle, in fact. The money
collected is then used to buy food for the whole group. However, [...] if you havent got a penny, your love for us
will do, says the proverbial song which is usually played and sung as the magic hat is passed around.

complained that in the Valley, pregnancy, birth and the gestation period after birth were not very
clear to many Elfins, including some of the womenfolk.52
[...] I came up against a lot of difficulties, like those encountered in society. I was
aware that the idea of birth was not considered a [very clear] thing by all. And anyhow,
when a woman was pregnant, or breast feeding, she wasnt... she had to have duties...
there was a bit more care and attention, but thats about it. I had to fight to carry on
living my maternity period. I had to fight against the others. During breast feeding, in
those moments when I wanted to stay quietly with my baby, to give him some routine
[...] the rhythm of his life was saying something to me, and I had to follow his rhythms
and learn how to listen to him. And yet my rhythm was continually disrupted by others.
[...] Men, women, even other mothers who still didnt have this awareness. I was in
Avalon. And the experience I had was that its not true that its been understood that a
natural birth isnt just the birth in itself. Birth isnt just the part about having a baby
naturally. Its a collection of things: the gestation of this child, the welcoming of this
child, theres the upbringing of this child. Which slowly, slowly, like a cocoon starts to
grow. And it seems to be understood that a natural birth is good for you, but then
afterwards, everything surrounding this woman, this child, is no longer taken into
consideration. Its been born. Thats it. This is a real lack of awareness and
understanding. (Giovanna)

However, of late,
I feel that women are changing, that women are starting to understand this need. There
are more women around trying to find this thing inside themselves... because they have
lived this difficulty in their own lives. And so now, its as if theyre more sensitive to
this aspect. (Giovanna)

These steps taken along a path towards a certain type of awareness, in a community of around 200
persons, who live live in the sense of creating and taking care of their place - in different villages,
in which there are numerous and repeated opportunities to meet and compare experiences and
ideas, characterized by a strong sense of mobility, both internal as well as to and from the outside,
52 The human baby, unlike most other species of mammal, is born very unprepared for life. It appears that in the case
of human beings the foetus has to be born when the limit of head size compatible with birth has been attained, and
long before maturation occurs. Cf. Ashley Montagu, Il linguaggio della pelle, Vallardi, Milano, 1989, p. 48
(Touching: the human significance of skin, Columbia University Press, New York, 1971).
Ashley Montagu talks about uterogestation and exterogestation, meaning by the second period of exterogestation
the time required for the offspring to reach a certain biochemical and physiological maturity essential to guarantee
survival and a certain level of wellbeing. As far as human young are concerned the period of exterogestation last on
average as long as the period of uterogestation, i.e. about 266 days. According to Montagu, birth no more constitutes
the beginning of the life of the individual than it does the end of gestation. Birth represents a complex and highly
important series of functional changes which serve to prepare the newborn for the passage across the bridge between
gestation within the womb and gestation continued outside the womb (p. 52). Precursory of the important motherchild contact in the first moments after birth, designed to create a positive bonding experience for both, the uterine
contractions and the moment of passing through the cervix, stimulating thus the peripheral sensory nerves in the
skin, are an important tactile stimulation which creates a positive influence on the respiratory, genitourinary and
gastrointestinal apparatus, activating them and ensuring they function correctly. Many mammals lick their young
repeatedly when they have just been born, concentrating their efforts above all on the genital region: far from being
an act of cleansing (a typically human and cultural concept), this gesture must be interpreted as stimulation of the
main organs, in order to ensure optimum functioning of the same.

have been substantiated in various womens circles, as well as in a number of womens

gatherings.53
What is a womens circle?

53 According to some, the accentuated internal mobility and mobility from and to the outside is an important factor for
success, as well as duration, for the Elfin community experience.

(The cosmic union

Womens circle
Mens circle
As an extremely introvert person, unable to express or even recognize my own feelings (were I an
animal, I would be an armadillo), I have lived most of my life hiding my weaknesses, holding back
the tears, denying my fragility and putting on a brave face. It is extremely easy to appear amourplated (nobody knows whats inside and nor do you) while continuing to mask your emotions in
order to feel strong and invulnerable... but how nice it is to let go of the amour, what a carefree
feeling of lightness, how nice to be fragile sometimes, how nice it is to cry, how nice to be
comforted!!
This is what the womens circle gave me: I felt accepted and cuddled, lots of hands supporting and
caressing me, lots of listening hearts... one beating heart.
What makes us come together? What gives us so much STRENGTH? Why are we meeting? Why
this separation? What are we, the women of the circle, doing together? We laugh, cry, sing, dance,

paint clothes, paint each others bodies... we love each other... and the need to compare our
experiences and to feel like real sisters grows stronger and stronger sharing our lives, opening our
hearts, unveiling ourselves. )
The Sybille continues54:
What I hold onto my heart, and like me all the

54 Sybille is how the authors sign this text which appeared in the n. 20 edition of CIR.

(women, my circle sisters, is that a Womens Circle is not called to create separation or division. It
is surely intended to consolidate, fortify and unite us and all living beings in love. What are we, the
women of the Circle, looking for? What makes us get together? I think that most of all we are
looking for our female identity, the identity which history (indeed written by the winners who use
violence to oppress others) has stolen from us. That identity has been dismembered, broken into a
thousand pieces, cast far and wide, or burnt (at the stake, where the witchs ancient knowledge was
lost)... WE WOULD DO ANYTHING, peacefully and with love, to gather up each one of those
tiny pieces, each of those specks of ash, so as to re-create the puzzle of our female essence, in the
same way as Isis, searching through the whole world to find every part of her beloved Osiris... In
my opinion, this is the power of awakened women!
We are sisters, daughters, mothers, lovers, partners... warriors, witches, virgins, enchanters... on our
way to LOOK FOR THE HOLY GRAAL, the GOBLET, the Uterus. Thus to get back our lost
feminine selves, the wisdom, the sacredness, the magic, to re-balance the Masculine and the
Feminine in us... to find our centre, and come back to our daily life enriched, back to our children,

partners, brothers, friends, lovers, to unite with them more completely and in a more balanced way.
At the end of every Circle, nothing is lost: everything comes back to the centre, like soft, fertile
mulch, to keep the abandoned garden humid and soft)
The first womens circle took place in one of the villages in the Valley about six years ago, and for
a time they were held on a regular basis to coincide with the new moon. In these circles, a few of
which I have been to, the atmosphere is collected, intense, very strongly felt. The events are very
similar to those in a talking circle: a talking stick is passed from person to person, the one holding
the stick has the right to speak while the others listen in silence. Sometimes the opening-up is very
profound and deep, some women are so emotionally moved that their tears flow freely; on other
occasions the moment is more technical, a simple exchange of information; sometimes these two
levels of participation merge.
For some women, the womens circle and the talking circle have really been an important
discovery, a milestone along their own personal road through life. Nina states:
I feel it very strongly, I find it really powerful. Its this which has made me open up a
little to this more emotional side of myself, which for a long, long time I wouldnt even
admit existed. I didnt want to even consider the possibility of crying, to experience
emotions which are maybe a bit strong, so I suppressed them. The first few times that
the talking stick landed in my hands and there were things that made me want to cry, I
simply passed the stick on. Then, however, how wonderful it is, how liberating, this
revealing of oneself. Because, yes, its true, you reveal your weaknesses, but the group
doesnt want, nobody wants, to hurt your feelings, no-one, if they know you have a
weakness, comes along to touch your weak point. If anything, they help you. Its
powerful stuff and this has been a big help to us [...]

This living of ones emotions, in a protected, structured human context, which the womens circle
provides, has proved to be a fundamental step on the route towards individual maturity.55
It reflects a condition of awareness. Awareness comes if there is inner listening. Inner
listening comes if you look into yourself, towards your real needs and if you recognize
these during a moment of crisis, you start doubting yourself. [...] And so from then on a
road you have to walk down opens up. (Giovanni; authors italics)

The friendly group therefore becomes a privileged container for the progressive empowerment of
the individual, of the personality, in a community context.56
Even the womens gatherings have made a contribution and are contributing to the creation of
feminine awareness. Main topics again are pregnancy, birth and entering motherhood.

55 On a rarer basis, men call a mens circle.

56 According to J. Rappaport, Empowerment is viewed as a process: the mechanism by which people, organizations
and communities gain mastery over their lives. - J. Rappaport, Studies in empowerment: introduction to the
issue, Prevention in human service, 3, 1984, pp. 1-7.

A sign announcing the place of the women's gathering

I was at a gathering, at a Rainbow, in the Canaries, there were loads of people, it was
a really fantastic Rainbow. Its not as if there were thousands of us, 150 people from
all over Europe and from outside Europe, a really great mix of people. Fantastic, and
in a wonderful place. There, this idea came along. It was... 2005, the beginning. And
basically this idea came along, and we got moving, among women. We started this
thing, to find a place, to decide what to buy for food, how to carry it there, to do
advertising. Then we went there on the set date, us three the day before, and then other
women turned up, there were twelve of us in all. It wasnt exactly a big number but on
that occasion it was perfect. We lived this experience. None of us there had ever
experienced anything similar, not one of the twelve of us there. It was the first time for
all of us. It was an amazing discovery. Then, of course, theyve been going on for
ages, in America, and all over the place as well. But Id never been to anything like it
in my life and I didnt know anything about it. Since then, it was the feeling with
which it finished, its remained in my heart ever since.

Its really important to do them, its important for all of us to do them. And then, even
if its only a few women who get together, every single one of them goes away with
seeds, and somewhere or other, these germinate and the whole thing propagates. Even
solidarity amongst women gets propagated. This habit of giving each other a hand that
can come about. The first gathering was last year, here in Campo Mascherina, [in the
Valle degli Elfi, where this interview was held] (Simonetta)

A moment of the gathering

A flier announcing a womens gathering in 2009, this time held in Parco del Monte Conero (AN)
reads that a womens meeting is:
A meeting for bringing us closer together, to live and enjoy nature together, to get to
know one another and to recognize that great gift which is in each one of us:
womanhood.

it reminds everyone to bring:

children, blankets, sleeping bags, cutlery, plates, musical instruments, ritual objects
and ceremonial clothes while catering will be self-run and costs covered by the

magic hat.

In the big tent put up for the Second womens gathering in Campo Mascherina, in the Valle degli
Elfi, which I went to, a poster made the year before in the same spot said:

(Women's gathering
Appennine gathering between Tuscany and Emilia Romagna
What is a women's gathering?
It is a circle of women that want to reunite
to be together, share silences, words, emotions, magic and prayers.
Why a women's gathering?
To learn to be together, to create a sisterhood which goes beyond our differences and
suspicions
To take back power over our sacred space
To nourish ourselves by sharing
Let's create
together a piece of art with determination
Air: our ideas

Fire: our spirit

Water: our emotions
Earth: the revealing of ourselves
Let's meet
This is a womens circle, and much more
Let's open our arms
Let's give space to our sisters that are
pioneers and travellers
in this life
Let's create
Let's create
Let's create)

A second poster appeared like this:

(Re-connecting is like a door opened onto new horizons, it is an energetic chant that expresses itself
physically, as we come together or clash: its the only way we can become aware of our female,
motherly identity,
like our Mother earth
How can these good men manage by themselves?
Women, let's join together
WELCOMING, not spoiling
LOVING, not sacrificing
TAKING CARE, not possessing
LET'S RE-DISCOVER our womanly mission
as an expression of the earth
Let's all of us awake this feminine side of us
that PROTECTS life, kindly and truly leading to Peace
Le's play
Let's sing
Let's dance
Let's breastfeed
Let's nourish)
During the gathering, which lasted three days and was filled with informal and formal (the circle,
rituals) moments, talk was of pregnancy, breast feeding, giving birth at home, relationships with
ones own mother during those delicate moments of creating ones own individual motherhood, of
deep personal hurts which make the road a difficult one... And there were lots of opportunities for
parties, conviviality, games, rest and entertainment with lots of small children.
A certain type of knowledge, (essential component for social construction of the norm see second
chapter) is created collectively and reflects values such as sisterhood, peace, harmony with nature,
opening-up and listening: when you give birth, the less information you have the more you are
spontaneous, the better the labour and delivery; giving birth is a sort of initiation, a rite of passage,
it has an aura of mystery about it which cannot be managed let alone controlled, except at the risk
of obstructing its optimum progress and conclusion; the importance of having faith in oneself and
in ones own power at the moment of birth; birth as a powerful orgasm, which is neither recognized
or experienced on a conscious level due to the number of taboos which many cultural systems
perpetrate;57 the importance for each person to feel with ones body and not with ones head the
way one wishes to give birth; the importance of learning to feel and listen to ones own personal
fears completely with this in mind, womens circles are of great importance to many people. And
to continue, the pain of labour and giving birth is not pain actually, we use words which reflect
misleading terms;58 at the moment of birth the mother is a channel, a passage way between heaven
and earth; there is no ideal, standardized birth, each one is different; the wealth provided by yoga
57 Cf. Michel Odent, The functions of the orgasms, The Highways to Transcendence, Pinter&Martin, Great Britain,
2009.
58 At her fifth delivery, Emi had developed such an awareness of her own body that she felt right where the
contraction ran through, so much so that this understanding of my own body was fantastic, to feel where each
contraction lay, where it was going, where it was passing through. [...] With Kia this thing was just so, so, so, so,
fantastic.

exercises practiced during pregnancy; expulsion of the placenta as a second birth, on the whole
hardly taken into consideration (if anything, in hospital is all but ripped out, sometimes causing
haemorrhaging); cutting the umbilical cord immediately after birth instead of waiting for it to dry
up, increasing the risk of infection; in hospital events are timetabled by the need to rush through
things; the trapeze as a useful instrument during labour, an object brought back from Emis trip to
Brazil; staying in bed with baby for 10 or so days after the birth seems to have significantly positive
consequences for the childs aura; letting go of fear, especially for women facing their first
pregnancy; importance of changing tack, of breaking the chain of events in which nowadays almost
every western mother finds herself entangled, most of them deprived of that important moment of
imprinting59 immediately after birth or, worse still, born via c-section, a long way from that sense of
continuum which if left to function for all of our lives, is able to look after our interests far better
than any other system excogitated by the intellect can even begin to60. And yet, after the great
anger, it is considered important also to understand ones own mother, child-bearers from a
specific historical and cultural moment who in their turn were deprived, cheated.
On the day of my departure, in Cerchiaia, on one of the young mens laptop, a video by the Swiss
author and therapist Willy Maurer was presented. Entitled, Imprinting, the origins of peace, it is
meant as a moment to reconnect oneself with ones own experience for a second, to reflect on the
consequences of a disturbed imprinting and better understand the fundamental needs of a newborn
child and its mother, as well as acknowledging the errors of the past and to break free from the
vicious circle of detrimental ancestral habits, taking one step towards a better world'.61

3.2.5. Towards a biodynamic birth

There has been a phase in the history of humanity when women used to isolate
themselves when giving birth, like all mammals.
- Michel Odent, The functions of the orgasms, The highways to transcendence,
Pinter&Martin, Great Britain, 2009, p. 22 Today, as far as childbirth is concerned, we are like a traveler who discovers he is
going the wrong way.
- Michel Odent, ivi, p. 127 An undisturbed birth which respects the real needs of the mother and baby (peace,
trust, welcoming) is not dangerous. It is ecstatic.
- Francesco D'Ingiullo (edited by), Nati in casa. Le custodi della nascita raccontano
59 The relationship which is created between the mother and newborn child via multi-sensorial, reciprocal contact
immediately after birth is called imprinting. In this very crucial moment, in a physiological delivery, the bodies of
the mother and newborn are inundated with the hormone oxytocin. Positive imprinting appears to be indispensable
for the harmonious development of a human being and his fundamental need to belong.
The first person to publicise the benefits and ways of imprinting was the Austrian ethologist and philosopher
Konrad Lorenz (Nobel prize winner for medicine and physiology,1973, shared with Nikolaas Tinbergene Karl von
Frisch), studied in the case of wild geese.
60 Jean Liendloff, Il concetto del contimuum. Ritrovare il ben-essere perduto, La Meridiana, Bari, 2000, p. 101 (The
continuum concept, Duckworth, London, 1975). This book has been passed around for a number of years in the
Valle dei Burroni, deeply influencing the cognitive perception of many people, especially women.
61 Quote taken from the video, Imprinting, the origins of peace by Willy Maurer. Translated from Italian.

Altica Edizioni, 2009, p. 278 -

Over the last few decades, progress made during the 20th century in the fields of medicine,
technology and pharmacology, together with the massive advertising campaigns given via the mass
media by governing bodies amongst others, has made childbirth in hospitals the norm throughout
the industrialized world and something to aspire to in non-industrialized countries.
However, it is more than legitimate to ask: to what extent are the medical and surgical practices,
protocols and routines which over the last few decades have been drawn up in line with a supposed
physiology of childbirth?62 Do the many accelerated or induced births, the administration of
oxytocin for the expulsion of the foetus and/or placenta, epidural anaesthetics, continual electronic
monitoring of the foetus, the high rate of operations like caesarium sections, the alienating and
often masculinized environment, harsh lighting in the delivering room, as well as the immediate
cutting of the umbilical cord, bathing of the newborn and medical examinations, and last but not
least, childbirth in enormous maternity units, succeed in creating an appropriate setting for the start
of a new life?
Up until the twentieth century, almost universally, transmission and management of the beliefs and
customs surrounding childbirth were in the hands of shamans and religion. At the beginning of 20 th
century, modern medicine, a cognitive discipline mainly dominated by men, arrived and took on the
leading role in the management of all aspects surrounding childbirth turning its original role
upside down, which was that of treating pathological or abnormal situations and did not include
controlling physiological processes.63 The role of the midwife became secondary, their numbers
fell in some places, with the pretext of offering better assistance, they disappeared all together -.64
The mothers-to-be became patients the passive nature of this new status is included in the term
itself65 -, they began to find themselves in delivery rooms fitted out with more and more technical
equipment, and created without precedent in a male-dominated environment the degree of
extreme masculinisation appears to have been reached in the seventies, when the delivery room was
literally invaded by electronic machinery. The records and testimonials of the significantly high
death rates during pregnancy and childbirth in the United States, a century ago, the rate was
around 400 per 100,00066- helps to explain why such changes were immediately welcomed with
open arms and positively encouraged by women, the medical classes and the population as a whole.
62 Physiological should be considered the continuum from which it is best not to move (too far) away, acting as a
reference point which remains independent from culture, whereas normal certainly has cultural connotations.
63 After various controversies in public opinion, in 1902, the Midwives Act was passed in England. This act officially
defined the relationship between the doctor and midwife, institutionalizing the subordination of the latter in relation
to the former.
64 In the Holland of the 1600s, in an essentially urban cultural environment, with a relatively stable society because
it was well fed and extraordinarily educated for the times, midwives already had a poor reputation, especially
among the middle classes, following their notorious amateurism, their unregulated practice, their ignorance of
anatomical detail and their reliance on folk remedies. In the same period, in Dordrecht, an edict was promulgated
which allowed midwives to operate only in the presence of a qualified doctor. Cf. Simon Schama, The
Embarassment of riches, An interpretation of Dutch culture in the golden age, University of California Press,
Berkeley,1987, p. 526.
65 According to a famous article printed in 1920 by Joseph DeLee, The Prophylactic Forceps Operation, labour is a
pathological process during which the patient must be sedated. DeLee recommended the routine use of forceps
and episiotomies, the use of ether when the foetus entered in the birth channel and the drug ergotamine to accelerate
expulsion of the placenta, to be removed with the shoehorn manoeuvre. This article had enormous influence
throughout the United States.
66 Michel Odent, 2006, p. 36.

However, the dogma of official doctor-gynaecologist supremacy in the field of childbirth started to
come under discussion in the seventies when, according to Michel Odent, the environmental
conditions offered in a hospital context had reached a level of aberration bordering on the absurd.67
Books appeared, in a popular format, which were innovative in their content and stile, such as
Experience of childbirth by Sheila Kitzinger in Great Britain, Immaculate deception by Suzanne
Arms in California, the very original Spiritual midwifery by Ina May Gaskin68, Birth without
violence by Frdrick Leboyer69 and The primal scream by Arthur Janov.
Already in the 1950s, Niles Newton, after she herself had become a mother, was the first woman
scientist to guess that the hormone oxytocin, fundamental in the birth process, was not limited to
having mechanical effects (by inducing uterine contractions it makes birth of the child possible as
well as the expulsion of the placenta; furthermore it has an effect on the specialized cells in the
breast in the milk release reflex) as was already well know, but its release by the endocrine glands
located in the palaeoencephalon (the primitive brain) determined effects on the mothers
behaviour, leading towards a positive caring attitude.70
In the seventies, in that very particular cultural climate of radical contestation of the establishment,
studies began to appear in scientific publications which proved to be fundamental for a certain
awareness concerning the physiology of birth. Regina Lederman published her studies on the
inhibiting effects of hormones belonging to the adrenaline family on the process of childbirth.71
Adrenaline is produced by all mammals when they find themselves in danger, when they are cold
or when they feel observed. It is important to understand that this hormone is antithetic to the
release of oxytocin, that love hormone as Niles Newton defined it because of its effects on
behaviour - which is so fundamental in the perinatal period, i.e. that period which precedes and
follows childbirth. It appears that the peak release of this hormone in a womans entire life occurs
just after giving birth, when the mother discovers her child, a peak which is associated with a high
level of prolactin, the hormone for maternal bonding.72 For best childbirth conditions it is important
to understand that hormone release is contagious: it is very difficult for a woman to give birth
physiologically if there is someone in the room giving off adrenaline.
In the same period the so-called rooting reflex was defined, i.e. the newborns capacity to find and
latch onto the breast immediately after being born, an unrepeatable moment when, research has
67 Odent states: When the definition of a term is too difficult it is often relevant to refer to its opposite; so if I
personally had to explain what a sacred place is I would bypass the difficulties by presenting a delivery room of the
1970s as the opposite. Odent, 2009, p. 28.
68 A group of Californian midwives trained in the field were presenting the idea of giving birth at home when the
group of hippies who were to set up The farm in Tenessee left S. Francisco. Amongst these seekers of a new
style of life there was also Ina May Gaskin. She herself, together with other mothers in the group became a midwife
in the field and then author of Spiritual Midwifery, an unprecedented piece of testimony.
69 Birth Without Violence by Frdrick Leboyer is not so much a medical testimony but more the experience of a
human being who relives his own birth during a therapy inspired by Indian tradition.
70 Niles Newton. The Influence of the Let-Down Reflex in Breast Feeding on the Mother-Child Relationship,
Marriage and Family Living, 20, 1958, pp. 18-20.
71 R. P. Lederman, D. S. McCann, B. Work, M. J. Huber, Endogenous plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine in lasttrimester pregnancy and labor, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 129, 1977, pp. 5-8.
72 E. Nissen, G. Lilja, A. M. Widstrm, K. Uvns-Moberg, Elevation of oxytocin levels early post partum in
women, Acta Obstet Gynecol, Scand., 74 (7), 1995, pp. 530-3. The work group the authors belong to, c/o the
Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, is one of the most active and productive in the world in its research on oxytocin.
It is significant that this research group is made up entirely of mothers who have therefore experienced childbirth
in first persons.

shown, the bodies of mother and child are impregnated with a cocktail of natural opiates so that
the role played by those very first moments after birth in successful breastfeeding became clear.73 In
this fertile context to some extent overturning previous thinking and established routines,
ethologists discovered the rooting reflex in the animal world. This led some doctors Bowlby in
Great Britain and Marshall Klaus and John Kennell in the United States, among others to see this
important period as critical in human mammals. In that decade it was discovered that during
childbirth women produce natural opiates known as endorphins and in 1973 Candace Pert
demonstrated the existence of opiate receptors in the brain.74 In the meantime, in the little French
hospital in Pithiviers, Michel Odent and his team were experimenting the first childbirths in water 75
in a home-like environment76and singing evenings were organized for pregnant women. In 1972,
in Santa Cruz, a maternity home was opened while at the same time The maternity center was
inaugurated in New York.
In a moment which was so far from the physiology of childbirth as the human species had ever
come, in which a culture control without precedent under the form of scientific theory
transmissions proved to be ever more efficacious, evidence began to appear of different and yet
complementary cognitive disciplines, that a completely different path to take existed.
Michel Odent, who has been trained as a surgeon, dedicated to obstetrics for over 50 years, is
considered the pioneer in this field. In the 1980s he founded the Primal Health Research Centre in
London for the purpose of gathering and promoting studies on the long-term effects of experiences
lived between conception and a childs first birthday (www.primalhealthresearch.com). A
panorama of the data bank (www.birthworks.org) shows how the health of an individual is traced
out in this primary period, and suggests that the capacity to socialize, aggressive tendencies and in
other words the capacity to love are orientated depending on the way one is born into the world.
How does one develop good health? as opposed to how does one prevent illness? and how
does one develop the capacity to love? make up the red line which brings together the
interdisciplinary group of studies which make up what Odent defines as the scientification of
love.
All studies pertinent to the scientification of love, a neologism which indicates how for a couple of
decades or so love has become the object of scientific studies, agree in confirming that motherly
love is the prototype of every form of love. This research pinpoints the first moments of life outside
the womb, in which the mother and newborn are impregnated with a maximum peak of love
hormones, as well as natural opiates,77 when they are in skin to skin contact, 78 look into each others
73 Michel Odent, The early expression of the rooting reflex, in Proceedings of the 5th International Congress of
Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Rome 1977, Academic Press, London, 1977, pp. 1117-19.
74 C. B. Pert, S. H. Snyder, Opiate receptors: demonstration in nervous tissue, Science (March) 1973.
75 Michel Odent is the author of the first article in medical literature on the use of pools during labour and delivery. Cf.
M. Odent, Birth under water, Lancet, 1983; i:1476-77.
76 Michel Odent was the first to introduce the idea of delivery room which was like home. Cf. Jane Gillett,
Childbirth in Pithiviers, France, Lancet, 1979; i:894-96.
77 In the 1980s it was discovered that even the newborn excretes endorphins during birth and today it is known that
after birth both mother and child are inundated with natural opiates for a certain period of time, as well as finding
themselves in a specific and highly complex hormonal equilibrium. Cf. I. R. Moss, H. Conner et al., Human beta
endorphin-like immunoreactivity in the perinatal/neonatal period, J. of Ped., 101, 1982, pp. 3:443-46 e C. D.
Kimball, C. M. Chang et al., Immunoreactive endorphin peptides and prolactin in umbilical vein and maternal
blood, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 14, 1987, pp. 104-105.
78 The skin and touch are the first sensory organ to be formed in the uterine environment. Cf. Ashley Montagu, op.
cit., p. 221.

eyes and recognize each other by smell, are an unrepeatable opportunity for getting off to a good
start.79
Akira Ikegawa, a doctor specialized in obstetrics and gynaecology writes, that after having
understood certain aspects pertinent to the physiology of childbirth he changed his method of
working:
One day I came across a book which claimed that the bond between mother and child
begins while the foetus is still in the mothers womb and that for the future growth of
the baby it is of the utmost importance that this relationship should begin during
pregnancy and continue in a constant fashion, without any brusque interruptions.
Because, at the moment of birth in fact, this bond is suddenly broken, in a way that
could be defined as traumatic.
This simple reflection played a determining role in my job.
I realized that the importance of the mother-child bond often is not taken into
consideration and that during labour most women find themselves in an environment,
such as that found in a hospital or clinic, where few people dedicate the necessary
attention to this moment which is so defining in the life of a future individual.
And I became aware, that up until that time I had only been concentrating on the
medical aspects of childbirth, completely neglecting the emotive and psychological
side: I was so busy worrying about any complications which could arise80 that once a
birth has gone well, I didnt worry about anything else.
So, since then I have changed my way of relating to the event of childbirth and I have
been committed to making sure that the passage of the baby from life in the uterus to
the outside world should not break that special mother-child bond.
When I started to divulge the so-called kangaroo method (from the way in which
kangaroos keep their young), I wanted to try it out in my clinic right away. According
to this method mothers must be encouraged to hold their baby close to them as soon as
they are born, so that the babys first experience is that of being in contact with his
mothers skin. Instead, up until then, babies were immediately taken away from their
mothers because it was deemed more important to wash them and take care of the
puerperant. Once it was understood the need to avoid breaking that mother-child
intimacy, the kangaroo method proved to have advantages which were immediately
evident: the newborn calms down when it feels the contact of its mothers skin, its body
temperature remains constant; while the mother, from that first physical closeness with
her baby girl or boy will find it easier to establish an emotive relationship. Furthermore,
almost all babies stop crying the minute they are placed in their mothers arms and take
on a serene expression. And mothers, who lovingly hold their young, looking at them
and touching them, establish an intense emotive feeling which makes the following
stages of childcare more natural.
- Akira Ikegawa, Quando ero nella pancia della mamma, Cairo Editore, Milano, 2006,
pp. 65-68 ( , Lyon Co. Ltd,
Odent writes: From a theoretical point of view, there might be at least a bacteriological advantage in immediate
skin-to-skin contact because this early contact creates the conditions for an immediate colonization of the babys
body by germs carried by the mother, i.e. by familiar germs, since the mathernal antibodies (IgG) cross the
placenta. - Odent, 2009, p. 112.
79 In the disciplines concerning the epistemology of complexity which have been developed in the last few decades
of which scientification of love is most certainly a part fundamental importance is given to the initial conditions in
determining the following irreversible consequentiality.
80 Worry would appear to be an attitude which releases adrenaline, the contagiousness of this hormone has been
proved to be an obstacle in the physiology of childbirth. Man would easily prove to be more worried than woman,
since naturally having nothing to do with the experience of childbirth.

Japan, 2002) -81

According to Odent, an important key to understanding, is the concept of reduced capacity to

love.
How does one develop the capacity to love? and Why are the streets of Amsterdam safer than
those in Rome or Paris?, Why are some individuals more inclined to be aggressive than others?,
Odent asks himself.
A fundamental role in every kind of manifestation of love appears to be played by the hormone
oxytocin whether it be sexual intercourse, childbirth or breast feeding82, as well as orgasm,
ecstasy and mystic emotions - the confines between these latter seems to be undefined. 83
Contemporary physiologists consider sexuality in a global sense: the same hormones appear to be
involved in sexual intercourse, childbirth and breast feeding - all such forms of involvement for the
individual and the palaeoencephalon lead to a similar cognitive climax. It appears that the capacity
to love is encapsulated in the oxytocin molecule.84
It is important to understand, writes Odent, that the most important aspect of the physiology of
childbirth is that this should be undisturbed, that is to say that the neo-cortex, a superstructure
common to the human mammal, equal to four times the size of that in a chimpanzee, should not be
stimulated. It isnt a question of what is best, but of what exactly is childbirth, something which
few medical practioners and paramedics, as well as supporters of the so-called natural childbirth
seem to know or are able to imagine.85 Words, intense lighting, logical-rational thought all
stimulate the neo-cortex which produces an inhibiting effect on the primitive brain and
consequently on the production of those hormones which would allow one to reach the summit of
the scale. Fundamental for the release of that timid hormone as the London doula Liliana
Lammers calls oxytocin - are therefore environmental conditions. Ideal for a parturient would be to
feel safe, warm, unobserved and protected from futile conversation and strong lighting an
important consideration, observes Odent, in the era of electricity. It is not a gamble, sustains the
author, to think of childbirth as a moment of sexuality, permeated with sacredness. And any woman
- preferably already a mother herself - who accompanies a parturient in this unique and
unrepeatable journey of awareness should be tuned in to this type of atmosphere. On the contrary,
however, according to a study by Betsy Lozoff, in 62% of existing social groups, those assisting a
woman in childbirth tend to make themselves active in various ways: manipulating, massaging
even to the point of pushing on the abdomen and stretching the cervix manually.86 It seems that this
is also the reason why until now the foetal ejection reflex in humans has been ignored.
81 Following this initial intuition which made him change his attitude to his work, Akira Ikegawa took an interest in
prenatal memory.
82 According to the studies by Verbalis, oxytocin plays a not irrelevant role even in events such as the pleasurable
sharing of a meal with friends. Cf. J. G. Verbalis, M. McCann, C. M. McHale, E. M. Stricker, Oxytocin secretion
in response to cholecystokinin and food: differentiation from nausea and anxiety, Science, 1986; 232: 1417-19.
83 Michel Odent, La scientificazione dell'amore. L'importanza dell'amore per la sopravvivenza umana, Feltrinelli,
Milano, 2008 (or. 1999); Michel Odent, 2009.
It is useful to remember that only a dozen or so years ago, when Wilhelm Reich dared to publish The function of the
orgasm, such topics were still covered by taboo. Cf. Wilhelm Reich, The function of the orgasm. Wilhem Reich
Infant Trust fund, 1942.
84 Michel Odent, idem, p. xviii.
85 Clara Scropetta, La madre potente (The Powerful Mother), in Francesco D'Ingiullo, op. cit., p. 17. Clara
Scropetta has been living in Avalon for some time with her partner and their three children.
86 Betsy Lozoff, Birth in non industrial societies, in M. Klaus, M. O. Robertson, Birth, interaction and attachment,
Johnson and Johnson, Skillman, New Jersey, 1982.

Authentic obstetrics should be the art of creating the conditions for a foetal ejection reflex. Odent
writes:
The concept of assisting childbirth is probably far more recent than most people think.
Film footage of the Eipos in New Guinea and written documents on the nonagricultural societies show us that there has been a phase in the history of mankind in
which women were in the habit of isolating themselves when they went into labour.
More than for other primates, the need for intimacy during childbirth is fundamental for
women, let us not forget in fact that the human being in such circumstances is
penalized by the enormous development of one part of the brain (the neo-cortex) which
tends to inhibit the activity of the more primitive brain structures. When a person feels
observed, the neo-cortex (the intellectual brain) is unable to switch off. [...]
The advent of the figure assisting childbirth has produced a vicious circle. In fact it
interferes with the womans need for intimacy during labour and hence tends to render
labour more arduous creating a greater need for assistance.
- Michel Odent, 2006, p. 28, paraphrased from the Italian version

Ostetrician, from the Latin language obstetrix, is the (female) one that is in front of. The verb
obstare, to be in front of, is the source both of the word obstetricianand of the word obstacle.
The idea according to which a woman gives birth with someone in front of her, with an obstacle, is
very ancient. In English, the verbs which define birth are declined in the passive tense: women are
delivered and being born - in fact an active verb does not exist. In Chinese, jie Sheng literally
means delivery carried out by others. In international medical terminology, management is
associated with labour: to face the latter a woman needs a manager. In the United States, the
person who assists childbirth is a coach.
It has been noted how often a woman left undisturbed in labour tends to lean forward: this
movement and this position reflects and at the same time facilitates a reduction in neo-cortical
activity and simultaneously a surrendering to the more primitive needs of the palaeoencephalon it
is not insignificant that this posture is often taken on in moments of real and authentic prayer. In
these environmental conditions, at the culmination of the orgasmic scale pertaining to childbirth,
there should be the foetal ejection reflex, that is to say the expulsion of the baby following strong,
irresistible and totally involuntary contractions, to make up an optimal birth scenario, i.e. the
meeting of the mother and her child in the midst of a love hormone climax. 87 Considering sexuality
in a holistic way, it seems that the greatest ecstatic/orgasmic climax known to mankind occurs in
conjunction with the fetal ejection reflex. Usually, Odent observes, this is also the most strongly
disturbed and repressed orgasmic power in the human being.
It is very rare for babies to be born into this world as a consequence of the foetal ejection reflex in
our modern maternity units, where the patient parturient is always surrounded by instrumentation
which induces her to take up structured positions and kept well away from her own instinctive
feelings.
Rituals which disturb childbirth this must be meant as one of the most general aspects of
control and organization over sexuality are not exclusively to our times, but have existed
throughout human civilization over thousands of years, with very few exceptions mostly relative
to pre-agricultural civilizations. Odent writes:
87 The expression the foetal ejection reflex was coined by Niles Newton in the 60s, during the observation of a
female rat giving birth in undisturbed conditions. Cf. N. Newton, D. Foshee, M. Newton Experimental inhibition of
labor through environmental disturbance, Obstet. Gynecol., 67, 1966, pp. 371-377.

It is artificial to dissociate the different facets of orgasmophobia. [] the organization

of mating and the control of sexuality have been widely studied by anthropologists,
while the basic questions regarding childbirth, and lactation have not yet been raised.
- Michel Odent, 2009, p. 99 -

Socialization of childbirth, the intrusion and the guiding role taken on by most midwives, the use of
forceps, the belief in bad colostrum88, opening the door in cold countries, the invasion of a third
person (shaman, doctor, midwife, godfather, father) in the first contact between a mother and
child, the immediate cutting of the umbilical cord, the rubbing of the baby, the fumigating of it,
the use of swaddling bands, piercing a babys ears, the belief that an exchange of glances between
a mother and her newborn child opens up the gates for evil spirits are just some of the aspects
concerning the capacity for certain cultural practices to poke their noses, almost on a universal
scale, into the mother and newborns business.
The so-called Homo Sapiens thrust itself into a very real cul de sac approximately
10,000 years ago with the advent of agriculture and farming. The so-called Neolithic
revolution spread beginning with a small number of avant-garde populations living in
the Middle East, south-east Asia, central China, Central America and the Andes. As of
then, the primary strategy for survival of all groups of human beings has been that of
dominating Nature. Domination of Nature which implicates the concept of ownership
became one of the main causes of conflict. [] Starting in this era, all the various
episodes of the human sex life came under the cultural environmental control and this
is also the case for labour and childbirth.89
Michel Odent, 2006, p. 119, paraphrase of the Italian version -

In a continuum of general control over sexuality and disturbance of the physiology of childbirth,
todays practices in the maternity units are characterized by consequences without precedent. If up
to a century ago a woman could not give birth without releasing a cocktail of love hormones,
today, in the era of synthetic oxytocin, epidurals and c-sections, this is no longer the case. 90 Many
women give birth by c-section91, which can be scheduled and carried out even before labour
88 In England under the Tudors and Stuarts, colostrum was openly defined as a toxic substance which was to be
eliminated. The mother was not allowed to breastfeed until she had been subjected to a rite of purification and
thanksgiving known as churching. Already in 1967, the first people to investigate the widespread belief concerning
bad colostrum were Niles Newton and Margaret Mead the latter was the first famous woman anthropologist.
89 According to the theory of maternal law by Johan Jacob Bachofen, the basis of the matriarchal society consists in
the natural and biological association between mother and child. Even before important archaeological findings
came to light representing ancient cults to feminism, in the mid 1800s Bachofen, based mainly on the studies of
myths, hypothesized the existence of matriarchal societies which viewed women as the custodians of law. Cf. Johan
Jacob Bachofen, Il matriarcato, Giulio Einaudi Editore, Torino, 1988 (Das Mutterrecht, 1861); Johan Jacob
Bachofen, Il potere femminile. Storia e teoria, (edited by Eva Cantarella), Il Saggiatore, Milano, 1977; Furio Jesi,
Bachofen, Bollati Boringhieri, Turin, 2005 Annamaria Rufino, Diritto e storia: J. J. Bachofen e la cultura giuridica
romantica, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Naples, 2002.
90 It has been observed that when sheep give birth under the effect of an epidural they do not take care of their lambs.
So too, monkeys who give birth by caesarean section take no interest in their young. The case of the human species
however must be considered by taking into consideration the cultural variable as an important conditioning factor.
91 In an editorial of the British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, P. Steer considered in a positive manner the
increase in the number of caesarean sections. According to the author, in a not too distant future, the majority of
women opting for this solution will prefer to avoid the risks associated with vaginal delivery. Cf. P. Steer,
Caesarean section: an evolving procedure?, Brit J Obstet Gynecol, 105, 1998, pp. 1052-55.

commences. Others, administered with pharmaceutical substitutes (synthetic oxytocin or epidural

anaesthetic) block the secretion of natural hormones. Often, anyone who manages to give birth
without any particular medical intervention is given an injection of oxytocin to help expel the
placenta before the physiological moment for this has arrived, right at the critical moment when
mother and child should be bonding synthetic oxytocin has no effect whatsoever on behaviour
because it does not pass through the blood-brain barrier. The fundamental obstacle is the cultural
misunderstanding which is deeply rooted in terms of the physiology of childbirth.
The interrogatives, states Odent, are posed in terms of civilization:
Today we understand that the flow of hormones which a woman is supposed to release
during childbirth is a real cocktail of love hormones. In an industrialized environment
most women are unable to release this cocktail of hormones and has to do with
pharmaceutical substitutes or give birth by caesarean section. What will become of a
society born without love hormones?
- Michel Odent, 2006, p. 6, paraphrase of the Italian version

What might have determined, almost in all known cultures, this behaviour of interfering with
childbirth?
Odents hypothesis is that this cultural conditioning, up until now, has provided evolutionary
advantages. The lack of imprinting, a moment for creating a positive union of reciprocal
dependency and belonging, would create a general state of malaise, often manifested under
different forms of aggression. Creating aggression in a context lived in by the human race up until
our times would have benefited survival of the individual and the group by domination and control
over the more instinctual id, over others, and on the surrounding environment.
Since the turning point of the 1970s we can refer to scientific data regarding the
connections between birth physiology and lactation physiology. We have learnt that the
human baby has been programmed to find the breast during the hour following birth.92
We have accumulated data about the value of the colostrum. We have learnt that a safe
delivery of the placenta, without any blood loss, implies the release of a high peak of
oxytocin just after the birth of the baby and that the release of this shy hormone is
highly dependent on environmental factors. We have understood that giving birth,
among all mammals, implies the release of a cocktail of love hormones. Multiple
scientific disciplines suggest the importance of the period surrounding birth in the
development of the capacity to love. In such a context we are prompted to enter
unchartered territories and raises questions about the advantages of routinely disturbing
the birthing process, particularly of forbidding the interaction between mother and
newborn baby. If such beliefs and rituals are so widespread, it means that they have
evolutionary advantages in spite of their enormous cost in terms of hemorrhage,
maternal death and death in infancy.
- Michel Odent, 2009, pp. 99-100 -

The ethnological approach suggests that the greater the need to develop aggressiveness, the more
invasive the cultural beliefs and rites tend to be surrounding the event of childbirth it would
appear that in Sparta, as soon as a boy was born he was thrown to the ground: his survival would
92 M. Odent, The early expression of the rooting reflex, Proceedings of the 5th International Congress of
Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Rome 1977, Academic Press, London, 1977, pp. 1117-19; M. Odent,
Lexpression prcoce du rflexe de fouissement, In Les cahiers du nouveau, 1-2, 1978, pp. 169-185; Michel
Odent, La premire tte, in M. Odent, Gense de lhomme cologique. Epi. Paris 1979, pp. 103-116.

reveal his capacity to meet his warriorhood future.93 On the other hand, the physiological processes
were disturbed as little as possible in those social groups whose survival strategy did not depend on
dominating nature, but on living in perfect harmony with the ecosystem where it is more
advantageous to develop forms of love and respect for the Earth. A little evidence concerning preagricultural society which were basically extinct when anthropological studies were developed exists reporting the uses and beliefs of the Efe Pigmies, inhabitants of the Ituri rainforest ex Zaire,
now the Democratic Republic of the Congo -, in which it would appear that there were no beliefs or
rituals which interfered with the process of childbirth94 and the Kung San (Boshimani of the
Kalahari desert), where the woman used to give birth alone and unassisted95: these studies suggest
that the quality of the relationship between the physiological mother and Mother Earth may be two
aspects of the same attitude.
In order to suggest answers to these new and fundamental questions, we must first
recall that all societies one can study share the same basic strategies for survival. These
strategies include the domination of nature and the tendency to dominate even to
eliminate other human groups. It is therefore easy to accept that successful societies
are those that develop to a high degree the human potential for aggression. When the
domination of nature and the domination of other human groups is a strategy of survival,
it is an advantage to develop the capacity to destroy life. It is an advantage to moderate
the development of the several facets of love, including the respect for Mother Earth. It
is therefore an advantage to transmit from generation to generation beliefs and rituals,
the effects of which are to interfere in a critical period for the development of the
capacity to love.
These considerations are vital at the dawn of the third millennium.
- Michel Odent, 2009, p. 102 -

Eva Cantarella, quoting Erich Fromm, underlines a substantial difference between the psychic
structure which is assumed to characterize matriarchal cultures and the one that is assumed to
characterize the patriarchal attitude. On the other hand, the latter is in fact the one to which our
society's observer is accustomed. Cantarella makes a distinction between societies which are
governed by a patricentric model and societies that are instead shaped by a matricentric pattern.
Concluding, I can state that the patricentric type is characterized by a complex in which
the following features are dominant: a rigid super-ego, guilty feelings, a surrendering of
love towards father's authority, pleasure in domination over the weakest, the acceptance
of suffering as punishment for one's own guilt, the scant capability to feel happy. The
matricentric complex, on the other hand, is characterized by a confident and optimistic
feeling in an unconditional mother love, by a softer guilty feeling, a softer super-ego, a
higher capability to feel happy and enjoy, and by an ideal development of those
motherly qualities like piety and compassion towards the weak and needy people.
- Eva Cantarella in Johan Jacob Bachofen, op. cit., pp. 29-30 -

According to William Reich, when patriarchy took over, a sexually free society was replaced by an
oppressive one (and a repressive sexual morality). However, apart from speculations which are
intriguing and sometimes enlightening, the study of matriarchal societies and of matriarchy as an
93 Michel Odent, 2008, pp. 24-25.
94 Jean Pierre Hallet, Pygmy Kitabu, Random House, New York, 1973.
95 S. B. Eaton, M. Shostak, M. Konner, The Palaeolithic prescription: a program of diet and exercise and a design for
living, Harpet and Row, New York, 1988.

archetype and as a psychic attitude which is always present to varying degrees, could offer
important insights regarding other cultural possibilities. These insights might offer better solutions
to present day circumstances, as long as they arise out of creative connections and not simply from
arbitrary and arid convictions.
How does this form of love and respect for Mother Nature develop?, Odent asks. To stop the
destruction of the planet we need new survival strategies, now, more than ever before we need the
energies of love, of a new/primitive biodynamic attitude towards childbirth based on the deep needs
of the parturient rather than on the role of those specialized in assisting childbirth. And this in the
care and attention towards the laws of nature, in order to operate in the direction in which they lead
whether it be agriculture, farming or assistance in childbirth. All the beliefs and rituals which
challenge the protective and loving maternal instincts of a mother towards her newborn child are
losing their evolutionary advantages.
A similar mutation, says Odent, is not Utopian in the era of the scientification of love, the era
in which we learn that the capacity to love is developed via a long sequence of early experiences,
mainly concentrated around the moment of birth.96
In the Valle degli Elfi, the books by Michel Odent have been crying out for a number of years,
together with Zugehrigkeit by Willy Maurer writings which cause one to reflect on the
importance of the imprinting experiences which occur in the first moments of life, with regards to
the creation of a positive sense of belonging and The Continuum Concept by Jean Liendloff in
which the experience in arms of a newborn during the period of gestation outside the mothers
body is lived as a constant physiological need in the evolutionary continuum of the human species.
These topics are discussed in the womens circles and womens gatherings, as well as in the special
seminars, to create awareness so essential in the creation of norms comparing individual
experiences of lives past and present with ones own children the latter born in a context which
seeks to be experimental.
Mara, the mother of Yor, born in the Valle degli Elfi in 1994, writes:
What a lot of power and strength there is in the children born this way. I see it all the
time reflected in the children I have met and in my own son. There is health and vital
strength, theres character and personality, above all there is a natural and spontaneous
capacity to love other human beings, animals, plants and all living things.
I believe that it is up to us women to take significant responsibility for the care of our
planet, our Mother Earth. It is up to us to give birth to our children in a natural way,
trusting in our instinct and giving up our pain and our blood to the Earth as a tribute of
our belonging with love and honour.
She will thank us and support us...
As a mother always does her children
- From Nascita di Yor (The Birth of Yor), in D'Ingiullo Francesco, op. cit., p. 23 -

Conclusion
96 Michel Odent, 2006, p. 121-122, paraphrase of the Italian version.

Some of the factors which, in the Valle degli Elfi, contribute to the practice of giving birth at home
or in the woods! as a living norm are: living isolated in the mountains, the refusal of
institutional practices concerning childbirth, natural childbirth as a value; the desire to experiment
personally, the reading of texts which in some aspects go against mainstream ideas, seeking to be in
tune with nature, the search for inner and spiritual growth; often previous negative existential
experiences in ones past and an aptitude for research; the declared attention towards the
construction of a more sustainable future for ones children, the desire to heal planet Earth;
intercultural comparisons and the real possibilities offered by marginal contexts. Whereas in the
beginning it was experienced as one of the aspects of isolation, today, with the changes in the
surrounding cultural context, even this extension of alternative normative orientation to an alleged
normality, claims our attention and recognition, at least as a cultural option.

3.3. The important thing is that we decided it together: the talking

circle 97
In an Elfin village there is a tendency to avoid material locks and symbolic closures: hospitality is
considered sacred and a warm meal and a bed are always offered to anyone who steps over the
threshold separating them from the world down there. This is yet again my experience as I arrive
on foot, rucksack on my back, in the by now familiar village of Avalon.98
The founding of the village goes back to 1996, following the purchase by an elder of a property
made up of a big farm house and six hectares of olive groves. Unlike the rest of the Elfin villages,
located about thirty kilometres away and at between 800 and 1000 metres above sea level, Avalon
lies in the Pistoia hills, not far from a medieval hamlet, in a landscape dotted with olive trees. 99 In
accordance with a logic inspired mainly on the basis of bartering, in an attempt to move away, at
least in the daily routine, from the premises of a lifestyle in which a monetary economy is also central100, Avalon justifies its location by the need to produce olive oil for the entire population' (as
the Elves like to define themselves), a product exchanged and shared amongst the 17 or so villages
based on relative consumption and requirements.101
97

The contents of this paragraph have been discussed in my The social construction of norms in an ecovillage
setting. The talking circle, in Massimiliano Verga (edited by), Quaderno dei lavori 2007 (Acts of the third
national seminar of the AIS sociology and law), I quaderni del CIRSDIG, working paper n. 25 (www.cirsdig.it)
98 From the texts on methodology, but above all from my own ethnographic experience, the importance of how an
ethnographer presents him/herself in the field of investigation is important, the way in which he/she crosses the
threshold of the cultural universe with which, through observation he/she must necessarily compare him/herself. It
becomes obvious that the initial conditions which emerge in the very first moments will herald the quality of the
dialogic relationship which will be established between the various subjects (observer and interlocutors) in the
field of investigation.
99 Gran Burrone, at approximately 1000 metres above sea level, was the first settlement of the community and dates
back to 14th July 1980.
100 I remember that it was a really significant experience, when just a little over 20 years of age, visiting the elfin
village for the very first time, I lived there for around three weeks excluding almost completely all contact with
money. To my surprise, and I cannot deny a certain amount of enthusiasm, an outline emerged before me of
another kind of economic relationship between individuals based on sharing, giving and bartering.
101 The same applies to the potatoes and chestnuts produced in the mountains. The number of inhabitants in a village

I stayed in the village for a couple of weeks, between 16th 30th October 2005, the time when the
olive harvest was just about to begin.102 Between adults and children there were around 25 people
there (residents were less than half) and a lot more people were expected to arrive from the other
villages for the event.
As soon as I arrive, with my backpack slung down in the front yard and having been invited to
make myself at home in Vitos room since hes away for a few days I begin to realize that
somethings not quite right, that something is upsetting the usual peace and tranquillity. Giovanna
tells me that Nestore is not well. Nestore is a man of around fifty, single, a plumber by
profession, assiduous in his work, keen on physics and astrology, habitual guest and on the point of
moving house to come and live in the community. Over the past few day he has been manifesting
clear signs of mental and behavioural problems. Having previously met Nestore and known him as
a well-educated man with whom it was pleasant to talk,103 in my eyes this whole thing seems
incredible. What I see is Nestore taking on fixed positions in some corner of the house or other, he
fails to respond to entreaties and stares vacantly into space. What has happened? Attempts to
provide an explanation are made, but none of them is really convincing.
In just a few days the situation degenerates and it becomes obvious that he cannot be left on his own
and needs round the clock attention.
What is to be done? Who is going to look after him day and night? Soyu, who often takes the
chance to put on show his vast medicine knowledge, alternative to the dominant chemicalpharmaceutical one, begins to take care of the case. In the daily rhythm of preparing meals,
collecting and cutting firewood, preparing and sowing the land, looking after the seven children
there (aged between 0 5), harvesting the olives, processing the farm products (apples), personal
needs and playful collective moments, the community of residents and guests all pull together in the
face of this particular emergency. Soon, however, it becomes apparent that decisions have to be
made.
Every evening since my arrival, at the same table where the evening meal is shared, the technical
circle takes place (translated as tecnic circle for the many foreigners present). The function of this
circle is to make decisions about the work to be done on the following day. Proposed and chaired by
Soyu, this appears to be a really new and original institution in Avalon and among the Elves,
given the by now traditional strong stress on spontaneity and on non-organization which has always
gone against this kind of experiments in collective co-ordination.104 (Giovanni, an authoritative
does not necessarily provide a precise indication of its needs: in fact the number of people that pass by has more
impact on requirements.
102 The oil produced in Avalon usually is not sufficient to cover the needs of the 200 or so Elves approximately 60
of which are children. Consequently in the winter months many of them go to the centre and south of Italy to
harvest olives on estates which have an affinity with the elfin spirit.
103 I have pleasant memories of a conversation which took place five months before, around the breakfast table when,
on receiving the word, Nestore told those present a, for him, significant African tale. A fire was making all the
animals run away from the woods in an attempt to save themselves. Unlike all the others the humming bird was
seen to be flying in the opposite direction, carrying a few drops of water in its beak. To the great astonishment of
the other animals, the tiny bird said: Im just doing my part!
104 Mario Cardano describes how in the first years of the communitys constitution, daily life proceeded mainly
following a casual wave: people lived one moment at a time, you ended up eating whenever and whatever
mainly sweet chestnut flour -, without paying any attention to the material outline but rather paying attention to
simply being together, to creating the communitas. In this period the community counted little more than a dozen
or so persons, around whom numerous and changing guests rotated. This first wood-age ended in the spring of
1984 in conjunction with the birth of a first child, Elfo. With the birth of children a more systematic restructuring
of the houses began, running water was introduced, thus marking a passage from a certain type of nomadic

figure among the Elves, holds that the strength of the place is right there in the spontaneity which
gives each individual the possibility to find his own way out of the muddle.) Soyus initial lead is
replaced by others in the following days, following a desire for rotation, so that everyone assumes
some responsibility. On this occasion, participation in the technical circle varies, from the entire
population to approximately half of those present. Even I find myself inviting people to come and
participate, maybe after the usual cigarette break which seems to fit quite nicely into the dynamics
of the situation. To facilitate comprehension for the non-Italian speakers present (mainly people
between the ages of 20 30: Tom, Belgian, who is travelling through Europe and is about to go to
the Tibetan Buddhist monastery in Pomaia (PI), the Lama Tzong Khapa institute; Sarah, Austrian,
who has just left behind her apartment, job and boyfriend and is searching for something else;
Miguel, Portuguese and Carol, Polish, who are expecting a baby and are travelling around Europe
in their van putting on shows as street artists; Joanna, Australian, mother of Giaia (a one-year-old
with Indian features about her face) and a 'follower' of Amma105; Ronny, a German journalist and
Carla, Spanish, who roam around in a camper and produce leather articles) a translation service
becomes a must and this job is carried out first by Simona and then by me. Everyone is there,
everyone in their own way assumes some responsibility, including the latest arrivals, including
those who are only there for a few days. Those present voluntarily offer to carry out the various
tasks the place needs. Someone offers to cook, someone wishes to go gathering herbs in the fields
and someone will go and busk in some nearby village. Now the place needs to sort out shifts for
looking after Nestore. Two people on four-hour shifts seems the most sensible approach.
In the following days however, in the sharing of daily life, the shifts do not appear to be that rigid.
Someone else always joins the two people on shift. Giovanna, a constant female figure in Avalon,
does not formally take on any shift but often tries to stimulate Nestore in the ways and with the
words (since she knows him well) she considers most appropriate.106 Paolo happily accompanies or
substitutes those on night shift and there are those who are happy to feed him as Nestore doesnt
seem to care about the biological need for nutrition. Ronny is in Avalon for the first time, as is often
the case with people here. He has stopped off, having heard about the place in some corner of the
world or other. Just a few hours after his arrival he offers to take on a four-hour shift for that very
same night, not showing any particular concern or worries about the fact that he is unable to
communicate with Nestore in the same language. And one cool afternoon, outside in the yard,
Joanna sitting beside me with her child in her arms, to our pleasant surprise, the solitary sound of a
djamb announces the beginning of frenetic dancing and gives a first chakra vocalization of the
attention paid to Nestore and its bodily and verbal expression. On that occasion Joanna said: Much
love is going on down there. A couple of times Nestore is taken down by car to nearby towns to
get some blood tests done. Those accompanying him take great care (and succeed) in avoiding a
forced hospitalization.
Almost incredibly (I write in my observational report), the group makes a community around
Nestore, people who didnt even know each other operate and work shoulder to shoulder, the olives
are gathered, the climate is cordial and, something not to be taken for granted in Avalon, meals are
eaten at regular mealtimes.
lifestyle to care and attention towards the cultivation of the fields Mario Cardano, Lo specchio, la rosa, il loto.
Uno studio sulla sacralizzazione della natura, Saem, Roma, 1997.
105 Mt Amritanandamay Devi (born in 1953), Indian spiritual figure, known by her followers as the saint that
embraces. She is heartily recognised and respected for her humanitarian activity.
106 Despite not having put forward any blatant objection, on one occasion she expressed herself, stating that the
technic circle was a Soyu thing.

After a week, when somebody has already washed Nestores trousers a number of times by hand, it
becomes obvious that another way of handling this has to be found.
How can the temporary, changeable and dynamic population of Avalon, which from the very
beginning was definitely a commune and then later an ecovillage 107, in the experimentation of
individual and collective growth, behave when faced with a sudden emergency concerning the
apparent mental disorder of one of its (temporary but well-known) members? Who are the social
players, the roles more considerably involved? How and in accordance with which normative
orientation? What is the influence of the context?
The whole situation is perceived collectively as a problem, around which the whole life of the
village rotates. Massimiliano, who resides in the village together with his partner and their two
children108, calls the circle.109
Adopted by the Elves in the early nineties, importing it from the Rainbow tradition (Rainbow
Gatherings)110 and hence, in vision, from the customs of the prairie Indians, the talking circle takes
on the function of an extremely democratic tool for discussion before being decisional. Not only, it
is also an instrument of affirmation and a litmus test for a symbolic universe intentionally sought
after and recreated, recognised and supported.
The talking circle assumes the resemblance of a ritual; simple gestures mark out the progress
towards emotive opening, a shared vision and, when sought, the arrival at a consensual decision.
107 The Elves in the Valle dei Burroni have been active members of the Rete Italiana Villaggi Ecologici (RIVE)
(Italian Network of Ecovillages) since its foundation in 1996.
108 Massimiliano and Sonia, who came to Avalon in that same year with their children Chiaraluna and Ayla, are
building their new house in a small village just a few kilometres away from the commune.
109 In anthropological studies, it is the analysis of how controversies are managed which reveals the specific juridical
and normative form of a population. On this topic, cf. E. A. Hoebel, The law of primitive man. A study in
comparative legal dynamics, Harward University Press, Cambridge, 1954.
However, one must remember that the law does not define the society, but is rather a modality of the same Luigi
Alfieri, Do non-juridical normative arrangements exist? in Alberto Giasanti and Guido Maggioni (edited by), I
diritti nascosti. Approccio antropologico e prospettiva sociologica, Raffaello Cortina Editore, 1995.
110 Rainbow gatherings are national and international gatherings inspired by communitarian, ecological and pacifist
ideals which last for around one month to coincide with the full moon period. The selected locations are mostly
remote, far from main roads and large centres of communication, surrounded by countryside.
The first Rainbow gathering was organized in the United States in Colorado, back in 1971, and was imported to
Europe in the early eighties. Every year the European event brings a few thousand people together, mainly from
countries in Europe but also from other parts of the world. For a few years now, and mainly since the internet
became so widespread, it can be said that in each moment, somewhere in the world a Rainbow gathering is taking
place.
The Rainbow family is made up mainly of artists, people who live in communitarian situations, nomads, people
who are politically and socially committed and, above all lovers of nature and sympathizers, supporters and
spokespeople for a different style in human relations and human-environment relations. There are those who
experiment with this other way of interpreting the order of things for one month in the year, during the period of
the Rainbow gathering, and there are those who try to carry it forward into every day life, mainly as an ongoing
experimentation, in their own, in some ways more limited, real life situation.
For further information on this topic see Alberto Ruz Buenfil, Rainbow nation without borders: toward an
ecotopian millennium, Bear and Co., Santa Fe, N.M.,1991, and Micheal I. Niman, People of the Rainbow. A
nomadic utopia, The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1997.
Many Elves visit the Rainbow gathering, especially the national event which takes place two or three times a
year.

Great importance is given to the initial moments, to the attitude with which one undertakes this
journey of sharing with ones 'brothers' and 'sisters'. Seeking to centre on oneself is fundamental,
so that on the one hand you are prepared to truly listen, carefully, deeply and empathetically and on
the other you are able to express and offer a mature contribution towards the definition of a
collective vision, rather than giving vent to the expression of internal conflicts. 111 Sometimes
someone will sing:
Noi siamo un cerchio
noi siamo un cerchio
che non ha inizio
e non ha fine

(We are a circle

we are a circle
with no beginning
and never ending)

or
Terra il mio corpo
acqua il mio sangue
aria che respiro
fuoco il mio spirito!

(Earth is my body
water is my blood
air that I breathe
fire is my spirit!)

or
We are circling
circling together
we are singing
singing our hearth song
this is family
this is unity
this is celebration
this is sacred
or songs in the original language of the American Indians, brought back from Rainbow tradition.
111 Arturo Pozo Contreras during the seminar The method of consensus in indigenous cultures , held at the
University of Siena on 14th April 2005, underlined the importance, before any subjective manifestation, of
perceiving the roots of ones own origins, the real being concretely descended from that father and that mother,
that extended family, constructing a harmonious feeling with ones own past. In order to give an appropriate and
constructive contribution to the sharing circle, personal expression, far from being a cry of interior discomfort,
should be supported by a balanced cognitive and well-rooted cognitive context. When you include your parents in
your heart, you stop arguing with yourself. This practice of love leads to freedom and in order to really achieve
consensus, people must be truly free, Contreras said on this particular occasion. For a more adequate
comprehension he listed a series of exercises, specifying that these were exercises for Westerners.
Arturo Pozo Contreras, a chemical engineer specialized in physics and Gestalt therapist, is a founder member of
the Istituto Internazionale di Facilitazione e Consenso. He lived for a number of years among the Native
Americans in north and central America, becoming a member of the Grand Council of Maya Priests.
A few days after the seminar given at Siena University, Contreras held another seminar in a more experiential key
in the commune and ecovillage of Bagnaia. Elf representatives were invited to the meeting and quite
exceptionally were exonerated from payment of the relative participation fees.

There is a vast repertoire of songs which can be sung in the circle: most of them evoke harmony,
union, brotherhood, interconnection with natures elements and love. After a while, when all those
who intend to participate have arrived, the singing dies down into the native vibration of the OM.112
Once a moment of silence has been savoured, hands are raised to the sky, some express joy, others
do not wish to interrupt the magic of silence; many, letting go of their neighbours hands, prostrate
themselves to mother Earth. Each one takes his/her place usually wherever they happen to be
and then we wait for the person who called the circle to initiate a table of reflection. The timing of
this ritual is not carried forth in a rigid fashion and is open to variations: the OM may replace the
initial singing, or, depending on the location, people may sit on benches and chairs instead of on
the ground. Sometimes someone will pass on a kiss or a handshake or, keeping the circle intact,
start some kind of group entertainment.
Janne Rantala, describing the talking circles of the Ting (gatherings which take place a couple of
times a year in Scandinavian countries and Finland, traceable in a certain sense to aspects of new
spirituality and very close to the Rainbow Gatherings) demonstrates how, in reality, the actual
denomination is misleading: in other words, that the ritual practices underline not so much verbal
expression but rather listening as an ideal.113 Sitting in a circle, usually on the ground, thus
establishing a greater and more direct contact with mother Earth (the materiality of the earth, with
the security of material origins, materiality which does however take on strong spiritual outlines),
the formality of the rite envisages the importance of empathetic listening. The others sit and listen
while the person holding the talking stick, in the uniqueness of the moment seeks the most
appropriate way to best express his/her particular vision on the topic under reflection. 114 Words,
poems, songs, a moment of silence are all welcome, as are brief dramatizations, while the main
attention
encourages all to be fully themselves, fully human, fully able to express themselves, and
fully accepted and supported,

as can be read in Manitonquat, The circle way, a booklet which can be found in an Elfin village or
places which shares the same cultural orientation.115
Each person is believed to be a custodian of one part of the truth and each person is expected to
place his/her piece of the puzzle in the collective construction of knowledge. In the words of
Natale:
112 This harks back to oriental spiritual traditions, aspects of which have been taken into and made their own by the
New Age movement and thus introduced into the West as practices for a new spirituality. Cf. Paul Heelas, The
new age movement, Blackwell Publisher Ldt., Oxford, 1996.
113 Janne Rantala, Magic hat economics. Countercultural ideals and practices in the Nordic Ting community, in
Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis Vol. 21 (Postmodern spirituality), Donner Institute for Research in
Religious and Cultural History, bo, 2009, p. 165.
Cf. Paul Heelas & Linda Woodhead, The spiritual revolution. Why religion is giving way to spirituality,
Blackwell, Oxford, 2005.
114 On the circle and the line as symbols echoing the origins of politics, as pure forms of violence, see Luigi Alfieri,
Il fuoco e la bestia. Commento filosofico-politico al Signore delle Mosche di Golding (The fire and the beast,
Philosophical-political comment to Goldings Lord of the Flies); in Luigi Alfieri, Cristiano Maria Bellei,
Domenico Sergio Scalzo, Figure e simboli dell'ordine violento: percorsi fra antropologia e filosofia politica
(Figures and symbols of the violent order: paths between anthropology and political philosophy), Giappichelli,
Torino, 2003. In our case the centre of the circle is left symbolically empty. The seat of power is mobile as it is
passed from hand to hand in the shape of the talking stick around the circle.
115 Manitonquat, The Circle Way, Story Stone Publishing. Greenville, 1997, p. 36.

It was a great discovery, the way of the circle, with the stick, respecting the times of all
the others. It was, without doubt, one of the greatest discoveries of my entire life,
definitely of my living here, in this commune. [...] After a very initial phase, a tiny bit, I
have to say, in which I was a bit difficult, due to my own introversion, due to my own
limitations, a lack of... [...], after this very initial phase, which wasnt really a problem,
immediately afterwards I liked it a lot, and I still like it. I find it really interesting, very
noble. It seems a wonderful form of exchange to me. For the precise reason that it
leaves space for everyone, they are appeased... I think it is calming for those aspects
which concern egocentrism which we all have, some more than others. I believe it also
has this function, it can have it and it often does.
I notice the difficulty I had in the beginning, I notice it all the time in others and it
doesnt surprise me. I had it, but because, we have not been brought up to be open, they
taught us, yes, you need to point the finger when the time calls for it, they taught us to
clam up, to be afraid, to defend ourselves. And we risk... if we dont change, we risk
doing exactly the same thing. They, I dont know who I am accusing here, I dont really
know who, it's most certainly a chain which is passed down, which continues and is
perpetuated. And we too risk being a link, if we dont change something. A form of
culture, that is what I am accusing, when I say they taught us to be competitive, closed
up, uncommunicative, to avoid being open, to be afraid. So I understand this difficulty I
used to have, and obviously still have at times, only too well, and I see it as a constant
factor, sometimes more, sometimes less, in a circle. This is something that you notice.
Despite this, it happens, it can happen and almost certainly does happen that you arrive
at an opening up. Not everyone, not always. But there are times when someone opens up
and talks about themselves. There are those that do this in a very authentic, very
heartfelt way, but thats not the whole thing, thats not enough, there must also be a
capacity to listen for the miracle to happen. Because a miracle it is! It is something
really profound, when you meet up. And this happens, this can happen, during a circle. It
is one of the areas in which it can happen. It can even happen while you are out sowing
parsley, or anything else, for that matter, a song that is played... The circle is one of the
times when this can happen, in which it is more greatly stimulated. It is a precious tool
for me, which I got to know about here. [...]
The circle is called, usually the pretext is, faced with a decision to be taken, a circle is
called. That is usually the pretext.
[] during a circle without doubt you have a panorama of all, of a great many ideas,
and hence without doubt you can compare these ideas, you can question them, and first
and foremost your own. And those of the others, if you can manage to do this with love
it is great, if you can do this in a non-violent manner it is simply fantastic. In any case it
is an exchange of opinions, even when it is not so serene, not violent, it is still useful. So
a circle also gives you the opportunity, without doubt it does, to listen to all the voices
of those who at least want to use their voice, because there is also the option to not use
it, in other words no-one is forced to take part, but everyone is invited and respected.
This is really great. [...] During a circle you also see things which are not always so
noble, you also see pushiness, egocentrism, avarice, violence: aspects which we all
have, it would be a terrible thing to pretend we did not, some have them more, other
less. And its also a good thing we should see these aspects, its not pleasant, but its a
good thing. Even these things make us reflect. They make you ask, standing before the
ugly thing that you see in someone else, you ask yourself, and what about me? Am I like
that too? Even if a little less, but am I like that too? If so, what should I do? Its really
fascinating, because you realise that you cant in such a drastic way point the finger...
fling yourself against someone, because in some way or another you are a part of it too,
and so this, this self-criticism which comes out is really precious. They are moments of

profound growth. They really are.

Underlining the fact that consensus is not unanimity (since this latter term does not envisage any
diverging or conflicting opinion but rather a common vision of things), in this way of handling
differences it is consensus that is sought after.
The great thing is that you have all the time in the world at your disposal. These are not
decisions which are hastily made. [...] a circle is repeated, it is renewed daily until
consensus has been reached. And in this you socialise. Everyone can take part in
reaching a decision, in making the decision, talk when the stick comes back to them.
And so the decision is shared and becomes consensual. It is all a process, that of
reaching consensus. Something which cannot be repeated in other situations, in other
environments, where there is always limited time available.116
[...]
Because otherwise you make decisions which are stressed out, conditioned by time and
so participation and real democracy suffer as a consequence.
[In a circle] you talk, everyone puts forward their own opinion. And then when
everyone has had their say, consensus is asked for regarding a certain thing. And if noone objects, there is consensus. Otherwise you carry on talking it over
[] It happens that points of view become amalgamated. At the end there is a process
of alchemy, so that is what you are aiming at. [...] And what you end up creating is real
alchemy, and you simply cant understand unless you have experienced it. (Giovanni)

The talking stick, an object which is usually symbolically charged especially through the use of
inlays, decorations in semi-precious stones or shells or other things, highlights on which part of the
circle, in each precise moment, the focus should be placed. There are those who hold the stick in
their hands, those who lay it across their knees or those who lay it down in front of them. Talking
circles may last for hours or days, until, should the community need to make a decision, the best
possible solution has been found, that which successively everyone is expected to support in a cooperative manner.117
It is really important not to be in a hurry to make a decision, and it is really important
to be very open and to listen carefully to the others when they are talking. Its fantastic!
It really works! Im always really surprised, every time I take part in a talking circle, to
see how my ideas change, little by little, by listening to all the others, and then I am
permeated by a great sense of harmony. In the end we reach a common vision, which
more or less everyone agrees upon and then makes it possible for us to make a
decision. (Ianis)

Although sometimes:
116 A similar institution in which community problems are discussed without time limits and in the presence of the
entire population until the reaching of consensus has been documented by Serge Latouche, in La sfida di Minerva.
Razionalit occidentale e ragione mediterranea, Bollati Boringhieri, Torino, 2000 (Le dfi de Minerve.
Razionalit occidentale et la raison mditerranenne, 1999).
117 Vincenzo Ferrari underlines the problem of the effectiveness of the judicial system, intended as the real effective
capacity of the regulations to produce, in fact, the effects the regulations are aimed at. This vision reflects an
historical truth: the problem of the effectiveness has always been held in a marginal position, if not directly
avoided, by jurists and law theorists, and discovered, in substance, by the sociology of law. Vincenzo Ferrari ,
Lineamenti di sociologia del diritto (Features of the sociology of law), Edizioni Laterza, Bari, 2001, p. 261.

[...] it can happen that you say ok, lets have a circle, everyone says their bit and then
its difficult to reach a decision. But its quite simply that when theres a certain
urgency about taking a decision, the decision in the end is made, a way is found.
But sometimes it happens that youve got to go away, and nothings been decided. So
more circles are held... Maybe it just wasnt the right moment for making a decision.
(Nina)

In Avalon, on this specific occasion, after the first circle which took place after the evening meal,
when the children had been put to bed, another is held the following day, again after supper, and
then another, until a total of five talking circles, on five different days have been held. The last two
are held in the afternoon (some of those present complained of being too tired after a days work to
be able to give their full participation and attention in the evening). This disrupts normal village
life. Although no coercive pressure is felt (being present is usually perceived as an opportunity)
participation in the circles is pretty much total, for the entire duration (a few hours) of all five
circles. Nestore is there for most part, he too ends up with the talking stick in his hand this time a
well-smoothed olive branch. No-one, neither the residents or the guests, show any kind of
discomfort towards this type of decision-making tool or the way the process takes place, nor is there
any indifference or sense of irrelevance thus underlining the symbolic continuity which exists
between the residents and those who on the other hand feel they are into a certain cultural
movement and are by now quite familiar with the many alternative implications of daily
management and power. Massimiliano, holding the talking stick, opens the topic to be discussed in
the first circle. The stick is passed around from hand to hand in a circular direction, from right to
left in a clockwise direction.118 The stick is respected - for the best part there are no interruptions
when somebody is speaking. The sensation I feel is that of entering a spiralling process, the
outcome of which is by no means a foregone conclusion. Massimiliano proposes to turn to a
solution of hospitalization, believing that the community is not competent enough to manage the
situation thoroughly an option which, in primis, falls on deaf ears. Since Nestore makes no
comment, his known aversion, if not all out hostility, towards psychiatry is taken into consideration.
This aversion and hostility soon proves to be pretty much the general standpoint around the whole
circle. A little house opposite the main house is offered to Nestore, so that he doesnt have to go
upstairs to reach his bedroom and so that he can make use of more private accommodation. In the
third circle someone points out that this situation has the entire village absorbed and tired,
obstructing the execution of the various tasks which have to be done even these aspects are
important. Giovanni, an authoritative figure in Avalon, as he is among the Elves, proposes that in
this third circle the residents should be allowed to have their say first, being as they are closer to
Nestore, and that the guests should make their opinions known afterwards. No objection is put
forward and the few residents, although retaining their position in the circle, express their thoughts
one at a time, as soon as they receive the stick in their hands.
The community is tired. Nestore is getting worse, the children are beginning to feel uncomfortable
about it (this aspect is put forward by more than one voice in the circle, particularly by the mothers)
118 In talking circles, the stick is usually passed around in a clockwise direction. This set up however does not seem to
be a rigid ruling. Taking part in a talking circle in a different, but in many aspects similar, context, (Rainbow
gathering on Monti Sibillini, summer 2007), noticing that after the initial opening the stick was being passed
around in an anti-clockwise direction, I began by pointing this out. At this a woman had explained that the stick
can sometimes be circulated in an anti-clockwise direction, in accordance with lunar motion and not only and
exclusively in the direction of the suns passage! The anti-clockwise circulation of the stick seems to occur more
frequently in womens circles.

and work has been seriously slowed down. It would be a good idea to turn to S., a psychoanalyst,
for help. Now a pensioner, he was active for over thirty years in the field of anti-psychiatry. The
third circle concludes with this decision and while awaiting the arrival of S., four volunteers, two
residents and two guests, offer to spend a couple of days with Nestore in an empty house in the
Valle degli Elfi, so that the place has a chance to recover.
During these two days while the catalyst is absent, rhythms are rediscovered in a lighter way, the
case is still discussed but in an informal manner, the atmosphere relaxes.
The following Thursday Tom, Paolo, Soyu, Isabella and Nestore come back from the mountains to
meet the psychoanalyst and the assistant accompanying him.
How is the expert encountered? What relationship is established between the local knowledge of
the group of friends on the one hand and the expert knowledge of the psychoanalyst on the other?
The population of Avalon call the fourth circle which is held in the open, in the early afternoon,
under a large fig tree in the yard. The participants remain standing for the moment of centring (this
time a brief OM and a moment of silence) and then sit down on benches and chairs. The stick, held
first by Giovanni, is passed around until it lands in the hands of the two psychoanalysts, who, after
having respected the stick express their opinion.
The talking circle, recognised and legitimised in its modalities and function by those who decide to
take part and therefore constitute it, proves to be a desirable tool for weaving, in concrete manner, a
shared universe, a shared narrative knowledge119, situated in a specific context, involving actors
who are concretely present. In other words, the circle proves to be a precious tool for dynamically
constructing the communitas, for creating culture, the normative aspect being a complementary and
fundamental component. The hermeneutic, far from being a 'revelation', appears as the fruit of effort
and collective tension with every essentialist attitude being discouraged along the way.120 The
problematic situation is defined and interpreted in the specific location (the commune and
ecovillage of Avalon, which has its system of social norms and regulations while at the same time
being part of the Italian juridical and legal context) in which it presents itself and in the same
context in which one expects the remedy also to take place. The actors present become the main
protagonists, thanks to a tool, the talking circle, which, in its dynamics emphasises attitudes of
respect, equalitarianism, inclusion, personal strengthening, opening up towards creativity and of the
heart as well as personal and collective growth.121
Respect is the centre of the circle,

one reads again in Manitonquat, The circle way, in which 'respect' is understood to mean the
119 Narrative knowledge must be understood here as different and in potential which comprises the scientific. On the
domination of the organ of sight in giving form to social reflection, culture and scientific knowledge, see Rorty,
Reed, Foucault, Irigaray, Heidegger in Phil Macnaghten and John Urry, Contested natures, Sage Publications,
London, 1998.
120 This attitude, according to Peter rebech, Fred Bosselman, Jes Bjarup, David Collies, Martin Chanock and Hanne
Petersen - The role of customary law in sustainable development, Cambridge Univeristy Press, Cambridge, 2005
is characteristic of the modality of constitution and reconstitution of forms of customary law. Knowledge is a
communal enterprise among human beings actively engaged in the pursuit of understanding their common world
(p. 4), whereas habit, far from being a rigid structure of fixed and irrevocable rules and regulations observed by a
community, consists rather in a sort of language in which claims are made and images of equities evoked (p.
23).
121 Taking a cue from this, it is interesting to reflect on the fact that It is true that love and 'modern' law do not
belong to the same category - Hanne Petersen, Informal law and/of love in the European community, in Teoria
Sociologica 3/94, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1994, p. 150.

opposite of domination and a precondition for growth. During the moments of listening, during that
half hour, hour, hour and a half... when the stick is not in your hands and silence makes up the
background to the expression, as precise and concise as possible, of each person, the discussion
evolves, it takes shape. In my own personal experience, many a time, when the talking stick
(finally) made it back to my hands, the thought I had been itching to utter, finds itself transformed,
evolved or already expressed in a different way by someone else sitting in the circle. According to
Eligio Resta,
[...] the threshold is crossed when you no longer kill with the cold professionalism of a
soldier in a war, sometimes real but always tragic and useless, and you begin to have
feelings,
- Eligio Resta, Il diritto fraterno, Laterza, Bari, 2002, p. 124 -

when ones own antagonistically created identity is put aside, opening oneself up to the other point
of view, overcoming the paranoid aspect of opposition. In other words, what confers significance to
this experimental management of sited complexity is the relevance granted to the emotionalsentimental dimension of things. This is prepared for with the starting OM, the holding of hands,
the singing of songs together122, from the circular positioning of participants so that it is possible to
establish eye and heart contact with all those present while always maintaining contact with the
deep roots of mother Earth. Emphasis is placed on trust, evoking a politicization of friendship,
rather than a top-down type of hierarchical structure.123 The dynamics of the circle discourage any
type of delegation to possible judicial powers together with top-down expectations of legal safety.
The expressive power which this tool of collation envisages, appears to be equally distributed,
ensuring that no-one arrogates the presumptive privilege of leading the discussion or of having the
authorization to pronounce the last binding work. In the words of Tommaso:
For me the talking circle is above all the beauty of listening. Before, when there
werent these things, lets say, he who has the loudest voice talks and talks and talks
but does not give much room to others. Like this, however, you have the chance to
listen to everyone. When it [the stick] comes to you, as well as the thought you may
have, there really is, for me, also all the energy of the entire group. First and foremost
the great things is finding a solution, a thing where you always find a common point.
[...]
[The talking circle] has been carried forward more by the people who sat in silence,
because its always the same people who speak. I didnt have this problem because I
always spoke, but I found it educational for me also to listen to the others.
[There is] greater richness because all the people [can] make a contribution. You get [to
see] more points of view, everyones point of view.

In practice consensus emerges when the stick, passing from hand to hand, has completed a full
circumference of the circle without anyone adding anything new to the vision put forward.
Consciously or unintentionally, consensus emerges as a spiritual praxis.124 Backing fraternity as a
122 I cant come to a circle unless I meditate a little while beforehand, a woman confided to me.
123 According to Eligio Resta already for some time the post-virtuous character of modern politics [has] lead to the
completion of the 'depoliticization of friendship', revealing an ethical shifting from the spirit pervading the
Aristotelian polis. - Eligio Resta, op. cit., p. vi 124 Josefin Larsson, Aiming for change. Intentional communities and ideology in function, rebro University, 2004, p.
64.

cognitive expectation and the construction of an ecological awareness (the sentiment of fraternity
also being a complementary aspect of the latter125), appears to be a good and desirable stance.
What was the general orientation which emerged from the five circles the last of which was held
under the great fig tree and included the current population of Avalon and the psychoanalysts?126
During the talking circles and in the actions of the actors involved, a general anti-psychiatry attitude
emerged. The final decision of turning to S. as the most suitable psychoanalyst with whom to
compare attitudes, surfaces to confirm the normative orientation built up over the days of my stay,
obviously on a basis which was already well-rooted among the resident and non-resident social
actors.
A mental disorder essentially is defined as a request for attention (Giovanni), a lack of love, a
lack of deep love (Giovanna). Psychiatry is perceived as an instrument of power, the power of the
state:
[According to the conventional psychiatric approach] mental illness exists and it is
cured using drugs. And so you act on the level of neurons [] without removing the
causes. It is all functional to the system of power, to controlling personality []. Its all
one, political power, economic power, social control. We are forced to live in a cage
[] of fear, this is what power is based on.
In an holistic vision of things, the approach [towards mental illness] is multidisciplinary.
It is [fundamental] to face the crisis in such a way that in the end you have to face
yourself. (Giovanni)
Official psychiatry, first they make you mad, then they treat you for it (S., the
psychoanalyst)

The orientation of the community, in the same line adopted in the following days by the specialists,
essentially proves to be (together with providing aid and assistance) attentive to creating the
conditions necessary for Nestores expression in the most varied of forms. His difficulty, far from
making him a dangerous person, is interpreted as an urgent need for a releasing howl . Nestore is
going through a moment of profound existential crisis, a moment of truth, during which, if
supported, he has the chance of facing his own self, of achieving awareness of his own deepest
needs (Giovanna), which, if recognised allows you to take on the road you have to travel
(Giovanni).
In the words of the psychoanalyst:
Max Weber interprets the progressive differentiation of the legal and religious sphere in ancient Rome as a
closure supported by specialists of the emerging positive law in an attempt to separate the new juridical skills, as
professional techniques, from the old Etruscan priests. On this topic see Margareta Bertilsson, An ancient science?
On the continuing relevance of law, in Nybom Thorsten (ed.), Studies of higher education and research,
Stockholm, 1, 1993, p.4.
125 On fraternity as the great exclusion from the implementation of the ideals of the Enlightenment, remaining instead
as a vague sentiment between nations, see Eligio Resta, op. cit., pp. v-xii. According to Resta What is interesting,
however, is to understand how and why, of those great utterances [liberty, equality, fraternity], fraternity,
mentioned then but never put into practice and unresolved compared to the other topics of liberty and equality,
should make its overwhelming return today, the more the present imposes, with its Jacobean accelerations, the
question of global, of the dependency of everything on everything. (p. v).
126 A backpacker who arrived in that very moment, put down his backpack and took a place among us. When the stick
was passed to him he expressed himself in accordance with his own situated knowledge. Youre way ahead
here! was his comment when the circle came to a close.

It seems to me that you manage everything very nicely. Its obvious, however, that you
have experience in relations and consequently also in the difficulties that can occur in
relations, you also have experience of peoples sufferings. Really, I find you are all
very good. Even with the risk that you are more friends than therapists, with the risk
that maybe you will mollycoddle him too much. [...]
A crisis is violent, its scary, its like a snake that changes and sheds its skin, it doesn't
feel fine, it suffers. All changes cause suffering, even someone who goes to another
house suffers, they lose their routine... Psychiatrists see a crisis as suffering, as violence
so they think that the person in question is a danger to himself and others, one way or
another they end up using sedation, justified by the persons dangerousness and
suffering. Here, I believe the exact opposite: because a crisis is a moment of truth for
the person, when he drags out all his sufferings and problems... I operate in exactly the
opposite way: they use sedation, I emphasise the crisis as a moment of truth. Its
obvious that the crisis has to be followed by people who know how to read the
language of the crisis. The crisis is not expressed only in rational terms, it is a cry, it
has to be understood... because at the end of the day these things can also be
commonplace, theyre always the same. [...]
Once the crisis has been recreated, people get back to normal. [...]
Whereas in traditional culture rites of initiation are a matter of culture, in our society
there are spontaneous rites of initiation which are repressed. [...]
Because you need a cultural answer to the sense of your existence, [an answer] which
tribal cultures offer.

Put in the conditions of self-expression, in an attempt to recreate and manage this cry of
discomfort via a psychodrama -, Nestores behaviour is interpreted as a choice for assistance, to
remain in a stagnant, non-emancipating situation, a situation of non-growth and yet reassuring
because familiar. According to the circle Nestore refuses to continue living a theory which is
also backed by S.. The moment of truth and the awareness of deep needs are pushed away, as is
the road to be taken. The community seems to give up to this discernable evidence.
A few days after my departure I find out that Nestore has been admitted to the hospital in Empoli
the handier and nearer hospital in Pistoia being considered unsuitable due to there being too many
psychiatrists.

Conclusion
Reading through the ethnographic notes written during my stay in Avalon, I realize I found a
beautiful atmosphere in the commune, the best I have ever come across since then. The relative
spontaneity which gives each individual the possibility to find his own way out of the muddle was
bringing about self-assurance in peoples work, cheerfulness and a physical environment which is
far cleaner than one usually finds.
When a crisis suddenly arose in the ecovillage, the talking circle appeared to be the natural tool for
its management and resolution IN FACT the norm acted on. This, far from being an ex-post
remedy for the emergency, proved to be fully integrated in the shared symbolic universe of the
population in question. Not so much an extemporaneous tool in response to a cause-effect logic
nominated for the management of deviation, the talking circle appears rather as a process indicator.
Put forward by the inhabitants of Avalon, it meets no resistance, nor reactions of inadequacy or

indifference on the part of those, even if only there in passing, find themselves physically in contact
with the crisis in the place and choose to take an active part in matters, thus revealing a common
orientation of values and cognition. This orientation is shared not only by the inhabitants of Avalon,
not only in the Valle degli Elfi but by a social group which knows, supports and lives, either
permanently or periodically in ecological communities both in Italy and around the world.
Sustained by strong reference values (sharing, inclusion, respect, love, importance of individual
expression, equality, individual and collective growth etc.), the talking circle shows itself to be a
tool towards conscious normative construction which the entire population present must then relate
to. What comes to light is a series of personal efforts towards a collective definition of identity
which must be seen as a first essential step towards the definition of a normative orientation relative
to specific questions. In this shared reflection, rationality and emotive expression want to be
integrated and this desire (will, according to the Norm Model presented in the second chapter),
takes on significant outlines, also because each member of the population referred to was not born
in Avalon, nor in such protected and separate ecological citadels, but was socialized in Western
culture, although in different regional and national contexts.
Considering the fact that the dominant socio-cultural system in which Avalon finds itself does not
envisage, promote or support research into collective narrative awareness which defines and
orientates local attitudes, the practice of the talking circle underlines the will for a conscious
normative tension, firmly enhanced by the perception on the part of the protagonist characters of
being makers and experimenters of a different social system.
In practical terms, it is an experience which you too have lived through in these last
few days. There was a closer circle and we made the decisions concerning Nestore,
concerning the things that had to be done. In the wider circle, all the people, the last to
arrive is equal to the first. Where creativity is also expressed, where a free outlet is
given, there imagination is born. In the practical circle it came about that everyone
became responsible, and they became aware of the needs of this place. These were not
imposed.[] But this is not always possible, and it cant always come about. Because
often, instead of the needs of the place emerging, the subjectivity they have emerges,
with their needs that they throw at you, that they offload on you. (Giovanni)

The talking circle, far from having mostly the effect of legitimizing an established order as would
be required in a structural-functional prospective, in its submerged structure of underlying
conceptual oppositions127 , it is itself maker and interpreter of the norm coming into being, closer
to forms of customary law characterised by flexibility and adaptability.128
In the ideal of experimentation, the kind worth believing in (Natale), everyone is invited to take
part in the process of creatively constructing a common narrative, no-one is forced. Any participant
present is considered the bringer of some particular contribution. Norms are defined in accordance
with a dynamic process (of which the talking circle is an essential moment) on the basis of
cognitive characteristics (given by personal qualities such as gender, age, education, person
experience and various know-how...), willingness (the push towards personal growth is
fundamental) and the real possibilities provided by the social micro-context which is an ecovillage.
127 Pietro Scarduelli, Antropologia del rito. Interpretazioni e spiegazioni, Bollati Boringhieri, Turin, 2000, pp. 22-23,
p. 42.
128 Peter rebech, Fred Bosselman, Jes Bjarup, David Collies, Martin Chanock and Hanne Petersen, op. cit., p. 24. In
this view Leon Sheleff blames the work of various anthropologists when the approach to customary law comes
about as if it were an inflexible framework (p. 16).

To give shape to the norm and act on the norm is revealed within a circular process, while its
implementation becomes an integral part of the norm. No cognitive lag is interposed between
making the norm and acting on the norm, these two moments being in constant interaction. The
norm becomes characteristic of a process where change, i.e. the result of normative interpretation
together with the creation of new orientations of perception, is understood as a real possibility.
It is in this cognitive expectation put into place by the population of Avalon, in this experimental
effort, that the significance of the talking circle as a process of normative construction and
comparison lies, the potential of which is usually underlined by the shared cultural orientation
pertinent to ecovillages.

A moment during a talking circle at Corricelli ecovillage (associazione Basilico -FI-). Picture by Marilia
Zappal.

Chapter IV
From non-law to law: intentional communities
towards legal recognition?
You never change anything by fighting the existing.
To change something, build a new model and make the
existing obsolete.
- Richard Buckminster Fuller -1

4.1. Ideas of civil society

Throughout history there have been many conceptualizations of a civil society. For Aristotle, civil
society is the realm of zoon politikon, that is of that public ethical-political community composed
of free and equal citizens subject to a legally defined system of rules".2 There is no gap between the
idea of state and the idea of society; any interaction regarding the public or the private sphere is
held to pertain to the field of legal provisions of the recognized politike koinonia. From this point of
view, interpersonal friendship was seen as having a public and political value, holding a higher
status compared to justice. According to the Stagirita (Nicomachea, VIII, 1, 4), when there is
friendship, there is no need for justice; but even being just, there is a need for friendship, and the
highest point of justice seems to appertain to the nature of friendship. 3 This idea of civil society
marked the development of the philosophical-political tradition at least until the 18th century
although with different interpretations and often misleading translations.4
The birth of the modern state marks a particular social segmentation, not least in balancing, and also
making possible, the consolidation of the new power and authority of the prince, of the one with
respect to the many; dynamically a feudal society would have characterized the organization of
the multiple holder of power and status. According to Cohen and Arato, following Marx, such a
corporative society, largely political, would have been more likely to resemble Aristotles politike
koinonia than to the representations of civil society which developed in the 18th century.
Consolidating the supremacy of the prince, the corporative interests which constituted the former
legitimate political counter-power did not disappear, but constituted an articulation of the newly
forming civil society: a society of orders, a multiplication of associations and private interest
groups (religious, economic, etc.) in opposition to the monarchical authority, against the state. The
1

Quotation taken from the website http://www.solarpowervillage.info/, in which the opening words The solar
power village and the idea of the global campus. Solar intelligence for the 21st century has as a premise the
proposal of creating a village powered by solar energy. The authors of the video live in the ecovillage of Tamera in
Portugal (www.tamera.org).
2 Jean Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil society and political theory, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1992, p. 84.
3 Eligio Resta, Il diritto fraterno, Laterza, Bari, 2002, p. vi.
4 Cohen and Arato, op. cit., p. 85.

varied plethora of independent associations drove Cohen and Arato to conclude that there is no
doubt that the 'society of the Enlightenment, constituting a new form of public life, was the
prototype of the early modern concept of civil society.5
The French case is emblematic in Western Europe: the anti-absolutist theories of Montesquieu, the
Volterian critique of pomp and riches perceived as excessive, as well as the remains of the old
fusion between civil society and political society emerging from the writings of Rousseau, all come
together and interact with the appearance of independent publications, political assemblies, coffee
houses, public conversations: each of these initiatives is indicative of a semi-autonomous area of
political and cultural activity, separate from the state.
If in the 18th century, civil society is also a place of social mutuality, marking a significant
transformation in the philosophical-political vision, in the 19th century with a second significant
transformation there is a kind of reaffirmation of the modern view in the idea of civil society as a
distinct cultural sphere from the state. The organization of civil society, in its separateness, is
considered a guarantor of the preservation of individual rights, and above all of the right to be
regarded as owners of private property; the existence of many associations is recognized, sometimes
supporting diverse and diverging opinions and interests, places where there is internal social
interaction as well as interaction with the outside, where the state has no role. More recently, civil
society was considered a place of complex and autonomous relationships and of good civil
manners (especially in Great Britain6), a place where a real democracy is possible or as a social
community (Durkheim7, Tnnies8, and the German Romantics in general). Immanuel Kant
articulated the first complete differentiation between civil society and state: in Kant, civil society
appears as a separate cultural dominion, created by rigorous and well informed political debate, a
sphere which is substantially different from the state and political society; the place of morality is
seen by Kant as different from that of legality. According to Cohen and Arato, these significant
historical changes in the idea of civil society actually reflect the common difficulty of mediating
between the public and the private spheres. The articulation of civil society which emerged in the
19th century and has lasted, in the literature, to this day, has as a prime difficulty that of explaining
the parameters of influence which originated in autonomous and separate institutions and relational
systems compared to state mechanisms. In Seligmans opinion, the relational problem between the
private and the public sphere, between individual affairs and social affairs, between public ethics
and personal interests, between individual passions and public matters9 was common to any
Enlightenment conceptualization whether Scottish, French or German.
Recently, following the events of 1989, which changed the world order, especially in the Eastern
5 Cohen and Arato, op. cit., p. 87.
6 Adam Ferguson, in An essay on the history of civil society, understands civil society to mean, a society of less
barbarous manners, a society which practised the cultivation of the mind by arts and letters [] one in which urban
life and commercial activities flourished - in Robert C. Schehr, Dynamic Utopia. Establishing intentional
communities as a new social movement, Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut, 1997, p. 86.
7 Emile Durkheim, La divisione del lavoro sociale, Edizioni di Comunit, Milano, 1999 (De la division du travail
social, 1893).
8 Ferdinand Tnnies, Comunit e societ, Edizioni di Comunit, Milano, 1963 (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, 1887)
9 Seligman A., The idea of civil society, Free Press, New York, 1992, p. 5.

European countries, and the consequent reaffirmation of the public importance of the individual
actor, there has been a renewal of academic interest (largely neo-Marxist and critical of the socialist
authoritarianism) in nature, development and the potentials of civil society.
In Eastern Europe, and immediately afterwards in Latin America, there was a return to the idea of
the self-organizing society, a rebuilding of the social fabric once it was free from the authoritative
chains of the state, as well as an interest in an independent public sphere, separate from any kind of
official control of the state and political parties.10 Cohen and Arato, in Civil society and political
theory, give a clear and accurate account of the idea of a civil society (whether conservative, liberal
or progressive) in different historical and geographical contexts, from different viewpoints, as well
as outlining the possible multiple and opposing modes of resistance to the potential ruling powers.
The leit motiv which emerges between the lines of Cohen and Aratos analyses and from the
positions held by the Etzionian communitarians and those Liberals taking their inspiration from
John Rawls11, as well as from the experiences and demands of contemporary social movements
(especially from intentional communities), centres on the question of how to build a cultural
universe in which rights and responsibilities are key concepts, in an environment which is separate
from the state, where the social actors may interact freely to build truly democratic, even radically
democratic societies.12

4.2. Sustainable living

The concept of civil society held by the intellectual elite and more importantly by the general public
becomes a critical prerequisite in the flowering of resistant groups and organizations working
towards a decolonization and empowerment of life. Also, the emergence of a global civil society is
one of the most significant events of our time, a society which misses practically nothing of what
world governments do or fail to do.13 Moving away from the view that community experiments
are isolated pockets of social-political discrepancy, islands of resistance with a limited life
expectancy which can expect birth, development and an end (a perspective which labours under the
evolutionary prejudice), Robert C. Schehr proposes a view which sees oppressed and subordinate
social groups as innately persistent, constantly involved in rearticulating meanings at the level of
day-to-day life. The new social movements, of which intentional communities are an important
phenomenon, are recovering the civil context as the space where identity can be rebuilt and where
social responsibility can be recreated.
In the article Che cos' un ecovillaggio (What is an ecovillage), the president of the Italian
Network of Ecovillages (RIVE), writes:
Beneath the lack of ideals vomited out daily by public and private televisions, there is
10 Andrew Arato, Civil society, constitution, and legitimacy, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC., Boston, 2000, p.
44.
11 Cf. the influential John Rawls, Una teoria della giustizia, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1999 (A theory of justice, Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1971)
12 Cf. Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and socialist strategy: towards a radical democratic politics,
2nd ed., Verso, London; New York, 2001 (first edition 1985).
13 Klaus Bosselman, op. cit., pp. 175-208.

an unrecognized and widespread need for a new society. The slogan: A better world is
possible: we are building it, coined by Rive during the 2003 European Social Forum,
really highlights the contribution that the ecovillage experience may offer for societys
transformation. The growing interest in the ecovillage movement is concrete proof of
this desire for change. Young and old, single people and couples, workers and the
unemployed, young pensioners but also professionals and industrialists: the idea of
ecovillages seems to appeal right across the generations, across different social classes,
appealing to people with diverse experiences of political and social involvement, and
with the most diverse wishes, needs and fantasies. A great many of the phone calls and
e-mails which reach the editorial office of the newspaper Aam Terra Nuova, which
physically houses the Rive information desk, complain of deep existential
dissatisfaction and a desire to change their lives. These people are seeking a new way of
interacting with other people and more and more often, they are looking for new and
more satisfying work, somewhere as close as possible to nature. Despite the appearances
in recent years, when thinking seemed restricted and in retreat from any kind of
engagement with the world, the prospect of investing life in the absurd work-consumeproduce-die routine seems less and less attractive.
I have been happily married for four years, and a father for the last two years, I was
told a few days ago by Gianni M. from Milan, but the idea of spending my whole life
in my beautiful apartment, without any contact with my neighbours, just waiting for
holidays and long weekends when I can take a break from my daily round, makes me
realise Ive made some kind of mistake. I like the ecovillage concept because I think it
is a more human dimension, especially for children, who have less and less space in this
society.
Lucia B. from Naples says: I graduated in engineering last year but I have no intention
of putting my knowledge in the hands of a multinational or private company which is
prepared to devastate the environment for the sake of profit. I would like to be able to
work for and not against nature and if possible in a context where there is interaction
and cooperation with other people. I can't stand the competitive climate prevailing in the
mainstream work environment. I lived in the community of Findhorn for two months
and experienced the pleasure of working in harmony and with pleasure.
I would like to wake up in the morning and see friendly faces, Marta C. from Urbino
writes in a mournful e-mail, and above all, I'd like to go to bed in the evening with a
clear conscience, knowing that I have done something useful for the planet. I feel it's
absurd to waste my life and my energies buying a car, then a house, then a holiday
house at the sea. I would like to build something useful for future generations and I
would like to do it with others. These are some of the many accounts of that
widespread need for a better world, a better world which many are seeing in action in
the over 3000 ecovillages present around the planet in all countries and continents. As
well as these, there are about another thousand not included in the census14.

Craig Owens holds that a symptom of our postmodern condition, upon which we need to reflect, is
the loss of mastery over our own lives.15 In order to move away from this prospect and from the
commercialization and alienation which characterize social relationships in this post-industrial
period, the concept of sustainability appears as central to the reclaiming of everyday life which the
style of the ecovillage seeks. It is also the basic concept underlying the individual and collective
14 Mimmo Tringale, Che cos' un ecovillaggio, in http://www.mappaecovillaggi.it/detail_asp
15 Craig Owens, The discourse of others: feminists and postmodernism, in H. Foster (ed.), The anti-aesthetic: essays
on postmodern culture, Bay Press, Port Townsend, Wash., 1983, p. 67.

construction of identity.
The Global Ecovillage Network developed a tool entitled Community Sustainability Assessment
(CSA) enabling every ecocompatible community to assess its degree of sustainability in each
aspect of life and also overall. According to CSA, the sustainability of a community is comparable
to the top of a three-legged stool where the three legs need to be solid and well-balanced. These
three aspects, which are equally important, make up the ecological, social and spiritual reality (not
the purpose or the intention) of the eco-sustainable intentional community.

Aspects constituting the sustainability of

an ecovillage according to the
Community Sustainability Assessment.

The Ecological section attempts to create a mainly quantitative awareness, (knowledge, according to
the Norm Model illustrated in the second chapter), without detailed calculation and quantification,
regarding a sense of place; the availability, production and distribution of food, the physical
infrastructures, the buildings, the transport methods, the consumption models and the management
of solid rubbish, the provisioning, the quality and modalities of water use, the management of
sewage, the energy sources and what the energy is used for. The ecological aspects of a
communitarian life are seen to be in equilibrium when the inhabitants feel profoundly connected to
the place in which they live and its limits, its strengths, its weaknesses and its rhythms are clearly
perceived. According to a lifestyle which contributes to the health of the environment, organic food
is obtained mainly locally or bioregionally16; the buildings are constructed with ecological and local
materials and methods and fit well into the surrounding environment; the production of rubbish is
minimized; part of the solid and liquid waste is reused; renewable, non-toxic energy resources are
used; innovative technologies where appropriate are used for the good of the community.
Aspects pertinent to social sustainability are: openness, the cultivation of trust in others, safe and
appropriate social spaces; the quality and quantity of communication, the exchange of ideas and
16 According to the bioregional approach, human life on earth should be lived in harmony with the natural
characteristics of the bioregion in question. A bioregion is taken to mean a specific place with all those
characteristics which create its equilibrium in the living context of Gaia.

information; the quality of the network of services; education; care and health and a healthy local
economy. Social equilibrium in community life exists when there is a perceived sense of stability
and also of dynamism, when trust and confidence enable individuals to express themselves freely in
the various circumstances of everyday life. It is seen as important that the social spaces enable and
encourage communication, relationships and productivity; adequate techniques and communication
technologies facilitate contacts both inside and outside the group; talents, abilities and knowledge
are freely shared within the community and offered to the outside for the general well-being;
diversity should be honoured as a source of health, vitality and creativity both in the natural
environment and in interpersonal relationships17; acceptance, inclusion and openness allow the
positive effects of diversity to be appreciated, enriching the environment and the social experience
of fairer attitudes; personal development, learning and creativity should be valued and upheld in a
context in which the opportunity to learn and teach are made available to every age group in a range
of educational opportunities; options for renewing, maintaining and improving physical, mental,
emotional and spiritual health must be available and accessible, including natural remedies and
alternative methods (as, for example, meditation, yoga...); the flow of resources, of goods and
services entering and exiting must be balanced, according to the wishes and needs of the
community, and any possible surplus shared.
Finally, spirituality in a sustainable community includes areas like artistic development and free
time, the ideals which bind people together, the resilience of the group, a holistic view of the world,
the building of a global awareness for a peaceful future. In a framework in which the spiritual
aspects are of great concern and highly valued, artistic and cultural activities and celebrations
constantly renew the living cultural orientation because they are expressions of the unity and
interrelatedness of the universe; moments of idleness (the latin otium) are valued; the various
different manifestations of spirituality are respected and upheld; possibilities of inner development
are made available; membership, unity and integrity are celebrated along with the cultural beliefs,
values and practices which define and express the unique nature of each community life; a certain
flexibility and capacity to respond to possible difficulties is needed; the more or less developed,
urban, suburban or rural community shows a growing understanding of the interconnection and
interdependence of all the elements which constitute life on earth, so as to see its own place in
relation to the whole; the community consciously chooses to contribute to the creation of a world
where peace, love and sustainability are realities which can really be experienced.
In each dimension for evaluation, ecological, cultural or spiritual, a score system indicates excellent
progress toward sustainability, or a good start toward sustainability, or (that) actions are needed to
reach sustainability. This tool, absolutely personal or applicable to a group, is significant in the reevaluation of one's own life in an eco-compatible intentional community, suggesting possible
improvements and feasible directions. In the document, it is stated that communities which actively
plan and live sustainably should achieve a high score. However - we must remember the important
idea of perfectibility already presented in the first chapter - there is always space for improving
oneself from a high score to a perfect one.18
17 The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO, 2001) further elaborates the concept of sustainable
development by stating that "[] cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature;
cultural diversity becomes one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but
also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence".
18 AAVV., Community Sustainability Assessment (CSA), developed by Global Ecovillage Network, p. 3

Elements of eco-compatible life according to the model presented in the courses of

Gaia Education.

(www.gaia.org)

4.3. Crisis is opportunity

We can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when we
created them
- Albert Einstein -19
The most remarkable feature of this historical moment on Earth is not that we are
on the way to destroying the world weve actually been on the way for quite a
while. It is that we are beginning to wake up, as from a millennia-long sleep, to a
whole new relationship to our world, to ourselves and each other.
- Joanna Macy, Positive Energy Conference, Findhorn, Scotland, 21st- 28th
march 2008

Findhorn (www.findhorn.org) is the most ancient ecovillage, founded in 1962 when three young
people parked their caravan on the sand dunes of the Scottish bay close to Forres. Seeking a
dialogue with nature, they gradually transformed the sand dunes into fertile agricultural land.
They now grow food according to principles of organic agriculture and permaculture. Today about
400 people live at Findhorn and a further 600 live close by, identifying with the ideals and values of
the community. In the course of each year, Findhorn is visited by about 4000 people who stay for
brief periods (a few days) or longer (the course on life in the ecovillage lasts one year so as to cover
the four seasons). A resident of Findhorn has an ecological footprint which is about half that of the
average British citizen.20
In March 2008, the ecovillage hosted the conference entitled Positive energy: creative community
response to peak oil and climate change at which I was present. Lasting about a week and
gathering about 220 people from all over the globe, people at this conference engaged, at different
levels, in what was defined as the great turning towards a post-oil life. The end of the time in which
cheap energy is abundant and available, a change mostly due to the exhaustion of fossil fuels, was
greeted positively by the general feeling of the meeting as an opportunity to experiment with a
complete re-invention and re-thinking of how we relate.
The beginning of the 1960s seems to have been a time in which there was the highest quantity of
goods circulating and the moment when the new Western consumer lifestyle brought the highest
degree of happiness to the new, post-war baby boom generation. After this time, a progressive
build-up of debt up did not generate any added value in the form of psychological and physical
well-being. According to Robert Putnam, in industrial societies, the social capital (taken to mean
the group of social networks and reciprocal norms which uphold them) has been an increasingly
scarce resource since the 1960s. Since 1985, the average American has lost one friendship, going
from having three to having two people in whom he confides.21 At present, one quarter of the
19 Quotation taken from e-mails sent to the networks mailing list by the president of GEN.
20 Stephen Tinsley and Heather George, Ecological footprint of the Findhorn Foundation and community, Forres,
U.K., Sustainable Development Research Centre, August 2006. In the context of a downscaled lifestyle, the
numerous air journeys have a high impact.
21 Robert David Putnam, Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community, Simon & Schuster, New
York, 2000. In Putnams opinion, the United States are experiencing an unprecedented collapse on matters
pertaining to civil, political, social and associative life, with negative and severe consequences. Putnams views
have been criticized, especially by the French (naturalised American) sociologist Claude Serge Fischer.

American population does not have a friend in whom to confide. The strength of the social capital
seems to generate valuable dividends: psychological research demonstrates that the breadth and
depth of a persons social connections is the single best indicator of happiness. Conversely, social
isolation seems to have direct repercussions also on physical health.22 According to Putman, the
presence of social capital is important for the development of children, who are better off in
contexts where informal friendship and solidarity networks are more developed:
States which have high social capital scores - that is, those states in which the residents
trust others, come together in organizations, do volunteer work, vote and socialize with
friends - are the states in which children are better off; babies are born in good health
and adolescent girls don't become mothers, children tend to not give up school, not get
involved in violent crime or to die prematurely due to homicide or suicide. Statistically,
the correlation between a high social capital and the positive development of a child, is
so close to perfection that it appears abnormal in the context of data of this type.
- Robert Putnam, op. cit., pp. 357-358 -

Significantly, in contexts with a highly informal social capital, (that is when people interact mostly
in an informal manner, eg. playing cards, going to see friends, etc.), children spend less time in
front of a television, attending schools (elementary, primary and secondary) with a better
educational record. According to Putnam, if state examinations and school dropout rates are taken
into account, social capital offers a better explanation than race, poverty and adult education
levels.23
The early post-war generation is one which largely saw their own well-being, that of their families
and general well-being in terms of constant economic growth. Beginning in the 1960s, and
especially since the 1972 when the Meadows Report, The Limits of Growth, was published,
predicting, on the basis of a computer simulation, that the ball will soon be over, there has been
ever increasing criticism of this attitude and dissent from various sources.
A study carried out in 2005 for the United States Department of Energy, says, in the executive
summary:
The peaking of world oil production presents the world with an unprecedented risk
management problem. As peaking is approached, liquid fuel prices and price volatility
will increase dramatically and without timely mitigation, the economic, social and
political costs will be unprecedented. This will be a bigger problem than either the
Great Depression or WWII.

Richard Heinberg, during the Positive Energy conference presented a paper, significantly called
Peaking everything. Waking up to a century of declines, notes ironically that in these few lines, the
term unprecedented recurs twice: a fact, in itself, unprecedented in a governmental executive
summary! Heinberg, one of the greatest communicators and educators on the subject of energy
22 Robert Putnam in Erik Assadourian, Engaging communities for a sustainable world, in Christopher Flavin, State
of the World. Innovations for a sustainable economy, The Worldwatch Institute, Washington D.C., 2008, p. 154155.
23 Cf. Robert Putnam, op. cit., pp. 357-369.

crisis and peak oil, and a senior fellow at the Post Carbon Institute of Sebastopol in California,
specifies (as most people are already aware to a certain extent), that while in recent human history
the Earths population has increased exponentially, following a trend of about 80 million
individuals per year, the gradual erosion of the soil reduces arable land by 24 billion tonnes per
year. On the other hand, the consumption of energy per capita in the technological society appears
to be nine times that used in advanced agricultural societies and three times greater than that which
supplied industrial society. According to David Cohen, Some key resources will be exhausted
more quickly if predicted new technologies appear and the population grows.24 As well as carbon,
oil and natural gas, also antimony, silver, hafnium, tantalum, indium, uranium, platinum and zinc
are all predicted to run out in an estimated time of between five and forty years. The wide ranging
scientific experiment carried out by the Western world at the expense of the Earth's atmosphere,
appears in Heinbergs opinion, to have upheld a fool's paradise. Over the lifetime of a generation
(the boomers), about half of the most important non-renewable world resources were used up, for
good. The use of combustible fossil fuels is the central cause of severe and unprecedented events:
acid rain which devastates forests, water pollution by fertilizers and petro-chemicals, greenhouse
gasses which are co-responsible for climate change, nitrogen oxides and particulate which
compromise the purity of the air, hormonal substitutes derived from petrochemicals which injure
the reproduction of life, oil industries which dominate governments and geo-political competition
for the limited resources. Today, the challenge brought about by the Earth's climate change makes it
necessary to substitute fossil fuels used as a primary energy reserve (they generate 93% of the entire
energy production) with sources of different a nature. Moreover, the exhaustion of oil, coal and
natural gas make it clear that transition is really necessary. The question lies in how it is to be done.
It will be necessary to further the development of renewable energy sources like wind, water, sun,
sea waves, biomass and geothermal, but without expecting these to fully substitute the performance
of combustible fossil fuels. The world awaiting us is certainly different to the one we have known.
According to Heinberg there is no hope for a soft landing, business as usual, perpetual growth,
more of the same, normal life as we have come to know it. But, he asks himself rhetorically,
once again interpreting the feeling of the meeting and the general orientation of the ecovillages:
isn't this good news? 25
The news may be good if in place of a devastating collapse, hallmark of previously flourishing
civilizations of the past26, we are capable of handling and controlling the inevitable contraction.
What are the possible scenarios?
24 David Cohen, Earth natural wealth. An audit, New Scientist, May 26 2007.
25 Richard Heinberg is the author of various works on ecology and the end of oil reserves. Amongst these: The party's
over: oil, war and the fate of industrial societies (2003); Powerdown: options and actions for a post-carbon world
(2007); The oil depletion protocol: a plan to avert oil wars, terrorism and economic collapse (2006) e Peaking
everything: waking up to a century of declines (2007).
26 Cf. Joseph A. Tainter, The collapse of complex societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988; Jared
Diamond, Collapse. How societies choose to fail or survive, Allen Lane, London, 2005 e J. Donald Hughes, An
environmental history of the world. Humankind's changing role in the community of life, Routledge, London, 2001.
Tainter examines the collapse of the Maya, of the Chaco culture and of the Roman Empire: according to his thesis,
this occurs when investments in the social complexity produce marginal, declining profits. Moving away from this
idea, Diamond and Hughes focus their attention on the incapacity to manage the environment which they see as the
main cause of the sudden fall of advanced and complex societies.

Certainly less energy will be available, energy which allowed human technological success,
communication and commercial globalization to occur.
Inevitably more work and commitment will need to be dedicated to horticulture.27 There will have
to be a general revisiting of infrastructures and living arrangements. The whole of society will need
reorganizing. What defines us and characterizes us is the way in which the change will be managed.
Certainly the best option for civil society is to play an active role in the necessary change, managing
it rather than being piloted and driven by top-down style mechanisms.
Donald Hughes writes:
"On one hand, the course of human thought and action in the past seems to provide
little hope that the interests of our species and life everywhere on earth will prevail over
narrow, short-term considerations. On the other hand, the growth in scientific
knowledge, the existence of subtle technology, the availability of a body of ethical
considerations, and the certainty of threats to human survival unless controls are placed
on destructive activities and population increase, have produced a situation unique in
human history. There is a reasonable opportunity for an effective response to that
situation, but it will require the most creative efforts of which humankind is capable."
- Donald J. Hughes, An environmental history of the world. Humankind's changing role
in the community of life, Routledge, London, 2001, p. 240 -

To give back some status to the emotional dimension and give space to creativity, in the profound
awareness that our community in the deepest sense is the community of life28, would seem to be
important steps in avoiding the onset of centralized, authoritarian and military forms of government
- the worst possible scenario. According to the cognitive orientation one wishes to build, the great
turning needs an orienting paradigm29 which differs from the one on which the premise is based,
emphasizing what is not at peak, that is: the sense of community, the satisfaction which comes from
an honest job well done, intergenerational solidarity, cooperation, availability of free time,
happiness, ingenuity, artistic quality, beauty of the manmade environment, etc. The tangible state of
the present-day crisis in various areas of life on Earth gives humankind the chance to start working
towards a desirable outcome rather than suffering a condition of mere survival. The scale of the
necessary change (the orientation of which is surely shared by ecovillages and other concerned
people), makes many people talk of a third revolution involving humans: whereas the first, the
agricultural and Neolithic revolution (which occurred about 10,000 years ago), and the second, the
industrial revolution, both took place gradually amongst a population which was largely unaware of
what was happening, the third revolution should be the result of a conscious operation, a mutation
of human awareness involving a certain critical mass. To do this, and thus to work at all levels of
27 Horticulture, rather than agriculture, would be relevant to societies characterized by a lager decentralization of
economic activity and of life in general.
28 Donald J. Hughes, op. cit., p. 240.
29 In the 1960s the book The structure of scientific revolution by Thomas Kuhn leads people to reflect on the fact that
scientific paradigms are created in, and act on, the minds of the scientific community. Kuhn defines a paradigm as
a group of theories, concepts, values, techniques, tools shared by a scientific community and used by that same
community to define legitimate problems and their respective solutions. Persuasive force and the scientific
communitys context are seen to determine the establishment of one paradigm rather than another, whilst a scientific
revolution would be determined by changing the dominant paradigm. Cf. id.,The structure of scientific revolutions,
Chicago Universit Press, Chicago, 1962.

sustainability creating community resilience, it will be useful, as Heinberg said, to draw on the
skills of alternative movements. The activist goes on to say that if we succeed, we really will be
able to consider ourselves an intelligent species.

4.4. Desire for recognition

Although the activism of social movements has not produced a general transformation of society, it
has however contributed to important legislative victories, both social and civil; their existence is
often seen, with good reason, as an indicator of a healthy and positive development in society.30
Like the 19th century intentional communities, the contemporary communities constitute [an]
attempt [] to engage the entirety of human social existence.31 According to Robert C. Schehr, it
is
this struggle to re-articulate the meaning of norms, values, and beliefs, a struggle
taking place at the level of the lifeworld, that distinguish NSMs [new social
movements] from previous social movements, and in particular Ics [intentional
communities] as a NSM. NSMs have strategically refrained from totalizing
revolutionary strategy to focus on the foundations, to penetrate the roots of domination
in postindustrial society, to strive [...] to take possession of representation opportunities,
to impose the codes of relation with the world (with social life, with nature, with ones
own body).
- Robert C. Schehr, op. cit., p. 155 -

Nowadays, intentional communities symbolically represent what may be the most organic and
inclusive affront to the mainstream efforts towards a greater and greater rationalization of life. It
is not too much to say that they are a real possibility for a change in the system.
Communities represent the most ancient form of union between human beings. Moreover, from the
Pythagorean Homakoeion of the sixth century BC to the vocational mothers of Nomadelfia and
the dolcinian community in 1300, the history of intentional communities in Italy appears long and
varied. These may today represent advanced laboratories of ecological experimentation, however,
there are no legal instruments in Italy which recognise their identity, specificity or which enable
them to express their potentials.
During the Italian post-war period, the premature and sudden death of Adriano Olivetti (February
1960) was a harsh blow for the Movimento Comunit (Community Movement) which he had
founded in 1948. Olivetti, an intellectual entrepreneur, envisioned industrial development and the
affirmation of human rights in the context of a participative democracy, both inside and outside the
factories. The natural concrete communities, that is, culturally homogenous territorial areas which
were economically independent would constitute the basis for a federal form of the state.
30 Peter Gundelach, New social movements in the nordic countries, in Thomas P. Boje & Olsson Sven E. Hort (eds.)
Scandinavia in a new Europe, Universitetsforlaget, AS, Oslo, 1993, p. 339, p. 359.
31 Robert C. Schehr, op. cit., p. 44.

In 1980, the Federation of Damanhur Communities, which developed right in the area where
Olivettis dreams were born and which already had five years of experience, initiated a discussion
regarding a possible form of legal recognition for Italian intentional communities. The subject is
launched at various national meetings organized at Damanhur, involving representatives of
communities, as well as spiritual and religious movements (not only Italian) which adopted a
communitarian style of living. No document is produced on the subject and nothing comes of the
effort.
From the end of the 1990s, the subject is addressed once again, also because in the meantime it has
become one of the goals of the new association Co.N.A.C.R.E.I.S. (Coordinamento Nazionale delle
Associazioni e delle Comunit di Ricerca Etica, Interiore e Spirituale) which has been included in
the register of national associations for social promotion since 2001.32 Religions and openly
declared religious movements are deliberately excluded, as a means of distinguishing that sector
from communitarian and associative environments which follow their own spiritual, philosophical
or ethical paths (Coboldo Melo).33
At the ninth ICSA (International Communal Studies Association) conference, hosted at Damanhur
in Spring 2007, the representatives of the Italian ecovillages sign a document which testifies to their
desire to obtain a law which confers legal status on intentional communities.
From that time on, a discussion on the subject takes place and the work concludes with a final
32 According to the President of Conacreis, Elfo Frassino (a Damanhurian name), the establishment of the
Coordination was heavily criticized by certain politicians mainly belonging to the Catholic area, by members of the
Vatican and more generally by the ecclesiastical world. They were worried about the possible establishment of
disreputable, sectarian groups and expressions of a New Age culture which they deprecate (Coboldo Melo a
Damanhurian name vice president of the Co.N.A.C.R.E.I.S.). The same pulpit appears to be against any law in
favour of intentional communities. In 1999, the then Minister of Social Solidarity Livia Turco had launched a
parliamentary survey of the matter. In the major Italian newspawpers, see Dilaga la new age: il ministro vuol
conoscere il fenomeno, Il Tempo, 8th January 1999; New Age a palazzo. Non servono spinte alla scomposizione,
Avvenire, 30th January 1999; New Age alla conquista del palazzo. Il ministro Turco possibilista: una realt
interessante da valorizzare, Avvenire, 28th January 1999; Il ministro Turco: Una legge per la New Age, La
Stampa, 28th January 1999; La Turco: indagine sulla New Age, La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno, 28th January 1999;
Il ministro Turco indagher sulle comunit New Age, Il Giorno, 28 January 1999; Strane attrazioni. La Turco fa
l'occhiolino alla New Age, Avvenire, 29th January 1999; New Age. Indagine conoscitiva del governo, Il
Manifesto, 28th January 1999; New Age, un caso nel governo, Corriere Della Sera, 29th January 1999; Quale
New Age, signora Turco, 2nd February 1999; Il governo studia la new age. Turco: fenomeno da comprendere,
Corriere della Sera, 15th January 1999.
According to the study by Paul Ray and Sherry Anderson, about 35% of Italians would take part in or agrees with
the principles of various associations involved in spiritual and ethical research. Cf. Paul H. Ray, Sherry Ruth
Anderson, Cultural creatives: how 50 million people are changing the world, Three Rivers, New York, 2000.
33 Paul Heelas talks of self-spirituality as the fundamental characteristic, distinctive of the more recent forms of the
New Age. According to Heelas, The great refrain running throughout the New Age, is that we malfunction because
we have been indoctrinated or, in the New Age sense of the term, been brainwashed - by mainstream society and
culture. The mores of the established order its materialism, competitiveness, together with the importance it
attaches to playing roles are held to disrupt what it is to be authentically human. - Heelas Paul, The new age
movement, Blackwell Publisher Ldt., Oxford, 1996, p. 18.
Paul Heelas and Linda Woodhead see, as interestingly relevant, the fact that "the great historical bond between
western cultures and a Christianity whose characteristic mode is to make appeal to transcendent authority is rapidly
dissolving, and that in its place we are seeing the growth of a less regulated situation in which the sacred is
experienced in intimate relationship with subjective lives. - Paul Heelas and Linda Woodhead, The spiritual
revolution. Why religion is giving way to spirituality, Blackwell publishing, Malden, MA, USA, 2005, p. 10.

drafting of a proposal in autumn 2008.

4.5. Contents of the proposal, Autumn 2008

Currently the various forms of Italian intentional community adopt various different forms of
appropriate legal status. Usually the association or cooperative is chosen as their legal status. The
associative form cannot represent human cohabitation, is frowned upon by credit institutes and does
not allow for forms of work other than volunteer work (often work in a community is full-time).
The cooperative form is inappropriate for managing projects which are not economic, and do not
allow for forms of work other than waged, subordinate employment. The cooperative, for example,
does not allow for work derived from free community activity. On the other hand, a business firm, a
profit oriented organization, is inappropriate considering the mutual nature of community
relationships and cannot deal with the internal regulation and reward mechanisms. In a firm, the
costs applied to work are intended for activities productive of individual wealth and cannot take
account of important communitarian goals like collective development. The foundation (a social
form linked to property) appears too inflexible an instrument and practically impossible to apply to
communities. Many communities, in fact, start out without any property.
Intentional communities today appear very close to the 19th century rural family households but of
course differ from a model based on a heterosexual marriage. Macaco Tamerice (a Damanhurian
name) says that:
[...] a community has different needs from those of a family or company, or even an
association and we have realized that all communities are facing similar problems. Among the
most frequent are difficulties with regard to property ownership, work, urban planning and
access to financing for public projects. [...]
The State undoubtedly enjoys advantages from the existence of communities, for example: the
reclamation of abandoned areas, the care of the land, the reduction of environmental impact, the
application of renewable energies, the use of environmentally safe cultivation techniques,
volunteer services, help for the disadvantaged and the elderly, a reduction in health costs as a
consequence of a more natural lifestyle and the use of holistic medicine etc. []

For those leading a similar lifestyle and upholding the founding principles of ecovillages, the
important points on which the desire for legal status is based are:

to be recognized by national and local authorities and public opinion as adult,

responsible34 people even though they still live in communities;35

for various innovations in the ecological, social, political and economic spheres, etc. to be
recognized innovations which are the result of a long commitment to research;
that the positive effects for the whole of society resulting from the concrete presence of
centres which conduct research and are inclined towards environmental, cultural and
economic sustainability, be recognized;
once an understanding and an appreciation of the richness produced by the work of ecosustainable intentional communities has been reached, the next step would be to obtain
tangible recognition from the state, in the form of real interaction and tax relief, with the
goal of expanding community efficacy.

The problems which Italian intentional communities find recurring most are those connected with
the ownership of real estate, the organization of work and solutions to the problems of building
planning which meet the groups needs, different as they are to those of a traditional family.
Intentional communities fill the conceptual gap which exists between state and territory.
These are the main areas of interest, the cognitive interpretation of the specific interactions of
which, would make the experience of (eco-sustainable) intentional communities worthy of
legislative attention:
Birth36
Natural home birth with specialized midwives; agreements with hospitals. Public funding to cover
the expenses of home birth.
Objective and advantages for the State: encourage natural, home birth, saving money for public
health institutions.
Education
Officially recognized private schools, managed by the Communities in accordance with the local
Educational Authorities. Tax reductions to reduce expenses, agreements with local school
authorities for sitting examinations.
Objective and advantages for the State: officially recognized private schools, lower cost of
education for these private facilities, cost reduction for public school. Improve the quality of the
students skills.
34 In an interview with Nino - just over 60 years old, co-founder in the late 1970s of the commune of Bagnaia and once
a son of Nomadelfia- he complains that if he needed a bank loan or was dealing with the authorities, he would like
to be regarded, as would his fellow communards, as an adult person even though I still live in a community. It
seems that, in the collective imagination, to live in a community denotes an obstinate refusal to grow up and take
on responsibility and a desire to isolate oneself from real life.
According to William Metcalf, Researchers, however, too often addresses the survival of intentional communities
as if they were still filled with exuberant, long haired, youthful hippies, rather than by seasoned communards William Metcalf, The wisdom of the elders. Communal conflict and conflict resolution, in Hildur Jackson (ed.),
Creating harmony. Conflict resolution in community, Gaia Trust, Holte, Denmark, 2002.
35 Often in public opinion and amongst the representatives of the national and local authorities, there is a tendency to
see things through an evolutionary framework, according to which life in a community is about long haired,
somewhat rebellious young people. In this view, once these people grow into adults, they will abandon this
romantic, irrational and abnormal life style and fit back into the normal framework. The successful individual fits
into the mainstream and embraces the dominant model: this is seen as a sign of having reached maturity
36 The points were taken from the work schedule written by the representatives of the Italian ecovillages.

 Environment
Building: grants and tax reductions for the use of ecocompatible materials and the production of
alternative energies. Interventions in defence of the territory through participation in local (regional)
volunteering activities: civil protection, extinguishing of forest fires, etc.
Objective and advantages for the State: presence and intervention safeguarding territory and
citizens; the State saves money as a consequence of a well-maintained territory.
Culture and art
Grants and tax reductions for programs and institutions which promote research and artistic and
cultural production.
Objective and advantages for the State: promote and decentralize (away from the big cities) artistic
activity, getting the population involved.
Town planning
Living and work settlements defined as special areas: this town planning tool in Italy includes
specific building standards which meet the needs of communal groups. The special areas must be
included in the local Councils General Regulating Plan found in the Regional town planning laws
(Italian town planning laws).
Work
Recovery of art and traditional craftsmanship
Grants for activities and workshops which organize courses and apprenticeship periods, lasting at
least two years, for artwork and traditional craftsmanship.
Donations for cultural, artistic and socially useful activities: companies which are part of the
Community can assign part of their profit to the financing of cultural, artistic and socially useful
activities, both in the Communities themselves or in other places: financing deductible from the
balance sheet and tax free.
Donations to companies: companies may receive donations for manufacturing and research for new
products. The funding received from the Community/Ecovillage or its members for
experimentation, research and creation of new jobs are indicated in the balance sheets and are tax
free.
Telework: companies may stipulate agreements with third parties to carry out work at home,
without taxation.
Volunteer work: companies use volunteer work from members of the Community/Ecovillage.
Work which is irregular, tax free and free from pension scheme obligations.
Economy
Donations and self taxation: communities may manage donations and voluntary contributions made
by members of the Community/Ecovillage and by third parties for internal activities.
Management of savings: simplified procedures for the creation of savings cooperatives which
manage the savings of single citizens and of the Community/Ecovillage
Management of real estate: real estate Community cooperatives for the management of the real
estate belonging to the Community/Ecovillage without taxation for the sale of property.

Community and Old PeoplesCare

Management of facilities to care for and cure the elderly of the Community/Ecovillage and their
family members, officially recognized as lodging communities.
Home help for the elderly of the area who require short-term care.
Advantages for the State: specialized personnel activity, facilities back up hospitals, nursing homes,
rest homes with relative saving of costs.

Advantages for the Communities/Ecovillages:

- chance to enrol in courses for professional qualifications for home carers.
- home carer qualifications for specialized people in the Community/Ecovillage;
- the work groups have the right to stipulate conventions with local healthcare authorities for home
care activities aimed at the elderly, deducting the expenses of their activities from tax returns;
- conventions with companies supplying health care materials;
- permits for community lodging activities, with tax reduction;
- access to public grants for this type of activity and for the home care of elderly people, for
mortgages with tax relief and unsecured mortgages to start and/or restore facilities and to purchase
machinery and tools for this work;
Places to meet and meditate
Out of respect for the spiritual search, in all the accepted meanings of spirituality, the
Communities/Ecovillages may build places intended for meditation, that is, works of primary
urbanization with relevant tax relief on the building costs.
These places are protected in every respect from requisition, occupation, expropriation or
demolition by authorities: these places should also be protected against intervention by officers of
public law and order.
The same benefits which recognized religious bodies enjoy are extended to these community places
of meeting and meditation. Local authorities should recognize of the needs of those who practice
their own form of worship, also in the case of the construction of new buildings required for this
purpose.
Tax exemption is provided for buildings or works which are actually intended for spiritual
practices.
Funerary practices: the communities may assign specific spaces, under the care of chosen persons,
in which cinerary urns may be kept.
Advantages for the Communities: they use their own place of worship without having to face vast
building expenses; to be able to carry out a burial respecting their own spiritual customs.
Advantages for the State: a clear frame into which this category of buildings fit, without any type of
speculation; respect for the ethical values regarding spiritual freedom.
Natural lifestyles
The use of alternative medicines, of disciplines aimed at wellbeing, of meditation techniques
together with a lifestyle in contact with nature, contribute to a reduced need for public health care to
the advantage of social expenditure. It is necessary to make good use of this characteristic of
communities by promoting the use and teaching of holistic disciplines and the use of meditation
techniques within them.
Advantages for the Community: that of also becoming places to meet and study.
Advantages for the State: a reduction of the public healthcare expenditure and a reduction produced
by meditation of conflicts and of petty crime.
The legal form pertinent to the new socio-economic model and system of values would specify
property as undivided and attributable to a collective, linked to the communitarian project and not to
the single individual, with the individuals earnings and profits directed towards the goals of the
community; a form of work standing midway between profit and no profit, in which the profits
from remunerative activities are reinvested in the collective project, partly deviating from the laws

which are meant to protect workers from their employers, but which do not contemplate the
solidarity prevailing in intentional communities; appropriate planning for the social dimension of
communities; the rights and duties amongst members of the same community, (such as mutuality
and solidarity) should be recognized as equivalent to those between family members, as regulated
by the Civil Code, also as regards health care. Intentional communities should be made up of a
minimum number of, X(10, 20?) members - including minors - at the moment of the official
founding and attempt a minimum life of, X (3, 5?) years. A register of intentional communities
would keep account of the number and specificities of these projects.
For whatever is not expressly mentioned in the bill of the proposed law for the recognition of legal
status for communities, refer to the regulations on the subject of associations for social promotion,
law 383/2000.
In the appendix, the final version of the bill, as of autumn 2008, may be found.

4.6. The situation in Spring 2010

When the Green Party politicians of the 15th Italian legislature (28th April 2006 6th February 2008)
were no longer in power, the cause was taken up by the Italian Radical Party which has been
present in the Parliament since 29th April 2008, following a coalition with the Democratic Party. In
May 2008 the CONACREIS representatives were invited to take part in the convention on Civil
love which was held in Rome and was organized by the Luca Coscioni Association, the Italian
radio station Radio Radicale, and by the radical Association Certi Diritti. The theme of the
congress was a discussion on the reform of family law. From June to December 2008, work groups
for a permanent conference for a global reform of family law are in place, to which
representatives of the CONACREIS are invited for the specific issue of intentional communities.
The points being examined with a view to the drafting of a bill are:
- Forms of family and their safeguard
Recognition of civil unions, of families other than the nuclear family, of intentional communities, of
cohousing, the equal recognition of children born inside and outside marriage.
- Separation, divorce and family mediation
Marriage conventions, property systems within marriage, prenuptial agreements, fast divorce, rules
on caring for under-age children in case of separation and divorce, legal power and parent
responsibility, rights and duties in the relationships between parents and children, reform of postmarriage solidarity, introduction of family mediation.
- Assisted reproduction, abortion
Overcoming law 4037, constitutional right to health and rights of the newborn, definition of a person
37 Law number 40 of 19th February 2004 contains Rules on medically assisted reproduction. It is the focus of
considerable discussion because it poses considerable limits on assisted fertilization and on clinical and
experimental research on embryos.

according to the present law.

- Domestic violence, violence to women, gender discrimination
Equality of individuals within families, amendment of the law 154/2001 38, homophobia, codifying
of family offences and offences against persons, family mobbing
- Filiation and adoption
Reform of obstacles and amount of time necessary for adoptions, single parent adoptions,
abrogation of 2nd class adoptions
- Succession
Reform of the institution of the childs portion, reform of wills
These new civil rights are the subject of the publication Amore civile. Dal diritto della tradizione al
diritto della ragione39.
The paragraph on intentional communities contained in the wider bill for the reform of family law
may be found in the appendix.

4.7. From social norm to law?

Jean Carbonnier, in a nice page on non-law warns that Non-law cannot exist - a non cannot exist without a certain degree of deprivation. According to the author, it is important to become aware
of all the possible advantages that legal recognition may hold and which make it worthwhile to
leave the pleasant little stronghold of non-law40: this is the attitude which appears to have emerged
amongst the representatives of the Italian intentional communities and ecovillages after about thirty
years of on-off discussions and confrontations. What will the outcome of the meeting with legality
be? Will the social norm, originating in and from the interaction of a particular form of dynamism
in civil society, remain as a shared norm, or will it change and become part of something legally
legitimate?

38 Law number 154/2001 contains Measures against violence in familial relationships.

39 De Filippis Bruno and Francesco Billotta (edited by), Amore civile. Dal diritto della tradizione al diritto della
ragione, Mimesis, Milano, 2009.
For a discussion on the deep and complex changes ocurring in the family, also see Valerio Pocar and Paola Ronfani,
La famiglia e il diritto, Laterza, Bari, 2008.
40 Carbonnier Jean, Flessibile diritto. per una sociologia del diritto senza rigore, Giuffr, Milano, 1997, pp. 46-50
(Flexibledroit:textespourunesociologiedudroitsansrigueur,Librairiegeneralededroitetdejurisprudence,
Paris,1969).

__________________Law
_______

_________________ Social,
economical,
political, etc. norms

______________________________________________________ Society
Conceptual representation devised in the department of sociology of law at the
University of Lund.

The sociologist Franco Ferrarotti, in an interview by Coboldo Melo (Rome, 28/02/08)41 says he is
sceptical about written, perfectionist constitutions in which everything has been foreseen and
resolved. He goes so far as to declare himself against constitutions. He expresses the following
feelings about the Italian Constitution:
[] the Italian Constitution, unfortunately, in the current state of affairs, represents
preceding experiences, which were those of the fascist centralization. It is a
Constitution which is severely behindhand compared to the needs of the world in which
we live.
It is a Constitution which foresees the separation of the three powers: executive, legal
and legislative. It is a Constitution which, rightly concerned over fascist centralization,
ended up setting one power against the other, causing a stagnation of the powers: we
have, in effect, a lack of executive power and a problem with taking responsibility for
decisions. The paralysis of the Italian society is not only due to this, but it is also due to
this.

Having a Prime Minister who cannot decide, a parliament which would be omnipotent but which
because of its very nature, does not make decisions and a judiciary which often has to make up
41 The video of the interview was presented at the conference Leggi scelte o subite: la magistratura si interroga.
Valori etici ed esperienze a confronto, held at Damanhur on the 8th marzo 2008. Amongst others, Bruno Tinti (an
assistant attorney at the Court of Turin and author of Toghe rotte. La giustizia raccontata da chi la fa, Chiarelettere,
Mlano, 2007 e La questione immorale, Chiarelettere, Milano, 2009), was present at the conference with the report
Strumenti di composizione sociale e sanzioni; tempestivit, afflittivit; also Marcello Maddalena, head attorney at
the Court of Turin, with the report Stato e comunit: spazi comuni e possibili conflittualit. The complete version
of the transcribed recording of the conference may be downloaded at the following web address:
http://www.conacreis.it/index.php/convegni-e-iniziative/leggi-scelte-o-subite-la-magistratura-si-interroga

for the shortcomings of the other two, we have a situation of almost complete paralysis,
detached from the institutional infrastructure and from the social base.
To avoid the falsehood or a kind of straight jacket which limits the propulsive and dynamic
capacity of life to act, a constitution ought to be changing flexible, [] open enough to listen and
try to understand societys demands.
Today, the demands of society not only cannot be resolved but I would say they
cannot even be heard by these three powers, which exclude one another, and
concentrate on speaking amongst themselves about their internal problems []. The
decisional capacity ought to belong to the executive, with a parliament capable of
controlling it and a judicial power ready to intervene. But, in reality, there is a kind of
reciprocal neutralization which implies, as an inevitable result, an almost total stasis, a
society which, although very lively, is blocked. This is my point of view: we have a
ruling class which does not rule, which aims at merely holding on and not at ruling
because it knows that each decision has an outcome, whether positive or negative,
which can be judged. It is a very shrewd ruling class: it knows that in order to last it
must not rule.
We have conducted a study on power (only in Rome, unfortunately, we had very little
money), and we discovered that the most oppressive and terrible power is that power
which refuses to exercise itself as such: it wants to have all the prerogatives, wants to
have control over all structural aspects, wants to have all the information but it does not
use it any of it to rule. We found an idea of power as a personal and private benefit,
something which in my opinion may only be overthrown by starting again from the
bottom of society.

Ferrarotti thinks real revolutions are those which are carried out under the Boston populations
historical motto: No taxation without representation, no representation without taxation devised at
the beginning of American revolution, according to which those citizens who pay taxes have the
right to institutional representation and to the management of the resources of the community.
In this specific case, that of intentional communities asking for a legal status to be granted:
In the current day situation, I believe that it is undoubtedly positive to try and
establish a dialogue, a two-way communication, which breaks the power which sees
citizens as a subordinate population. That seems very good to me. There is no doubt
that in view of the prevailing attitudes and the juridical structure, any incursion on the
function of the State, even if it were limited to a clearly circumscribed territory, would
be seen as unacceptable.42 [] The state only accepts anything on the basis of
exceptional situations, when a double imposition, both local and national exists. We are
locked in a perfect juridical-formal structure, it's the perfection of a crystal. The State
cannot give up any of its roles without causing a Constitutional crisis. So my answer
[regarding a possible proposal of a law which would recognise legal status to
intentional communities] is as follows: yes, with some reservations, yes, but without
42 Some of the aspects of the claims of intentional communities/ecovillages are the same as the demands for the so
called new rights which are the most recent compared to the conceptualization and conquest of civil, political and
social rights. Vincenzo Ferrari writes: [...] the civil rights movement has enabled people to impose the most
important limit on governments ever known in human history, and though not to vanquish, but at least to seriously
limit something which for centuries was seen as the stronghold of politics and international law, namely the
principle of sovereignty. - Vincenzo Ferrari, Lineamenti di sociologia del diritto, Edizioni Laterza, Bari, 2001, p.
317.

any illusions; a dialogue without expecting any miracles.

4.8. Towards another normative paradigm?

"In spite of the financial and economic crisis, ignorance, indifference,
frivolity and negligence will undoubtedly preserve the growth ideology
and we will run the risk soon of living through the tragic ecological and
social catastrophe which already began some decades ago.
Serge Latouche, Il tao della decrescita, in Aam Terranuova,
2009, n. 237 Society cannot be better than its idea of itself. Law cannot be better
than society's idea of itself. Given the central role of law in the selfordering of society, society cannot be better than its idea of law
- Philip Allot, Eunomia: new order in a new world, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 1990, p. 298, in Cormac Cullinan, Wild law. A manifesto
for earth justice, Green Books, Devon, UK, 2003, p. 61.

The normative vision underlying the contents of the proposal for the recognition of a legal status for
intentional communities, rests on different bases from those underlying a legal construction which
is based on fundamental contradictions, scientific objectivity and instrumental rationality.
Other languages define it as intimate relationship, interdependence, collaboration but also love,
trust, comprehension, inclusion and creativity, which are metaphors of interconnectedness. There
are two episodes which are significant in this regard. After a series of meetings which led to the
sharing of intentions regarding the form of legal recognition which would be most appropriate, the
representatives of the ecovillages, together with some legal experts, thought about the fact that
communal intentions need to be translated into legal language. There was a need for another
semantic context which was different from that of the acted norm experienced in the various
common life contexts. If the intention is to enable the inside lived and experienced realities to be
comprehensible to those outside, thus avoiding that efforts to date are fruitless, then a
transposition which reflects the legal character is seen as necessary. Similarly at Findhorn, during
the Positive energy conference, a man who was involved in the English-Dutch petrol company
Shell, who was present only for one of the days remarked in his speech how most of the things
said here must be translated [] I am sure that the things you say here are not understood outside.
Cormac Cullinan, introducing the vision of a possible Earth Jurisprudence, explains that if we want
to move beyond the concepts (based on Descartes, Bacon e Newton43) which have created a barrier
between humans and 'nature, another language must be found which differs from the one which
accompanied, upheld and justified the disrespectful raid on natural resources and the many wars
between powerful nations.44 A language must be found in which rationality does not exclude the
43 Cormac Cullinan, Justice for all. Human governance must be considered with universal laws, in Resurgence,
(September /October 2002, n. 214).
44 Cormac Cullinan, Wild law. A manifesto for earth justice, Green Books, Devon, UK, 2003; Gary Minda,
Postmodern legal movements: law and jurisprudence at century's end, New York University Press, London New

possibility of an intimate relationship with nature.

The dominant cultural system, of which law is an integral part and expression, is supposed to
uphold a situation in which the interests of a given human community are promoted without
guaranteeing protection of other species or of the planet itself.45 In the specific historical context in
which the human species is living, the dominant culture, and with it the most influential legal
procedures (of Western origins46) have arisen from a belief in the separation and independence of
the human being and nature, which our communards see as an illusion. And this is an illusion
which, though it has allowed the immense technological development which we see before us every
day, nourishes neither the human spirit or mind.47 In a spirit close to the principles of Deep
Ecology, the wellbeing of the individual and of the human community is the intimate result of a
general harmony and not merely the result of a disproportional and indiscriminate use of natural
resources and the speed which the new technologies can allow and the markets demand. A new
language, a new normative paradigm is also what is being sought after today by the various
resistance movements who believe that local thinking, subjectivism and attention to differences are
the foundations for a local level management.
Could the normative and legal debate demanded (also) by the movement of intentional communities
and ecovillages make a contribution in this direction? Would an effort to go beyond law as we
know it today, based as it is on the most ancient of social sciences (jurisprudence), on a method, a
mentality and a language which are basically medieval (if not older), be a Utopia?
Could a progressive move away from a professional and abstract idea be contemplated? An idea for
which the fundamental social tie is essentially a reciprocal recognition between legal persons48,
which is completely different from the idea that the universe [is] a communion of subjects and not
a collection of objects49. Has a language, which on ethical and epistemological grounds has proved
to be shaky (according to the post-modern approach, claiming nonetheless neutrality of methods
and results as well as claiming to hold the correct answer), justified domination and privilege?
According to Gary Minda, who quotes Frug, jurists and judges ought to simply abandon the
attempt to comprehend the world in terms of the subjective/objective dichotomy; they should,
instead, address the problems of human association in other ways. The subjective/objective
dichotomy as many other categories through which we experience the world, is a human creation
and not a manifestation of what the world really is. The juridical doctrines reflect and regulate
York, 1995.
45 On law as a political ideology, responding to a rational, private choice, see Gary Minda, op. cit..
46 Law is Western, says Luigi Alfieri. In his short essay he asks Do non-juridical normative systems exist? (in
Alberto Giasanti e Guido Maggioni (a cura di), I diritti nascosti. Approccio antropologico e prospettiva sociologica,
Raffaello Cortina Editore, 1995), recalling how Judaism and Islam have every right to be considered Western.
47 At the beginning of the 20th century, Oswald Spengler writes The decline of the West (Allen & Unwin., London,
1922), according to which the magnificent scientific progress was only an external glitter which hid a drastic and
relentless weakening of cultural and spiritual creativity. The tone of the text recieves criticism by Popper in that,
according to the author, it is distorted by the historical perspective (Karl Popper, La societ aperta e i suoi nemici,
Armando, Roma, 1977, p. 89 ; Die offene Gesellschaft und ihre Feinde, 1945).
48 Luigi Alfieri, op. cit..
49 Thomas Berry in Cormac Cullinan, op. cit., p. 108. The quote is taken from the front cover of the Danish magazine
LSNET, International climate edition Creating Oneness (n. 61-62, December 2009), the 10000 copies of which
were printed in concomitance with the ONU conference on climate change which was held in Copenhagen in early
December 2009.

social life, but are not, themselves, real or objective representations of the world.50 Social
phenomena are too complex to be merely explained on the basis of fundamental contradictions like
me and the others, the individual and the collective.
Aware of the fact that law does not define society but merely a modality of it51, why not think of the
law (today mostly a social construction of legal persons), not just as an objective and objectifying
autonomous activity but as an important meeting point in spite of the risk of changing its nature?
Law is not the only language to transform the Earth (and nature) into a human (and cultural) space
(and this is increasingly the case). Other ways are possible and a purely rational approach seems
seriously inadequate today.

Conclusions
Social phenomena are too complex and too ambiguous to be explained
on the basis of a fundamental contradiction.
- GaryMinda,op.cit.,p.201,paraphrasefromtheItaliantext

The construction of the norm in contemporary ecovillages, which in these experimental contexts
mostly presents itself as an acted norm, is the outcome of decades of human and social research; it
is also rooted in a distant past of organization of (and claim to) autonomy by civil society. The norm
under enactment, as it appears to the observer, must be considered an emerging phenomenon, a
social construction deriving from the interaction of multiple and different elements and from the
interconnections that constitute the intentional-community/ecovillage system. The subjects'
cognitive aspect and their will, together with the environmental conditions, constitute fundamental
elements. This Thesis has presented examples of auto-organization, i.e. normative construction.
They pertain to a particular ecovillage, the Valley of the Elves, and to three different domains of
human life. They are certainly not exhaustive, but they are nevertheless representative of a
modality, of a certain style that tends to reflect a paradigm different from the one in which
contemporary mass-media culture recognizes itself. These experiences show that chaos need not
be the alternative to "strong powers. Significantly, the new paradigm potentially embraces the
whole of human existence, according to an aesthetic that acknowledges and admits inevitable
contradictions. What emerges is the outcome of here and now, of the particular historical situation,
unique and irreversible.
If I have succeeded in bringing to light a snatch of that complexity with which I have come into
personal, physical and emotional contact, then what has been presented above has to be considered
a particular version of reality, that which my self and intellectual background have allowed me to
apprehend and illustrate.
A human civilisation that is born, develops and self-regulates by telling fairy tales (that are, bien
entendu, neither false nor nonsensical) [] is surely more plausible than a human civilisation which
50 Gary Minda, op. cit. p. 197-198.
51 Luigi Alfieri, idem.

originates from legal recognition, writes Luigi Alfieri.52

However future evolution may turn out, the social norm which is desired, sought, created and recreated by the people of the intentional communities and ecovillages will, if experienced in the
same spirit of openness which prevails at present, inevitably be characterized by the constant
reinvention which is building the new into culture, i.e. creative and empowering adaptation to the
social, political and ecological environment with which the communities confront and interact.
To bring anything into your life, imagine that it is already there, says Rob Hopkins, who came up
with the idea of the first Transition Town in Ireland in 2005. Only time will tell whether the product
of the decades-long search by intentional communities and ecovillages will be legally interpreted as
well Gary Minda says that the possibility of a great turning in the theory of law is []
evident.53 Sure enough, in a historical moment when legal authority itself is at issue, alongside the
assumptions of impartiality, equity, objectivity and neutrality, scholars of post-modernity have
hypothesized the existence of new and diverse connections between law, culture, knowledge,
politics and human identity.
Will the proposal by the Italian ecovillage movement emerge as a better normative and legal
interpretation, replacing the demand for the correct solution, and putting aside the modern
pretension for a universal constitutional foundation, in a situation that promises nothing less than
the subversion of the modernist conception of jurisprudence?54 According to intentional
communities and ecovillages' representatives, the time has come for disrespect towards others to
give way to humility and compassion; and for the legal arrogance that has allowed, sustained and
legitimized the assault on endless natural resources to recognize its defined and limited cultural
origin, and ask itself whether its way of doing things can still be relevant to the goal of a satisfying
and enriching human life. Humans, far from being a separate entity, cannot flourish if what
surrounds them perishes. Similarly, health and well-being are not directly proportional to the
exploitation of nature at the speed granted by the latest technological developments and market
demand.
Of necessity, our legal system is a frame defining our comprehension of reality and guiding its
future. If the new cosmology which is proposed by the ecovillage movement and sustained in ever
more parts of the world ever truly makes it to indenting the conservative substance of juridical
science (the most ancient among the social sciences), and thereby surpassing it, I believe we will
not only have the feeling of witnessing the end of a century and a millennium, but of crossing the
threshold of an entire epoch.

52 Luigi Alfieri, op. cit. p. 67 (my translation).

53 Gary Minda, op. cit., p. 340. My paraphrase from the Italian text.
54 Gary Minda, idem. My paraphrase from the Italian text.

A new cultural universe

is going to be born.
Picture
by
Hildur
Jackson,
Karen
Svensson and Suste
Bonnen.

Appendix I
Declaration of
Global Interdependence and Sustainable Settlements

All Life is one and intimately interrelated. We influence each other and are dependent on
each other all over the planet. We are one with nature, plant and animal systems. Every
single person is responsible for the wholeness and can influence it. This is a new spiritual
paradigm to replace a materialistic with great implications. It was formulated about 100
years ago by science in the west, but ages ago in the East by perennial philosophy. It is
now ready to become the foundation of a new global culture

Consciousness is primary and we are as such manifestations of global consciousness. Love

is the goal for all practical purposes

We all share the possibility of access to global consciousness and co-creation of it. Our
light may be dimmed from impressions from this and earlier lifetimes and may need
cleaning away of these old impressions and outdated thoughts for our light to shine and us
to get access to global consciousness.

The purpose of life on Earth is the continuation of 3 billion years of evolution. It is the
fundamental purpose behind all political, economic and social structures.

Humans can live aligned in support of this purpose and create societies and communities in
harmony with this purpose and with spiritual and natural laws. Global justice, listening to
nature and respecting her are fundamentals.

In doing so, settlements, villages and communities will be holographic reflections of the
whole as above so below. Humans have a free will to decide how we want to live with
each other and the natural world. We are not a collection of objects but a communion of

subjects
To create recognition of communities and a global community strategy (localisation/
transition towns/ climate towns) will be an important component in reducing human footprint and
keep the raise in global temperatures below the necessary 2%

Groups creating such communities will create settlements, which are sustainable
spiritually, ecologically, economically and socially. A new economic system, new laws and new
technologies will be invented and adapted to support this endeavour. Communities will be
accepted as a new and very old global lifestyle

Architecture, renewable energy, gardening, local food production, cradle to cradle

businesses, common facilities, social structure, local economy will be one integrated whole
planned together as "ecovillages" or sustainable design

"Ecovillages/ localisation are possible in all local communities all over the world. They
will happen once the materialistic worldview of a global market is abandoned voluntarily because
it cannot solve the problems or because we are forced by nature or other circumstances

An Ecovillage lifestyle is also a peace initiative as it will heal and regenerate nature and
species and stop regional wars or struggles over land, resources (oil) or power
July 2007, Jan 2010 Hildur Jackson

Recognition of
Communities as a Lifestyle and Strategy for Saving our Climate
At the ICSA (International Community Study Association) meeting in Damanhur in June 2007
several community networks were present and discussed the need to have communities recognised
as a lifestyle along with the traditional family lifestyle. Laws and financial systems have for
centuries been adapted to the nuclear family as the only way to organise life. All over the world
ecovillages, and communities have a need for new rules/laws and financing systems which are
supportive of communities and not prohibitive. We strongly believe that a global community
strategy of this kind will add substantially to prevent global warming and should be considered an
important strategy along with renewable energy, new technology and energy savings.

Appendix II
----
Disciplina delle Comunit intenzionali
Preambolo
La Repubblica riconosce il valore civile e la funzione di utilit sociale delle organizzazioni
comunitarie sociali disciplinate dalla presente legge.
Esse sono formazioni attraverso le quali oltre ad esprimersi la personalit dei cittadini si
contribuisce alla realizzazione dei valori di solidariet sociale, civile, economica e culturale, alla
tutela dellambiente ed al perseguimento di obiettivi di ricerca etica, interiore e spirituale.
La funzione sociale delle organizzazioni espressa altres dallo svolgimento di compiti ed attivit in
favore della collettivit con momenti di risparmio della spesa pubblica.
Art. 1. Definizione
Le comunit sono aggregazioni di persone fisiche le quali condividono intenzionalmente un
progetto di vita caratterizzato dalla ricerca etica e spirituale e fondato su forme di comunione dei
beni, collettivit delle decisioni, solidariet e sostegno reciproco tra gli aderenti, attuato infine
mediante forme di convivenza continuativa, anche legate ad un determinato territorio od a momenti
di valorizzazione degli usi civici.
Art. 2. Requisiti per la costituzione
Le Comunit si costituiscono per atto pubblico rogato da notaio.
Possono costituirsi le aggregazioni di persone fisiche che hanno i seguenti requisiti:
a) numero di persone di almeno 10 iscritti, compresi i minori allatto della presentazione della
domanda;
b) progetto di vita comunitaria caratterizzato dalle finalit di cui allart.1, da attuarsi mediante
forme di convivenza continuativa tra gli aderenti specificamente previste ed indicate;
c) svolgimento di attivit di utilit sociale, da indicare nellatto costitutivo
d) previsione di un ordinamento interno ispirato ai principi di uguaglianza e pari opportunit tra gli
aderenti con indicazione della elettivit delle cariche, dellobbligo del bilancio etico sociale, dei
criteri di ammissione, delle modalit di scioglimento e degli obblighi devolutivi in caso di
scioglimento.
Le comunit in possesso dei requisiti prima indicati possono richiedere la iscrizione nel Registro
Nazionale delle Comunit istituito presso il Dipartimento degli Affari sociali della Presidenza del
Consiglio; tale iscrizione viene deliberata in favore delle comunit che ne fanno domanda a seguito
della verifica della sussistenza dei requisiti e delle condizioni di cui al presente articolo e purch
risulti che le comunit siano esistenti ed operanti da almeno 3 anni.
La iscrizione nel Registro Nazionale attribuisce alla comunit la personalit giuridica nonch tutti i
diritti, gli obblighi, i benefici e le qualit previste dalla legge in favore di detti soggetti e per i
rapporti da essa disciplinati.

La iscrizione nel Registro Nazionale attribuisce alla comunit un trattamento normativo e fiscale
equiparato a quello degli enti no profit ed ONLUS.
Il Registro Nazionale presso il Dipartimento tenuto e vigilato da uno speciale ufficio
(Osservatorio Nazionale per le Comunit) del quale dovr essere chiamato a far parte un
rappresentante nazionale delle Comunit.
Art. 3. Risorse economiche.
Le Comunit traggono le loro risorse economiche da:
- quote e contributi degli associati;
- donazioni, lasciti, eredit ed erogazioni liberali;
- contributi di amministrazioni od enti pubblici;
- entrate derivanti da prestazioni di servizi verso terzi privati o pubblici;
- proventi di cessioni di beni derivanti da attivit economiche svolte tramite prestazioni dopera
degli associati, di carattere commerciale, artigianale o agricolo;
- altre entrate derivanti da iniziative promozionali finalizzate al finanziamento della Comunit.
Le Comunit sono tenute per almeno tre anni alla conservazione della documentazione relativa alle
entrate di cui al comma precedente.
Le Comunit hanno lobbligo di rendicontazione delle proprie entrate ed uscite in bilanci annuali.
Le Comunit sono tenute a reinvestire al proprio interno i proventi derivanti dalle attivit
economiche svolte, coerentemente con le finalit istituzionali, con il divieto di distribuire tra i
membri gli utili eventualmente maturati.
Art. 4. Bilancio etico-sociale.
Le Comunit possono sottoscrivere convenzioni con pubbliche amministrazioni per lerogazioni di
servizi a terzi a titolo oneroso.
Le Comunit redigono annualmente il bilancio sociale rendicontando sulle quantit e sulle qualit di
relazione con i gruppi di riferimento rappresentativi dellintera collettivit, mirante a delineare un
quadro omogeneo, puntuale, completo e trasparente della complessa interdipendenza tra i fattori
economici e quelli socio-politici connaturati e conseguenti alle scelte fatte.
Art. 5. Strutture per lo svolgimento delle attivit sociali.
Le Comunit possono ricevere in comodato dalle pubbliche amministrazioni beni pubblici mobili
ed immobili per lo svolgimento delle proprie attivit istituzionali.
Possono altres stipulare con Enti pubblici territoriali locali convenzioni particolari per la
costruzione e/o lampliamento di strutture edilizio-urbanistiche anche in deroga ai PRGC ovvero
per il riconoscimento di Area Speciale agli insediamenti destinati al conseguimento delle finalit
istituzionali ed a qualsiasi titolo detenuti dalle singole Comunit, anche come momenti di
valorizzazione degli usi civici.
Art. 6. Propriet.
Le Comunit possono avere intestati beni di propriet collettiva, ai sensi degli articoli 2659 e 2660
del codice civile, con lobbligo di destinare i beni ricevuti e le loro rendite al conseguimento delle
finalit istituzionali.
Art.7. Prestazioni di lavoro
I membri che prestano la loro attivit lavorativa presso la Comunit in maniera continuativa e

prevalente hanno diritto al mantenimento sulla base della condizione patrimoniale della comunit
stessa ed in modo che sia garantito un livello corrispondente a quello definito dallart. 36 della
Costituzione e 230 bis c.c.
La Comunit ha comunque la facolt di organizzare forme di lavoro diversificate con trattamenti
fiscali autonomi di cui al seguente art. 8.
Art. 8. Disciplina fiscale e agevolazioni.
Le Comunit possono stabilire rapporti di lavoro al loro interno in regime di agevolazione fiscale
nella misura forfettaria fissa per IRPEF del 20% per le prestazioni dopera onerose ed in regime di
esenzione fiscale per le prestazioni dopera libere e gratuite prestate dai propri associati per il
perseguimento di fini istituzionali.
Le Comunit intenzionali possono organizzare forme di scambio lavoro-ospitalit, soggette alla
agevolazione fiscale sopra indicata, al netto dei costi di ospitalit.
Art. 9. Diritti e doveri degli associati conviventi.
I componenti delle Comunit hanno tra loro diritti e doveri di natura mutualistica e
solidaristica, equiparati a quelli tra familiari come disciplinati dal codice civile, anche ai fini
dellassistenza sanitaria.
Art. 10. Eredit
In caso di successione nel patrimonio di un associato appartenente alla Comunit intenzionale
riconosciuta per morte del medesimo, in mancanza di altri successibili leredit devoluta alla
Comunit intenzionale di appartenenza in deroga allart. 586 c.c.
Art.11. Iscrizione nel Registro Nazionale delle Comunit
in sede di prima applicazione della legge
Liscrizione nel Registro Nazionale delle Comunit consentita, su domanda da presentarsi presso
il Dipartimento degli Affari sociali della Presidenza del Consiglio entro 60 giorni dalla data di
entrata in vigore della presente legge, a coloro che a tale data dimostrino di avere svolto da almeno
3 anni la attivit di cui allart. 2 e con il possesso dei requisiti ivi previsti, pur attraverso lutilizzo di
altri istituti giuridici previsti dallordinamento.
Entro un anno dalla data di iscrizione al Registro Nazionale dei soggetti di cui al primo comma i
medesimi dovranno provvedere alla loro trasformazione in Comunit secondo le forme ed i requisiti
di cui alla presente legge.
Art. 12. Norma di rinvio.
Per quanto non espressamente previsto dalla presente legge, alle Comunit intenzionali si applica la
normativa della disciplina delle associazioni di promozione sociale di cui alla legge 7 dicembre
2000, n. 383.
Bologna, 13 Settembre 2008

Appendix III
Testo rivolto alla proposta di revisione del diritto di famiglia, ovvero
la riscrittura del Primo libro del codice civile.
LE COMUNITA INTENZIONALI
Art. 227 (Definizione. Diritti e doveri degli associati)
Le persone fisiche possono costituirsi in comunit intenzionali nelle quali condividono un
progetto di vita fondato su forme di convivenza continuativa, comunione dei beni, collettivit delle
decisioni, solidariet e sostegno reciproco tra gli aderenti.
I partecipanti alla comunione hanno diritti e doveri di natura mutualistica e solidaristica,
equiparati, ai fini della possibilit di reciproca assistenza in ospedale, a quelli dei familiari, purch
sussista comune residenza, risultante da dichiarazione registrata nellufficio di stato civile del
comune ove essa sussiste.
Art. 228 (Requisiti per la costituzione delle comunit)
La comunit si costituisce per atto pubblico rogato dal notaio o da pubblico ufficiale, purch
sussistano i seguenti requisiti:
vi partecipino al momento della costituzione almeno dieci persone fisiche, compresi i minori
emancipati e i figli dei partecipanti, salvi i diritti del genitore che non partecipa alla comunit;
esplicita dichiarazione delle finalit di cui all'articolo 227, con indicazione delle modalit della
convivenza continuativa e dello svolgimento di attivit di utilit sociale;
formulazione di un ordinamento interno con indicazione delle modalit per l'elezione delle
cariche della comunit, per la formulazione e la presentazione del bilancio etico sociale, dei criteri
di ammissione, delle modalit di scioglimento, degli obblighi devolutivi in caso di scioglimento, dei
diritti economici del partecipante che receda dalla comunit.
La comunit deve essere sciolta quando il numero dei suoi partecipanti inferiore a 10.
Trascorsi tre anni dalla costituzione, le comunit esistenti ed operanti, purch in possesso dei
predetti requisiti, possono richiedere la iscrizione in apposito Registro Nazionale delle Comunit,
istituito presso il Dipartimento degli affari sociali della Presidenza del Consiglio. Liscrizione
sancita dopo la verifica della sussistenza dei requisiti e delle condizioni di cui al presente articolo.
Con l'iscrizione nel Registro Nazionale delle Comunit, la comunit acquista la personalit
giuridica, tutti i diritti, gli obblighi, i benefici e le qualit previste dalla legge in favore di detti
soggetti e per i rapporti da essa disciplinati, nonch l'attribuzione di un trattamento normativo e
fiscale equiparato a quello degli enti no profit ed ONLUS.
Il Registro Nazionale delle Comunit sottoposto alla vigilanza dell'Osservatorio Nazionale
delle Comunit, del quale deve essere chiamato a far parte anche un rappresentante nazionale delle
Comunit.

Art. 229 (Patrimonio e gestione)

Il patrimonio della comunit intenzionale costituito da:
quote e contributi dei partecipanti;
donazioni, lasciti, eredit ed erogazioni liberali;
contributi di amministrazioni od enti pubblici;
entrate derivanti da prestazioni di servizi verso terzi privati o pubblici;
proventi di cessioni di beni derivanti da attivit economiche svolte tramite prestazioni dopera
dei partecipanti, di carattere professionale, commerciale, artigianale o agricolo;
altre entrate derivanti da iniziative promozionali finalizzate al finanziamento della Comunit;
avanzi della gestione.
I proventi derivanti dalle attivit economiche svolte dalla comunit in conformit con le finalit
istitutive sono reinvestiti per il miglioramento della comunit e comunque al proprio interno. E
vietata la distribuzione tra i membri di utili eventualmente maturati.
La comunit pu essere titolare di beni di propriet collettiva, ai sensi degli articoli 2659 e 2660
del codice civile, con lobbligo di destinare i beni ricevuti e le loro rendite al conseguimento delle
finalit istituzionali della comunit.
I partecipanti della comunit che prestano in maniera continuativa e prevalente presso la stessa la
loro attivit lavorativa hanno diritto al mantenimento sulla base della condizione patrimoniale della
comunit stessa ed in modo che sia garantito un livello corrispondente ai principi costituzionali (art.
36) ed a quanto previsto dallart. 230 bis cod. civ.
Art. 230 (Rinuncia dei partecipanti)
In qualunque momento, ciascuno dei partecipanti alla comunit pu recedere da essa mediante
comunicazione con raccomandata con ricevuta di ritorno.
Con il recesso dalla comunit, il partecipante acquisisce il diritto a ricevere quanto dovutogli in
base all'ordinamento della comunit, che pu essere impugnato dinanzi al giudice ordinario, ove
non rispetti principi di proporzionalit ed equit.
Art. 230/1 (Normativa applicabile)
Per quanto non espressamente previsto, alle comunit intenzionali si applica, in quanto
compatibile ed in quanto non in contrasto con la regolamentazione pattizia, la normativa relativa
alle associazioni di promozione sociale.

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