Q.

1
Discuss in detail different forms of disasters?
Quote examples from real world to clarify
these forms?

Different forms of disasters

A. Water & Climate Related Disaster:
1. Flood
2. Cyclone
3. Tornado
4. Hailstorm
5. Cloud Burst
6. Thunderstorm & Lightning
7. Snow avalanches
8. Heat & Cold wave
9. Coastal Sea Erosion
10. Drought
B. Geologically Related Disasters:
1. Landslides and Mudflows
2. Earthquakes
3. Dam failures/ Dam Bursts
4. Mine Fire
C. Climate, Industrial & Nuclear Related Disasters:
1. Chemical & Industrial Disasters
2. Nuclear Disasters
3. Accident Related Disasters
D. Accident Related Disasters:

1. Forest Fire
2. Urban Fire
3. Mine Flooding
4. Oil-Spill
5. Major Building Collapse
6. Serial Bomb Blasts
7. Festival Related Disasters
8. Electrical disaster and Fires
9. Air, Road and Rail Accidents
10. Boat Capsizing
11. Village Fire
E. Biologically Related Disasters
1.
2.
3.
4.

Biological Disaster and Epidemics

Pest Attacks
Cattle Epidemics
Food Poisoning

Examples from real world

Q.2
What is EOC? Discuss in detail the
approaches to manage EOC?

EOC
An emergency operations center, or EOC, is a central command
and control facility responsible for carrying out the principles of
emergency preparedness and emergency management, or
disaster management functions at a strategic level in an
emergency situation, and ensuring the continuity of operation of a
company, political subdivision or other organization. An EOC is
responsible for the strategic overview, or "big picture", of the
disaster, and does not normally directly control field assets,
instead making operational decisions and leaving tactical
decisions to lower commands. The common functions of all EOC's
is to collect, gather and analyze data; make decisions that protect
life and property, maintain continuity of the organization, within
the scope of applicable laws; and disseminate those decisions to
all concerned agencies and individuals. In most EOC's there is one
individual in charge, and that is the Emergency Manager. It has
two approaches:

1. Emergency site management system

2. The incident command system

Emergency site management system

Experience has shown that there is a need for a system to

manage and coordinate the many activities during emergencies.
The emergency site management system has proven to be
extremely useful in this regard because it involves a multi-service,
multi-jurisdictional effort. Moreover, it stresses the need for
decision making, communication, cooperation, and coordination
among various services and jurisdictions to ensure effective
emergency response. The emergency site management systems
main focus is to provide one framework (umbrella) to integrate
and coordinate services at the site while individual services
continue to use their own command systems. The emergency site
management system is complementary to the incident command
systems. It is not intended to replace or interfere with the
command and control structures of the various response services.
Under the emergency site management system, the site manager
removes his/her agency specific hat and concentrates on the
overall management of all activities at the site this person is a
coordinator of all services/activities and not a commander. The
emergency site management system consists of two main
components: 1) the emergency site team and 2) the Emergency
Operations Centre Group. The emergency site team makes
decisions on mitigation strategies and tactics to limit the threat to
people, property, and the environment at the emergency site. The
site team works in close cooperation with the Emergency
Operations Centre Group, which is responsible for supporting the
site team and making strategic decisions for the overall municipal
emergency response. If the site manager is not pre designated in
the municipal emergency plan, the lead agency concept will
apply. In this system, once the EOC has been activated, the EOC
confirms or designates the service to lead. The head of the lead
service then designates the individual to assume the role of the
site manager. When a site manager is appointed, s(he) invites the
control officers (highest ranking) of each service to participate in
the site team and designates support staff. Responders at the site

maintain their regular reporting relationship in accordance with

their services command structure. As the CBRN technical expert,
you will provide information about threats, progress and results to
date and recommendations for new or continued mitigation
strategies. Your information will be needed for the site manager to
make informed decisions that result in ensuring maximum safety
considerations for all responders and effective treatment of
casualties. You will be looked upon to answer questions relating to
the establishment of control of Hazard Zones, agent identification
and mitigation, PPE, casualty treatment, limitations of local
response, decontamination ability and evacuation considerations.
The emergency site management system involves a multi-service,
multi-jurisdictional effort and stresses the need for decisionmaking, communication, cooperation, and coordination between
various services and jurisdictions to respond effectively in an
emergency. It does not intend to undermine, usurp or interfere
with the command and control (or reporting) structures of the
various response services. While the system designates the
responsibility for managing the emergency site to an emergency
site manager, this person is a coordinator and not a
commander. The emergency site management system consists
of two main components: 1) the emergency site team and 2) the
Emergency Operations Centre Group. The emergency site team
makes decisions on mitigation strategies and tactics to limit the
threat to people, property, and the environment at the emergency
site. The site team works in close cooperation with the Emergency
Operations Centre Group, which is responsible for supporting the
site team and making strategic decisions for the overall municipal
emergency response. Canadian municipalities may experience a
wide range of emergencies caused by natural forces, accidents, or
intentional acts such as terrorism and mass disturbances.
Provinces and territories have various laws that obligate elected
officials to prepare emergency plans. Sometimes, emergencies
call for a response that exceeds standard municipal operating

procedures, available resources and/or expertise. For example, an

emergency response may be required when the situation poses
danger of major proportions to the entire population of the
municipality. In this instance, municipalities would implement
their emergency plan. Experience shows that effective
arrangements require a centre to facilitate direction, coordination
and support of emergency and regular operations. The design,
equipment and staffing of the facility vary with the resources and
needs of municipalities. However, its purpose remains constant.
This facility is normally called the municipal emergency
operations centre, or EOC in its short form.

The Incident Command System

The major backbone for managing an emergency incident rests
with the incident management system. This is not to minimize the
need for proper preplanning or training. However, when a large
event happens, each responder must know their role under ICS
and how they contribute to the overall goals. Researchers have
identified four essential dimensions for affective incident
command. These are (1) an effective accountability system, (2)
meaningful situational assessment, (3) appropriate resource
allocation, and (4) effective communication system (Jiang et al.,
2004). ICS allows for each of these dimensions to be met,
assuming the incident commander (IC) effectively uses the proper
elements of the incident command system. ICS defines basic
operating characteristics, the management components, and the
overall structure that emergency response organizations must
utilize throughout the life cycle of an incident. The ICS is the
cornerstone of NIMS. In its most typical form, ICSs utilize the
concept of a singular commandone individual is in charge.
However, the realities of attempting to coordinate multiple
entities from multiple jurisdictions required an alternate command
structure as wellthat of a unified command. In unified

command, all other components of the command structure

remain intact, and everybody still reports to only a single
individual, except for the IC. In unified command strategic
decisions, those at the highest level are made by a unified group
with representatives from each entity and jurisdiction. It is the
role of the IC to be both part of that group and then implement
the strategic decisions made under unified command. In practice,
unified command is only used in larger incidents where multiple
groups, not of the same jurisdiction or organization, are required
to successfully manage the event. The traditional concept of
government response to an emergency incident has assumed a
single organization would respond and deliver services based on
that event. This traditional concept has been replaced to reflect a
reality of public services increasingly being provided by multiple
organizations rather than a single entity (Moynihan, 2005). This
response scenario involving collaborative networks integrated
both vertically and horizontally, requires the incident
management system to accommodate competing interests. Under
NIMS, these competing interests are managed by a single
operational chain of command being led by a single IC taking
policy direction from the unified group. Two essential leadership
qualities are a problem-solving orientation and adaptabilityto
rapidly changing circumstances (Donahue, 2004). For the IC,
these are necessary traits. Managers, as contrasted with leaders,
are often risk adverse. In times of uncertainty, the need for
calculated risk-taking and an aggressiveness to attack emerging
problems permit the IC to stay ahead of rapidly changing
conditions. However, the IC does not manage the incident alone.
Many others are involved in developing the strategic priorities and
then implementing the incident action plan. In large-scale
incidents, there are four major sections under the IC, each with a
specific role. The acronym FLOP is a useful memory aid for
Finance/Administration, Logistics, Operations, and Planning. In
daily use of ICS, only the operations section is often put in place.
In fact, the incident commander often functions both as ICand the
operations chief (remember this is a scalable system). The use of
a planning, logistics, or finance section only occurs in larger, more
complex, or extended operations. The finance section provides
accountability. This is an item often ignored or overlooked in the

initial stages of an incident, but the attention of policy makers

often shifts to budget impact and accountability for operations
when the initial crisis subsides. The finance section, or one of its
subordinate units, tracks personnel time dedicated to various
functions, expenditures for supplies, and works with the logistics
section to obtain necessary resources. The logistics section
provides for the long-term needs and resources often overlooked
in major events. Logistics must anticipate long-term requirements
for continued operation and assure resources are provided. As
with the other sections, various predefined specialty units
consisting of communications, food unit, or facilities unit may be
needed depending on the long-term operational plan. For
example, who is going to feed and provide temporary sleeping
accommodations for emergency responders? The operations
section is the most utilized area of incident management. Its
organization depends on the specific type of event and the
priorities established by the incident action plan. This section may
be organized by jurisdictional areas, geographic boundaries,
functional needs, or any combination of these. The planning
sections role is often overlooked not only in local incidents,
where its usefulness is less critical, but also in larger or long-term
events where a lack of planning can be critical. The planning
section should be comprised of experienced personnel who have
the skills to provide meaningful and timely analysis and then
project conditions that may exist in the near future. Additionally,
many incidents require the planning section to be staffed with
subject-matter technical experts
whose specific qualifications are determined by the incident at
hand. Experienced ICs know that success is determined by more
than simply filling in the boxes on an incident command
organizational chart. There are numerous challenges in
successfully implementing the ICS. These challenges of incident
management need to be considered and addressed to assure
successful handling of a disaster. National Incident Management
System: Challenges of Incident Management Implementation of
effective incident management is not without its challenges. After
the terrorist attacks of September 11, three key issues were
identified as particularly troublesome. First, emergency
responders were able to rely only on voice communications. At

least initially, other types of communication were either

ineffective or not utilized. Second, there was limited situational
awareness. This inability to successfully integrate multiple data
sources into the formation of an effective representation of the
crisis limited the ability of emergency responders to effectively
call for and utilize resources. Finally, long-standing problems
between police, fire, and other emergency responders were
magnified by the lack of interoperability among their respective
communication systems (Bahora et al., 2003). These challenges,
and recommended actions to minimize the impact, are detailed
below. Situational Awareness The ability to achieve and maintain
situational awareness is one of the most significant challenges in
managing large-scale emergency events. Situational awareness
has been described as having a perception of the incident in its
current environment, comprehension of its meaning, and a
projection of the incident into the near future (Endsley, 2000;
McQuaid, 2003).
The loss of situational awareness has been shown to lead to
disastrous results. Accordingly, much more effort must be paid to
establishing and maintaining situational awareness to successfully
manage a large incident. A common problem for incident
commanders is the tendency to focus on single components of an
incident, disregarding other attributes. This tunnel vision inhibits a
true comprehension of the incident and its future impact. Because
of that limitation, the ability
to forecast near-term events is restricted. To overcome this
problem, the IC must perform rapid information sampling. This
process requires a continuous assessment of information flowing
into the command center, seeking critical clues and essential
elements from the overall flow of information rather than focusing
on one or two seemingly critical components. This permits the IC
to more accurately assess all current conditions and anticipate
future ones (McQuaid, 2003). Sonnenwald and Pierce (2000)
found that interwoven situational awareness between the
individual, group, and among groups facilitates emergency
response. This is accomplished by ensuring frequent
communications occur between all participants. The ability of
incident managers, especially among those from different
organizations, to establish trust with each other is essential to

successful incident management. As emergency events occur

without warning, and because of the increasing need of multiple
agencies to work together, this positive impact can be obtained
by interagency planning and tabletop exercises. The benefits will
then be seen when incident managers are put together under live
emergency conditions. However, these efforts may be hampered
by contested collaboration, a term used to describe
competition between groups that leads to dysfunctional actions.
Such contested competition is often seen between elite military
units during noncombat times. The goal is to ensure these
adverse behaviors do not continue once emergency operations
are underway. Trust is also enhanced when leaders share norms
and a vision of successful incident mitigation. The establishment
of shared norms/vision requires a rapid and accurate flow of
information from the field, wide dissemination of this information
(in raw form) to all team members, and communication among
incident managers regarding the meaning of the information
received. Such communication often occurs, and is enhanced,
when the process is less formal and not constrained by typical
hierarchical processes. This leads to a common sense of urgency
regarding the incident and its resolution (Moynihan, 2005).
Communications A specific unit under logistics that has received
much attention after recent disasters is the communications unit.
Many senior managers and policy makers often hear the term
interoperability when discussing radio communications. Much
of this discussion has focused on the radio system itselfthe
hardware. Yet this is only a part of the issue. Manufacturers have
engineered systems to patch multiple radio systems together,
though admittedly with some limitations. The larger question is
the ability of multiple responders to communicate clearly in an
interoperable environment. Some critics stated that a single radio
system during September 11 may have dramatically changed
outcomes. This assertion ignores the fact that 3000 emergency
responders cannot all work on a single radio channel. The ability
to organize communications rationally among large numbers of
emergency responders, and assure that the right person talks to
the right person, is essential. The failure to bring a coherent
structure to radio communications will result in chaos. Policies
and procedures are needed, and must be exercised, which assign

certain functions or organizational units to different radio

channels (or talkgroups in a trunked radio system).
Communications among these groups must allow for
communications between the unit leaders and the overall IC.
Predetermination of which channels are used for what purpose
will reduce initial confusion in the incident. Resources The ability
to deliver all needed resources to the correct location at the
correct time, under emergency conditions, highlights the
challenges that await emergency managers. Experience has
shown that resources are scarce initially. However in some
incidents, such as in hurricanes, the arrival of water and ice may
occur days to weeks after the local region is beginning to recover
or when demand is already met by other sources. In this later
example, a problemdevelops where supplies are wasted and sit
idle.
National Incident Management System: Bringing Order to Chaos &
365
The planning section must be skilled at predicting needed
resources and the burn rate at which expendable supplies are
consumed. Operational managers must anticipate how many
personnel and equipment will be needed in the future and assure
those needs are communicated. Resources arriving to a disaster
scene most often will be placed into a staging area where they
are checked in before being
deployed or used. Therefore, the tracking of resources is
essential.
In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrinas landfall on New Orleans,
those remaining in the city fled to the convention center upon
advice of city officials. In anticipation of food, water, and ice that
never arrived, FEMA lost track of their supplies once they left their
initial staging area. In 2006, FEMA made significant efforts to
track resources during future disasters. Each truck leaving a FEMA
staging area is now equipped with GPS tracking equipment so
that disaster managers can track those
resources as they move into disaster areas. Tracking of resources
provides for the financial accountability that will be required long
after the initial press coverage of an event has waned. Personnel
accountability assures the safety of emergency responders and
allows managers to know what resources are already on-hand and

available for potential redeployment. Tracking of expendable

supplies allows for reimbursement and provides information to the
planning section so future demands can be anticipated. Although
not necessarily a high-profile function, the failure to properly track
resourcesas was
seen during Hurricane Katrinacan have significant impacts on
the ability to meet urgent needs of those impacted by an event.

Q. 3
What do you understand by the concept of
prediction and discuss the instruments used
for data collection?

Prediction

There are three stages involved in prediction:

1. Data collection
2. Analyzing data to assess the hazard
3. Translate data into a warning, and disseminating it to the
general public and the disaster task force.
Many natural and manmade hazards can be predicted before their
onset. In most cases, technology now makes it possible to
actbefore disaster strikes. Predicting different hazards requires
different methods, technologies and equipment.
Each country has different organizations that possess equipment
and monitoring systems for different types of hazards. Prediction
is based on the scientific data and information collected from
different sources, which is simulated through various models, and
finally analysed to determine the impacts that an identified
hazard can have.
In fact prediction is a means for hazards assessment, warnings
and alert systems. Most natural hazards are linked to atmospheric
and climatic changes, which are predictable. Within industrial and

commercial settings many technical hazards can laso be

predicted using different alarm systems. For example, it is
possible to predict the onset of major storms or torrential rains
and floods with fair accuracy, often a few days in advance.
Some well known international sources of predication and
forecasts of natural hazards are:
1. The world weather watch
2. Seismological facilities in various countries
3. The tsunamis centre in the pacific warning centre in Honolulu
National sources of prediction may include:
1.
2.
3.
4.

National meteorological services

National seismological and volcano logical services
Sectoral ministries and departments
Disaster management focal points

For example, forecasting weather helps in predicting hazards

related to high winds, storms, sea surges, tsunamis, high rainfall,
flooding, and ice storms. Prediction of wind hazards (tropical
cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons) is based on climatology and
persistence. Data is normally collected in upper wind flow
patterns at different heights. Surface isobaric patterns, satellite
cloud imageries, and radar and radio observations are the main
tools used for weather forecasting. Based on the guidelines of the
world meteorological organization the following observations are
made.
1. Surface observations
Wind speed and direction; atmospheric pressure; air
temperature; clouds; visibility; rainfall; radiations; dew poin
temperature; and ground temperature.
2. Sea observations
Sea surface temperature; wave speed; direction; period; and
swell.

3. Upper air observations

Temperature and humidity at different heights and pressure
levels.
The sources of the majority of these observations are normally
the meteorological stations on land. Some observations at sea
can be made by the merchant ships and research vessels

Instruments used for data collection

Satellite images
Accuracy of weather forecasts depends upon the availability of
high-resolution satellite pictures. These systems can also be used
for identifying finishing grounds, detecting forecasts fires, and
monitoring crop conditions.
Weather radars
A weather radar, or weather surveillance radar (WSR), is a type of
radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate
its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and
intensity.
Modern weather radars are mostly pulse-Doppler radars, capable
of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of
the precipitation. Both types of data can be analyzed to
determine the structure of storms and their potential to cause
severe weather.
They are often used for tracking cyclones disturbances, severe
thunderstorms and bad weather phenomenon.
Sources of data for flood forecasting
Data from earth observation satellites could deliver more timely
warnings flood warnings to Australians, according to the
Commonwealth Scientific and Research Organisation (CSIRO).
A project being carried out by the CSIRO in collaboration with the
Vienna University of Technology, and funded by the European

Space Agency, will see observations from the Advanced Synthetic

Aperture Radar (ASAR) on the Envisat satellite used to increase
the reliability of information that is fed into models for monitoring
and forecasting floods. Currently, the system relies on optical data
combined with passive microwave information and digital
elevation models to identify volumes of water. But the CSIRO is
developing a system to monitor and forecast the progression of
floods for better water management.
To increase the accuracy and reliability of the system, and to
compensate for the limited resolution of passive microwave data
along with the fact that optical instruments are not able to see
through clouds, information derived from ASAR is being
incorporated into the system.
ASAR data can be used to continuously monitor how much water
is stored in the soil, as well as observing inundated areas during a
flood because its radar can penetrate through clouds and rain.
Albert van Dijk from the CSIRO said the system will provide many
advantages.
"In Australia we have learned to live with droughts and floods.
Extreme floods cause terrible damage, but in other cases floods
are vital for our river wetlands and irrigation communities. ESA's
radar observations are helping us develop ways to monitor

and predict the progression of floods, he said.

The European Space Agency plans to launch a Sentinel-1 satellite

in 2013 that will greatly improve operational forecasting. Sentinel1 is one of the five missions being built specifically for Europe's
Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)
programme.
Today several new sources of weather data are ready available for
use in water management practice. Present precipitation radar
information, especially when calibrated, can be of great help in
obtaining well performing rainfall-runoff models. Such
precipitation data is not ready for use, but has to be cleaned and
converted into a hydrological load per sub catchment of a water
system.
The availability of the ensemble weather forecast data permits
stochastic analysis with hydrological models. Such models present
probability distributions of forecasted excess water, water levels

and inundation of land per unit of time. This is an important

advance in application of precipitation data to day-to-day water
management.

Q. 4
Briefly discuss frequently occurring hazards
and how they can be best managed?

Frequently occurring hazards and

their management
The earths weather is very mysterious. One day it is sunny the
next it is raining. In fact, sometimes as you are driving down the
road, you hit the wall between a sunny day and a sever
thunderstorm. Man has spent years trying to predict weather
patterns but it is still an inexact science. This is a list of the most
common occurring disasters of nature:
Landslide
A landslide is a disaster involving elements of the ground,
including rocks, trees, parts of houses, and anything else which
may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be caused by an
earthquake, volcanic eruptions, or general instability in the
surrounding land. Mudslides or mudflows, are a special case of
landslides, in which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep
terrain to collapse and slide downwards.
Avalanche

An avalanche is a geophysical hazard involving a slide of a large

snow or rock mass down a mountainside, caused when a buildup
of material is released down a slope, it is one of the major
dangers faced in the mountains in winter. As avalanches move
down the slope they may entrain snow from the snowpack and
grow in size. The snow may also mix with the air and form a
powder cloud. An avalanche with a powder cloud is known as a
powder snow avalanche. The powder cloud is a turbulent
suspension of snow particles that flows as a gravity current.
Drought
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region
suffers a severe deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this
occurs when a region receives consistently below average rainfall.
It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture
of the affected region. Although droughts can persist for several
years, even a short, intense drought can cause significant
damage and harm the local economy.
Wildfire
Wildfires, or forest fires, are uncontrolled fires burning in wildland
areas. Common causes include lightning, human carelessness,
arson, volcano eruption, and pyroclastic cloud from active
volcano. The can be a threat to those in rural areas and also to
wildlife. Wildfires can also produce ember attacks, where floating
embers set fire to buildings at a distance from the fire itself.
Flood
A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges
land, a deluge. It is usually due to the volume of water within a
body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeding the total
capacity of the body, and as a result some of the water flows or
sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. It can also occur
in rivers, when the strength of the river is so high it flows right out
of the river channel , usually at corners or meanders.

Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of waves created when a body of water, such
as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements
above or below water, volcanic eruptions and other underwater
explosions, landslides, large meteorite impacts comet impacts
and testing with nuclear weapons at sea all have the potential to
generate a tsunami. A tsunami is not the same thing as a tidal
wave, which will generally have a far less damaging effect than a
Tsunami.
Volcanic eruption
A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and
releases lava and poisonous gasses in to the air. They range from
daily small eruptions to extremely infrequent supervolcano
eruptions (where the volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic
kilometers of material.) Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows,
which are high-temperature clouds of ash and steam that can
travel down mountainsides at speeds exceeding that of an
airliner.
Tornado
Tornadoes are violent, rotating columns of air which can blow at
speeds between 50 and 300 mph, and possibly higher. Tornadoes
can occur one at a time, or can occur in large tornado outbreaks
along squall lines or in other large areas of thunderstorm
development. Waterspouts are tornadoes occurring over water in
light rain conditions.
Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the
Earths crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are
recorded with a seismometer, also known as a seismograph. The
magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported on the

Richter scale, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being

mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage
over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified
Mercalli scale. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest
themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the
ground.
Hurricane
Hurricanes, tropical cyclones, and typhoons are different names
for the same phenomenon: a cyclonic storm system that forms
over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off
of the ocean and becomes a storm. The Coriolis Effect causes the
storms to spin, and a hurricane is declared when this spinning
mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74 mph.
Hurricane is used for these phenomena in the Atlantic and eastern
Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in the Indian, and typhoon in the
western Pacific.

Management
Cyclone Management
The most striking advantage of the earth observation satellite
data has been demonstrated during the recent Orissa supercyclone event. A severe cyclonic storm with a wind speed about
260 kmph hit the Orissa coast at Paradip on 29-oct-99 causing
extensive damage to human life, property, live stock and public
utilities. The National Remote Sensing Agency acted promptly and
provided spatial extent of inundated areas using pre-cyclone IRS
LISS-III data collected on 11th October, 1999 and Radarsat
Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) data of 2nd November, 1999 since
cloud -free optical sensor data over the cyclone-hit area were not
available (Fig.3). The map showing inundated area as on 2nd Nov,
1999 was drapped over topographical map, and was delivered to
the Orissa Government on 3rd Nov,1999. Information, thus
generated, was effectively used by various departments of Orissa
Government involved in relief operations. Subsequently, the
recession of inundated areas was also studied using Radarsat and

IRS data of 5th,8th,11th,13th and 14th November, 1999. An

estimated 3.75 lakh ha in Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara, Bhadrak,
Balasore, Jajpur, besides Cuttack, Khurda and Puri districts had
been found to be inundated. In addition, the crop damage
assessment was also made and maps along with block-wise
statistics derived using pre-and post-cyclone NDVI image from IRS
WiFS data were also provided to Orissa Government.
Floods
India is the worst flood-affected country in the world after
Bangladesh and accounts for one-fifth of the global death count
due to floods. About 40 million hectares or nearly 1/8th of India's
geographical area is flood-prone. An estimated 8 million hectares
of land are affected annually. The cropped area affected annually
ranges from 3.5 million ha during normal floods to 10 million ha
during worst flood. Flood control measures consists mainly of
construction of new embankments, drainage channels and
afforestation to save 546 towns and 4700 villages. Optical and
microwave data from IRS, Landsat ERS and Radarsat series of
satellites have been used to map and monitor flood events in near
real-time and operational mode(Fig.4). Information on inundation
and damage due to floods is furnished to concerned departments
so as to enable them organising necessary relief measures and to
make a reliable assessment of flood damage. Owing to large
swath and high repetivity, WiFS data from IRS-1C and -1D hold
great promise in floods monitoring.
Based on satellite data acquired during pre-flood, flood and postflood along with ground information, flood damage assessment is
being carried out by integrating the topographical, hydrological
and flood plain land use/land cover information in a GIS
environment. In addition, spaceborne multispectral data have
been used for studying the post-flood river configuration, and
existing flood control structures , and identification of bank
erosion-prone areas and drainage congestion, and identification of
flood risk zones.
Flood Disaster Impact Minimization
Flood forecasts are issued currently by Central Water Commission
using conventional rainfall runoff models with an accuracy of

around 65% to 70% with a warning time of six to twelve hours.

The poor performance is attributed to the high spatial variability
of rainfall not captured by ground measurements and lack of
spatial information on the catchment characteristics of the basin
such as current hydrological land use / land cover, spatial
variability of soils, etc. Incorporation of remote sensing inputs
such as satellite-derived rainfall estimates, current hydrological
land use / land cover, soil information, etc. in rainfall-runoff model
subsequently improves the flood forecast. Improvements in flood
forecasting was tested in lower Godavari basin in a pilot study
titled "Spatial Flood Warning System". Under this project, a
comprehensive database including Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
generated using Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS),
hydraulic/hydrologic modeling capabilities and a Decision Support
System (DSS) for appropriate relief response has been addressed
in collaboration with concerned departments of Andhra Pradesh
Government. Initial results have been quite encouraging. The
deviation in the flood forecast from actual river flood has been
within 15%.
Earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by the abrupt release of strain that has
built up in the earth's crust. Most zones of maximum earthquake
intensity and frequency occur at the boundaries between the
moving plates that form the crust of the earth. Major earthquakes
also occur within the interior of crustal plates such as those in
China, Russia and the south-east United States. A considerable
research has been carried out to predict earthquakes using
conventional technologies, but the results to date are
inconclusive. Seismic risk analysis based on historic earthquakes
and the presence of active faults is an established method for
locating and designing dams, power plants and other projects in
seismically active areas. Landsat-TM and SPOT images, and Radar
interferograms have been used to detect the active faults
(Merifield and Lamer 1975; Yeats et al.1996; Massonnet et al.
1993). Areas rocked by Landers earthquake (South California) of
magnitude 7.3 were studied using ERS-1 SAR interferometry
which matched extremely well with a model of the earth's motion
as well as the local measurements (Masonnet and Advagna 1993).

Active faults on the seafloor could also be detected by side-scan

sonar system (Prior et al, 1979). The earthquake prediction is still
at experimental stage. Successful prediction of minor earthquake
have, however, been reported. Among the major earthquakes,
Chinese scientists predicted an earthquake 1-2 days ahead in
1975 (Vogel, 1980). Information on earthquake is ,generally,
obtained from a network of seismographic stations. However, very
recently the space geodetic techniques and high resolution aerial
and satellite data have been used for earthquake prediction.
Space geodetic technique with Global Positioning System (GPS)
provides an accuracy of a centimetre over 1000 km and , thus,
helps in measuring the surface deformations and monitoring
accelerated crystal deformations prior to earth quakes with
required accuracy.
Earthquake risk assessment involves identification of seismic
zones through collection of geological / structural, geophysical
(primarily seismological) and geomorphologic data and mapping
of known seismic phenomena in the region, (mainly epicenters
with magnitudes). Such an effort calls for considerable amount of
extrapolation and interpolation on the basis of available data.
There is also a tendency for earthquake to occur in "gaps" which
are in places along an earthquake belt where strong earthquake
had not previously been observed. The knowledge of trends in
time or in space helps in defining the source regions of future
shocks (Karnik and Algermissen, 1978). Satellite imagery could be
used in delineating geotectonic structures and to clarify
seismological conditions in earthquake risk zones. Accurate
mapping of geomorphologic features adjoining lineaments reveals
active movement or recent tectonic activity along faults. The
relationship between major lineaments and the seismic activity
has been observed in Latur area of Maharastra, India. Space
techniques have overcome the limitations of ground geodetic
surveys/measurements and have become an essential tool to
assess the movement/displacements along faults/plate
boundaries to even millimetre level accuracy.
Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), it has been
possible to record accurately the plate movement of the order of
centimetre along baseline of hundreds of kilometre. Similarly,
satellite-based Global Positioning system (GPS) has emerged as a

powerful geodetic tool for monitoring (geological) changes over

time which is the key for understanding the long-term geodynamical phenomena. GPS has been particularly useful in
measuring the more complex deformation patterns across plate
boundaries where large and regional scale strain builds up. Plate
movements, slips along faults etc. have been measured using
differential GPS to an accuracy of sub-centimetres.
Volcanic Eruption
Many times precursors of volcanic eruptions have been observed
in various areas of volcanic activity. Ground deformations,
changes in the compositions of gases emitting from volcanic
vents, changes in the temperatures of fumaroles, hot springs and
crater lakes as well as earth tremors are preceding volcanic
eruptions. Thermal infrared remote sensing has been applied for
volcanic hazard assessment. However, deficiencies of equipment
and coverage suggest that thermal infrared has not been
adequately evaluated for surveillance of volcanoes. The National
Remote Sensing Agency has demonstrated the potential of multitemporal Landsat-TM thermal band data in the surveillance of
active volcanoes over Barren island volcano which erupted during
March 1991 to September 1991 (Bhatacharya et al. 1992). In the
last three decades, aircraft and satellite-based thermal infrared
(TIR) data have been used extensively to detect and monitor
many of the active volcanoes around the world. Repetitive
coverage, regional scale, and low cost of thermal infrared images
from satellites make it an alternative tool for monitoring
volcanoes. Although the spatial resolution of NOAA environment
satellite is too coarse to record details of surface thermal
patterns, the plumes of smoke and ash from volcanoes could be
detected which is useful in planning the rehabilitation of affected
areas. Studies have shown that the upward migration of magma
from the earth's crust just before eruption inflates the volcanic
cone. Such premonitory signs can easily and quickly be detected
with the aid of differential SAR interferometry. Extensive
calibrations in a variety of test areas have shown that by using
this technique, changes on the earth's surface can be detected to
a centimetre accuracy.

Landslides
Aerial photographs and large-scale satellite images have been
used to locate the areas with the incidence of landslide. Higher
spatial resolution and stereo imaging capability of IRS -IC and -1D
enable further refining the location and monitoring of landslides.
A number of studies have been carried out in India using satellite
data and aerial photographs to develop appropriate
methodologies for terrain classification and preparation of maps
showing landslide hazards in the Garhwal Himalayan region,
Nilagiri hills in south India and in Sikkim forest area. Such studies
have been carried out using mostly aerial photographs because of
their high resolution enabling contour mapping with intervals of
better than 2m in height. The availability of 1m resolution data
from the future IRS mission may help generating contour maps at
2m intervals making thereby space remote sensing a highly cost
effective tool in landslide zonation.
Crop Pest and Diseases
One of the successful programmes where space technology has
been used in risk assessment from crop pests/diseases is the
Desert Locust Satellite Applications project of the UN/FAO for the
International Desert Locust Commission. Temporal and spatial
distribution of desert vegetation and rainfall derived from NOAAAVHRR data have been used to identify the potential Locust
breeding grounds. In India, the desert locust is epidemic over 2
lakhs sq.km spread over Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana states.
Improved desert locust forecasting system is being tried with the
help of satellite data by the locust warning organizations by
narrowing down the potential breeding areas to undertake aerial
spraying for arresting further growth of locust.
Forest Fire
Several thousands of hectares of forests are burnt annually due to
manmade forest fires causing extensive damage to forest wealth.
The behaviour of forest fire depends upon three parameters: fuel,
weather, and topography. Each parameter has several
characteristic parameters. The most important task in the
preparedness phase is to assess the risk. For risk assessment
variables such as land use/land cover, demography, infrastructure

and urban interface are considered. Effective mitigation of forest

fire involves fuel (land cover, weather, terrain, vegetation type
and moisture level) mapping, identification of fire risk areas, rapid
detection, local and global fire monitoring and assessment of
burnt areas. The analysis of near-real time low spatial resolution
(1km) and high repetivity data from NOAA and high spatial
resolution data with low repetivity from earth resources satellites
could provide the information on areas under fire. The IRS satellite
data have been used for monitoring forest fires over Nagarhole
Wild Life Sanctuary of Southern India.
Cyclone
The intense tropical storms are known in different part of the
world by different names. In the Pacific ocean, they are called
'typhoons', in the Indian ocean they are called 'cyclones' and over
North Atlantic, they are called 'hurricane'. Among various natural
calamaties, tropical cyclones are known to claim a higher share of
deaths and distruction world over. Records show that about 80
tropical cyclones form over the globe every year. India has a vast
coast line which is frequently affected by tropical cyclones
causing heavy loss of human lives and property. Cyclones occurs
usually between April and May (called pre-monsoon cyclonic
storms) and between October and December (called postmonsoon cyclonic storms). While cyclonic storms can't be
prevented, the loss of lives and damage to the properties can be
mitigated if prompt action is taken after receiving timely
warnings.

Q. 5
Write a detailed note on techniques used for
capacity building and training?

Training and Capacity Building

 Since Bangladesh is vulnerable to frequent natural disasters,

such as floods and cyclones, WHO has emphasized the
importance of undertaking training and capacity building
initiatives for emergencies and has been assisting the Ministry of
Health in this area.
Hospital staff at both primary and secondary levels has recently
been trained on providing Psychosocial Support and on Mass
Casualty Management.
A multi-sectoral core group formation plan is now in place, and
training modules with training of trainers (TOT) will be updated
through workshops from October 2008.
WHO and the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society (BDRCS) will
conduct joint simulation exercises in most of the cyclone-prone
districts in October-November 2008, in collaboration with
MOF&DM, UN Agencies, and INGOs & NGOs.
Another training, on search, rescue, evacuation and first aid
post-disaster, began in August 2008 in collaboration with BDRCS
and the local communities.
Consultative meetings with the Government and other
stakeholders are being held from August 2008 on EHA
benchmarks, Standard Operating Procedures for Emergencies and
development of an earthquake/Infrastructure collapse response
plan for the Health Sector.
A workshop on Food & Nutrition in emergencies will be held in
September 2008.
Preliminary discussions are ongoing to formulate an action plan
on information and control regarding poison at all levels. Activities
in this area will begin in November 2008.
In order to establish the Emergency Medical Services, health
personnel at all levels are being trained on The Principles of
Emergency Health Care . Four such Training of Trainers (TOT)

sessions were held for master trainers, followed by

implementation training on EPR, in Barisal and Khulna divisions.
More training sessions will be held in the remaining districts &
Upazilas.
In order to create greater awareness of the three basic
principles of EMS & on response to emergency, triage & mass
casualty management, communications material such as short
video films, manuals, booklets, placards & posters are being
prepared. The films will be broadcast through national TV
channels, radios, cinema houses as trailers. The print material will
be distributed at all levels.
Emergency medical equipment and drugs are being procured to
replenish buffer stock, so that they can be readily available if a
disaster occurs.
Further training on psychosocial support will be conducted. To
disseminate basic messages for psychosocial support, specific IEC
materials like posters, leaflets, audio cassette/CD and training
manuals in both English and Bengali, are being designed.
Caregivers are being trained on grief counseling techniques, so
that they can extend psychosocial support to all who need it,
through counseling and proper referral systems, in the Sidr
affected areas.
A handbook for identifying vulnerable areas by category, and for
assessing the environmental impact on human health, will be
prepared for the health managers and health workers of
governments, NGO and INGOs. It is expected to help in
formulating preparedness plans, and in efficient resource
management.
WHO Bangladesh is monitoring the the flood situation regularly.
Civil Surgeons in all districts that are likely to be affected have
been kept on alert to combat any possible occurrence of
communicable diseases.

 Control rooms at district & Upazila levels have been made

operational and regular reporting to the central level have been
established.
WHO is maintaining regular liaison with other UN agencies
through UN-DER subgroup meetings. Apart from the Emergency
and Humanitarian Action unit, other WHO programmes (CSR, IVD,
EH, VBD) have also been involved.
Public health situational reports (sitrep) will be prepared on a
regular basis.