Professional Documents
Culture Documents
experiences with which to relate the theoretical dimension to their formation as future
teachers:
() beginning students have without any reference to immediate teaching a
very large capital of an exceedingly practical sort in their own experience. The
argument that theoretical instruction is merely abstract and in the air unless
students are set at once to test and illustrate it by practice of teaching of their
own, overlooks the continuity of the class-room mental activity with that of other
normal experience (Dewey, 1904b: 258) (Deweys emphasis).
I will examine some Deweyan concepts and prescriptions for practice, focusing on
examples of the latter that, to my mind, still constitute relevant and creative challenges
for contemporary teachers, concentrating on the teaching experience: on the
implications for teachers of Deweys concept of educational experience in terms of selfreflection and self-creation. My emphasis is on the teacher as subject of educational
experience.3 Opposing historical pedagogical discourse related especially but not
exclusively to Christian pedagogy, that teachers are to sacrifice themselves in order to
save children -- a salvation that has been conceived historically as religious, moral,
political, psychological or economical -- the thread running through this chapter is that
pedagogical practices are meaningful, ethical, democratic and effective only insofar as
the same hopes and ideals they have for students, are also conceived for teachers. What
could be called the sacred symmetry Dewey envisioned in teacher-student interactions
implies, to my mind, their inter-subjective transformation. I view pedagogical practices
then, as practices through which teachers are created and create themselves.
The trajectory of Dewey scholarship is quite remarkable. After strong interest in his
pedagogy around the world in the first four decades of the last century, between the
1950s and the 1970s the dominant tendency was to dismiss his thought as unrealistic or
no longer relevant, and to critique his political conceptions, both on the part of
conservatives and Marxists. But Dewey has returned with a vengeance, as can be
ascertained by the numerous publications since the 1990s, on his philosophy and
pedagogy.
Studies published before that last decade of the century focus on his educational theory
and his place within the progressive education movement in the United States. 4Since
then, there has arisen a very productive movement to reconstruct Deweys philosophical
2
correcting unfair privilege and deprivation. To create a common basis for shared
experience, teachers are to contribute to the creation of a social spirit of cohesion and
common understanding among all peoples and races, exorcising prejudice, isolation and
hatred.
By examining Deweys conception of the self in terms of teachers subjectivity, we can
envision the challenges and possibilities for self-creation that his pedagogy entails: a
self-creation through intense and meaningful interactions with other teachers, students,
knowledge and the world. All dualisms associated with the self are to be dissolved
through pedagogy, for they lead to the fragmentation of self and experience: thought and
emotion, instinct/impulse, desire and thought, the inner and the outer, interest and
will/effort, thought and experience, theory and practice, value and meaning, knowledge
and activity, habit and thought, self and society, self and world, ends and means, the
moral and the social. Deweys view of the self and experience is a kinetic and organic
one, that of a well crafted film where all images are related, and movement is
permanent. The self is essentially a process, a process of growth, not a fixed thing
(Dewey,1899: 102). It is part of a unifying movement (or experience) in which all
elements cease to stand in opposition to each other by becoming qualities of a single
intense and meaningful
a transformative
transaction between past and future experience, that selects useful aspects of past
experience, and modifies the quality of subsequent experiences.
The self is a contingent and unstable product of historical practices; even instincts are
not fixed, for their meaning is acquired; it depends upon interaction with a matured
social medium (Dewey, 1922: 65). Its limits are also labile rather than naturally fixed.
The subject and the object of knowledge and the individual and society are not two
separate realms. The historical conception and production of a spectator self, distanced
from the world and others, is a contingent notion and experience produced by
pedagogical practices and by the social arrangements of authoritarian societies.
Furthermore, the self is not divided into discrete powers or faculties; it interacts as a
whole with others and the world, and when this interaction is successful, all its powers
--
body,
physical
action,
instinct/impulse,
imagination,
feeling/emotion,
Knowledge is produced when self and world become united through experimental or
reflective thought, a contextual thought that problematizes the use of generalizations
abstracted from the initial conditions in which they are made. For Dewey, outside
context, outside the actual lived situation, meaning cannot be ascertained: in the reality
of a living spoken language, the utterance has no meaning except in the context of a
situation (Dewey, 1931: 4).
Like pedagogy, thought always stands to be corrected and can never be fully true; it is a
tentative moment of equilibrium that must seek its own demise by being tested as new
hypotheses in an endless circular movement. Pedagogical thought and experimentation
is a complex, dynamic act, and a point of synthesis of all the dimensions of the selves of
teachers and students; an action of mutual adaptation between self and world, between
teachers and students. Thought is produced under certain conditions that introduce
problems into the regular flow of experience: thinking occurs when things are uncertain
or doubtful or problematic. Where there is reflection there is suspense () all thinking
involves a risk. Certainty cannot be guaranteed in advance (Dewey, 1916a: 148). Real
thought unifies the subject and the object of experience through the absorption of the
self on the object or problem.
For Dewey through language we anticipate situations symbolically and imaginatively,
and are able to tap into the intellectual systematization of humanitys ideas and
concepts. Language is above all an instrument of communication: a means of sharing
ideas and feelings, and of creating a community of understanding and purpose. Through
communication a social self is formed, constituted by social agreements and
regularities. It is also the means for the sharing of experience that characterizes a
democratic society: the recognition of common interests and the creation of common
aims and aspirations.10
the teacher was questioned: that of experts (philosophers, theologians, pedagogues, and
later psychologists) and civil and religious authorities who since the seventeenth century
had tried to determine what and how the teacher taught and related to knowledge.
Dewey questioned the teachers situation in words that have an uncanny contemporary
ring: in the name of scientific administration and close supervision, the initiative and
freedom of the actual teacher are more and more curtailed (Dewey, 1925: 122) . In
pedagogy there should not be sharp distinctions between those who planned and those
who executed, for it did not allow the teacher to view the educational process as a
whole, rendering her work mechanical and alienating. Teachers were to be free to define
the ends, methods and subject matter of education; and they were to contribute to the
development of pedagogical theory.
It would be hard to find a more intellectually demanding and complex practice than that
conceived by Dewey. The teacher is to be a creator with an artists personal enthusiasm
and imagination, a similar intuitive and sympathetic understanding of pupils mental
movements and of the particularities of the educational situations of her practice, that
artists have of their materials (Dewey, 1924: 186). As an intellectual, she is to develop
knowledge about the growth of children and youth, the historical conceptions and
methods of pedagogy, contemporary society and its problems, and the structure and
content of academic subjects. But she is to be more than a bearer of knowledge: she has
to convert her knowledge into pedagogical hypothesis, and observe and reflect on the
pedagogical experiment.
At the center of these complex practices is Deweys idea of the use of experimental
method in teaching and learning practices. In its more general sense, method is the
personal way in which teachers and students act intelligently. There are, then, as many
methods as there are individuals. But in a more specialized sense, as the prototype of
intelligent human action, method is the experimental or reflective discipline of
thought to be enacted in schools. All Deweys prescriptions for teachers on the
organization of schools, on teaching practices, on the ordering of subject-matter, and on
the ways pupils are to be governed, have as their aim the production of experimental
thinking.
Teaching and learning are to begin with pupils concrete personal experience and grow
progressively detached from their particular viewpoint, in the direction of the abstract
and logically organized forms of learning. The starting point for experimental thought is
spontaneous, ordinary activity and experience of the pupil, within which a teachers
practices have to fall, cooperating with the flow of experience. Pedagogical
experimentation is a six-stage process. First, through teachers suggestions, ideas are
selected in order to deal with a perplexity experienced by students. Secondly, teachers
contribute to the intellectualization of the perplexity so that it becomes a genuine
problem. Thirdly, teachers and students design a hypothesis or plan of action, to guide
the observations and actions of the experiment. Fourthly, a supposition or conjectural
anticipation is formulated, regarding the possible consequences of the experiment.
Fifth, the hypothesis is tested by an overt or imaginative action. Finally, the effects of
pupils actions are observed, organized and reflected on. Through the constant repetition
of this procedure, the experimental mode of thinking would become a permanent habit.
In this experiment, academic subjects are integrated; they are used to shed light on the
experimental problem, rather than presented in the uniform manner of traditional plans
of studies. The teacher has to select subject matter that is useful for dealing with the
uncertainties and hypotheses that emerge from pupils experiences. The formal skills of
reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught during the process of carrying out these
experimental activities, and in subordination to them. The experiment also requires the
participation of pupils and teachers from different grades, in order to intensify the
continuity of their experience. The function of subject matter is also social, in terms of
the interpersonal and collective dimension of human experience that give rise to moral
problems. Teachers are to familiarize pupils with the weak places, the dark places, the
unsettled difficulties of our society (Dewey, 1916c: 195), and this knowledge is to be
articulated with the actions required for the resolution of social problems. Thus, history,
for example, is to be the study of the structure and functioning of the social mechanism
and its problems, for history deals with the past, but this past is the history of the
present () The true starting point of history is always some present situation with its
problems (Dewey, 1916a: 213-214).
Through their practices, teachers are also to create a continuity between school and life:
connect and generate conflict between their ordinary experience and that of pupils
7
outside schools; replicate in schools the experience of the community as a social and
productive organization; act on contemporary social forces; and transform the highly
formalized timetables and systems of classification and evaluation that create
discontinuities with ordinary life.
The teachers design of the educational situation has the aesthetic qualities of a dance:
balance, rhythm, harmonious interaction; both dancers -- teacher and pupil -- have to
follow, not so much each other, but the music, the flow of the reconstruction of
knowledge and experience. First, this means the maintenance of a delicate balance
between teachers actions and those of pupils, between too little showing and telling as
to fail to stimulate reflection and so much as to choke thought (Dewey, 1933: 334).
Second, the teacher has to connect the flow of her actions to those of pupils in order to
redirect them towards a continuous and focused course of action. Third, she is to
maintain the continuity of the class-room mental activity with that of other normal
experience, by drawing upon the ideas, interests and activities of pupils home and
community life, and by having pupils apply in daily life what they learn in school
(Dewey, 1899: 75). Fourth, the teacher is to observe the effects of the conditions she has
designed in terms of shifts in pupils experiences, and to adjust these conditions
accordingly. She is to observe the initial traits, habits, interests and needs of pupils, the
way they interact with the experimental situation, the effects of this interaction on their
initial experiences, and the direction in which their experience is heading. Examination
has to be unobtrusive, taking advantage of situations of free activity that best reveal
pupils natural tendencies, and focusing on their transformation, rather than on how
much they have learnt.
and pupils actions. These regulations are to be like those of games: clearly defined,
constitutive of the activity itself rather than externally imposed, and voluntarily
accepted by all, so that only unjust decisions are questioned but not the rules
themselves. Only by being allowed relative freedom of action can teachers and pupils
perceive the limits imposed by the freedom of others. But it is not freedom of feelings,
impulses, or actions that is to be sought, but mental freedom: the productive,
progressive, and democratic freedom intrinsic to experimental thinking. To be free is to
have the power to frame purposes () to evaluate desires by the consequences which
will result from acting upon them; power to select and order means to carry chosen ends
into operation (Dewey, 1938a: 64).
societies: a type of society where the necessary learning to live in the present and the
future had little to do with what adults learned in the past. It seems evident that children
and youth are forming themselves, individually and collectively, for a radically different
world from that of their parents and teachers. They are forming themselves for a much
faster world, constitutive of new subjective forms, and forms of thought and language,
that are eroding the monist and universalist sacredness of abstract thought: a world more
open to ambivalence and uncertainty in which their ways of experiencing and choosing
life-courses are not as tied as those of previous generations to effort, will or a
fundamentally rational calculus. This contemporary experience is based more on
practical and contextualized ways of thinking, and open to multiple non-discursive
languages: oral, dramaturgical, audiovisual and corporeal. 11
Deweys radical conception of the teachers intellectual, pedagogical and political
autonomy was founded on a vision that pedagogical practices are to be intrinsic goods,
ends in themselves, and in permanent reconstruction. This conception may be put in
action in a contemporary scenario that is dominated, in terms of public policy, by
conservative forces deeply distrustful of teachers and seeking to regulate with everincreasing intensity their classroom practices; managerial and privatization rationalities
are applied, the results of pupils standardized evaluations are used as the central
standard of the quality of education.
The crisis of authority of contemporary teachers can be viewed not only in relation
with the States and other agents regulation of teachers practices, but also in relation to
the practices of self-creation of children and youth. And this asymmetry between the
vital and reconstructive power of students that bears a plural and uncertain future, and
of a subject that, in many cases, defends the stabilities of modernity, can only be
resolved through the constitution of a shared experience that connects these differences
meaningfully. This shared experience is one in which teachers experiences become
reconstructive and vital, and students everyday experiences are also reconstructed in
schools through the steadier, more systematic, abstract and concentrated practices of
knowledge which are characteristic of academic disciplines.
12
13
A third dimension is the necessary tension, conflict and dialogue between pluralism and
commonality. The debate of communal pluralism versus liberal minimal commonality,
has continued to rage amongst philosophers of education for some time now. I believe
Deweys conceptions and prescriptions can help bridge the divide, for like others, it is a
duality he believes is artificial and leads to a fragmented experience. His prescriptions
for a plural and common educative experience are at the same time imaginative,
realistic and politically powerful: we live in a pluralistic world, so pluralism is
immanent to our individual and social experience. That is why teaching practices are to
be radically democratic, in the sense of creating the maximum possible shared
experience. This idea of shared experience underscores, to my mind, that what is shared
is different, and also that plurality can, paradoxically, only be intensified (and protected)
by way of reaching common agreements, based on different arguments.
Fourth and last are the mutual and necessary reconstructions, both in schools and
society, for the configuration of a radical democracy. Once more, bridging the dualist
opposition between those who view schooling as the primordial saving force of
society and those who believe little or nothing will change unless we transform society
and the State, Deweys conceptions and prescriptions show a powerful way out. Against
the first group, he argues that the configuration of a radical democratic experience in
schools is only possible in a radical democratic society; against the second, he would
argue that ethical and political transformative practices do not have a sacred scenario,
as some would hold (the State, political parties, trade unions), but have to constitute a
way of life, whose struggles take place in all institutions and in ordinary life.
Furthermore, he prescribes a permanent interaction and continuity between democratic
political actors and schools; one in which teachers and students actively contribute to
the political transformation of society, and political movements are engaged in the
educative experiences of schools.
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20
1 For an account of this in Latin America, see: Senz Obregn, 2004. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to examine the
many studies of Deweys appropriations in the United States and many other countries that support my general claim of
these partial appropriations; that on the one hand, tended to over-methodologize his ideas; and on the other, tended to
exclude his more radical conceptions of the self, knowledge, the teacher as intellectual, and schools as political sites. I refer
the reader to the following studies: Biesta and Miedema, 1996; Bykdvenci, 1995; Caicedo, 1995; Dussel and Caruso,
1998; Goodenow, 1990; Kliebard, 1987; Olkers, 1995; Olkers and Rhyn (eds), 2000; Popkewitz (ed.), 2005.
2 Such as Claparde, Decroly, Ferrire, Montessori, amongst others.
3 My narrative of Deweyan pedagogical discourse is based on his following writings: Dewey, 1895; 1897a, 1897b, 1899,
1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904a, 1904b, 1909, 1910, 1913, 1916a, 1916b, 1922, 1924, 1925, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932,
1934, 1936, 1937, 1938a, 1939b and Dewey and Dewey, 1915.
4 See, for example, Bernstein, 1987; Brubacher, 1956; Hook, 1974; Holmes, 1980; Kliebard, 1987; Peters (ed.) 1977;
White, 1972; Zilversmit, 1976.
5 See: Biesta, 1994,1994/95; Boisvert, 1994/95; Cunningham, 1994, 1994/95; Detlefsen, 1998; Fesmire, 1994/95; Garrison
1994/95; Holder, 1994/95; Jackson, 1994/95; Leach, 1994/95; Lehmann-Rommel, 2000; Marshall, J.D. (1994/95; Miedema,
1994/95; Shusterman, 1994/95; Tiles, 1994/95; Garrison, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999.
6 See:; Condliffe-Lagermann, 1996; Cruikshank, 1998; Fishman and McCarthy, 1998; Reese, 2001; Ryan, 1995; Seigfried,
1998.)
7 See: Biesta, 1994; Garrison 1997; Garrison et, al, 2014; Rosenow, 1993, Senz Obregn, 2008, Simpson et al. 2004.
8 See: Cunningham, 2014; Hansen, 2006; Harbour, 2014; Pring, 2007; Simpson et al., 2004.
9 Drawing from Zuluagas (1987) ground-breaking conceptualizations, I conceive pedagogy as a complex practice that
includes a conceptual dimension (on teachers, teaching, curriculum, childhood, knowledge, morality, discipline schools, the
ends of education, amongst other concepts); a prescriptive dimension (on how to teach, how to learn, how to govern pupils,
etc.); and a practical dimension.
10 See: Dewey, 1916a: 4, 32. For Dewey, language was not restricted to oral and written speech, it included gestures,
pictures, monuments, visual images.
11 On this, see: Martin-Barbero, 2004 and Reguillo, 2000.
12 On the separation between the inner and the outer in pedagogical discourse since the seventeenth century, see
Senz Obregn, 2013.
13 Some policy documents of this trend, are: Delors et al., 1996; Mangrulkar et al., 2001; Sinclair, 2004.