Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction
There are many ways in which conflict management definitions and concepts could be
organized, which in turn also will influence the way it is practiced. The different Conflict
management tasks will be easier to perform if definitions are broad and inclusive, focusing on
the specific problems in a conflict that need to be addressed, rather than trying to organize
every policy into perfectly worded definitions or assigning them to specific actors. The table
below provides a helpful point of departure for an overview of how the five different
approaches are played out in practice. We have chosen to look at the five "phases" in terms of
the problem that needs to be addressed, the actors who can perform the intervention, the tasks
that need to be carried out, and the target group of those actions. By using functional rather
than theoretical definitions, theory and practice are brought closer together.
1.2-Objectives of the study
To study the history and origin conflict
To study the Importance of Conflict Management
To study the strategies of Conflict Management
1.3-Significance of the study
This Study is important because it gives us an idea why is Conflict Management so
important in today competitive business environment. It shows us that through various
strategies of Conflict Management how organization could be helped to reduce the
conflict within and therby attaining the Goal of Profit Maximization.
1.4-Research Methodology
To undertake research for the current study secondary information was collected from
reference books, Published and unpublished Reports, Financial, News papers, Articles and
Websites.
1.5 Literature Review

a) Clive Johnson & Jackie Keddy in their book Managing Conflict at Work attempted to show
practical guidance on how to prevent, contain and resolve conflict in the workplace. This title
demonstrates how conflict management can have a powerful impact on the way organizations
channel their energies; encouraging positive mindsets and building stronger and happier
workforces
b) Bill Withers in the book The Conflict and Communication Activity Book attempts to show
that Every workplace has its share of conflict, and one of training's universal goals is to help
organizations resolve it in a way that brings benefit to everyone involved. This timely activity
book offers 30 ready-to-use exercises trainers can use to help workshop participants
communicate more effectively and create positive outcomes from conflict situations. The
Conflict and Communication Activity Book features: * Field-proven exercises from the
authors' worldwide experience * Easy-to-follow instructions for preparation, additional
reading, and Q & A processes * Valuable essays on handling conflict situations * An Exercise
Matrix to sort activities by type, length, and other parameters It also includes a jam-packed
Trainer's Toolbox containing more than sixty handouts, flipcharts, and overheads; workshop
agendas; instructions for breakout sessions; and tons more
c) S.M Abbas in his book Conflict management in libraries explains of how to overcome
conflict in places like library of school where absolute silence is Required.

Chapter 2:
Conceptual Frame work
Conflict: a serious Disagreement or Argument
Polarization: process that causes neutral parties to take sides in a conflict.
Conflict Management: Styles and ways to Manage conflict
Diplomacy: the profession, activity, or skill of managing international relations, typically by a
country's representatives abroad.
State building : A solution to Conflict Management

Chapter 3
Conflict Management
There are many ways in which conflict management definitions and concepts could be
organized, which in turn also will influence the way it is practiced. The different Conflict
management tasks will be easier to perform if definitions are broad and inclusive, focusing on
the specific problems in a conflict that need to be addressed, rather than trying to organize
every policy into perfectly worded definitions or assigning them to specific actors. The table
below provides a helpful point of departure for an overview of how the five different
approaches are played out in practice. We have chosen to look at the five "phases" in terms of
the problem that needs to be addressed, the actors who can perform the intervention, the tasks
that need to be carried out, and the target group of those actions. By using functional rather
than theoretical definitions, theory and practice are brought closer together.

Phase

Problem

Actors

Task

Target

Conflict

Rising

External/Interna

Prevent

Potential

Prevention

tensions,

l:

escalation

opponents,

Polarization,

International

Political

Militarizatio

Organizations

instigators,

(IOs),

Leadership/Eli

NGOs,

te

Governments

Peacemaki

Perceived

External/Imparti

Facilitate

Leadership/Eli

ng

incompatibili

al:

negotiation,

te

ty of interest

Mediators,

Mediate

IOs,

differences,

Foreign

Attain

governments

agreement

Peacekeepi

Destructive

External:

Monitor

Fighters,

ng

violence

Int'l & regional

ceasefires,

Conflicting

organizations,

Separate &

parties,

Military

demobilize

Militants

organizations,

parties,

Foreign

Enforce

governments

peace

Peace

Negative

External/Interna

Reconcile

Local &

building

attitudes,

l:

population,

national

Socio-

IOs, NGOs,

Rebuild

government,

economic

Governments

trust &

NGOs,

problems,

confidence,

Civil Society,

Trauma

Develop

Grassroots

economic
opportuniti
es

State
building

Collapsed

External/Interna

Restructure

Leadership/Eli

States,

l:

political &

te,

Weak

Int'l & regional

civil

Political

political

organizations,

institutions,

parties,

institutions,

NGOs,

(Re)build

Civil society,

Devastated

Governments

civil &

NGOs

Economy

economic
infrastructu
re

By asking what is being performed, why it is being performed, who is performing it and
who it targets, the distinction between the five different concepts becomes more logical.
Even if an attempt at Conflict Prevention usually takes place prior to rebuilding war-shattered
institutions (State building), one perspective does not preclude the other, and frequently they
need to interact. Whereas Peacekeeping missions target the warriors and are generally
performed by Peacekeeping forces, Peacemaking is diplomatic and focuses on the political
elite. Peace building, which is a multipurpose task, is often performed by local or regional
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), such as churches or civic groups. It is concerned
with healing and reconciliation and primarily targets the grassroots level of society. State
building deals with restructuring societys institutions, requiring close cooperation with the
governing elite.
Target Groups and Problems

When referring to the population groups that the different conflict management activities
focus on we talk about Target Groups. However, in a war-torn society, these groups are not
just the focus of externally led activities but they are also often involved as local actors in
reconciliation and peacemaking on their own. Although dividing a population into separate
groups for analysis is somewhat superficial, it is helpful for understanding the challenges and
tasks facing conflict management today. We have chosen to use a simple three-part division
of a population.
The elite: The top leadership is represented by military/political leaders with high
visibility, is usually led by a highly visible, single personality.
The middle range: The middle-range leadership is made up of respected "elders,"
academics, intellectuals, and leaders of non-governmental organizations (usually large
international agencies), who generally have to rely on persuasion and advice in order
to influence change in matters of war and peace.
The grassroots: The grassroots community makes up the bulk of the population in a
conflict and is often the group that has taken the heaviest casualties from the conflict.
Grassroots leaders have very little power to change top-level political decisions but
are central in providing the infrastructure for building participation at a local level.
The grassroots leadership consists of local activists and elders, leaders of indigenous
NGOs, health officials, refugee leaders, etc. These leaders are vital for creating
participatory civil societies in post-conflict situations.
The structure of the above mentioned three part division of society implies that
communication has to function not only on a horizontally between the adversaries engaged in
peacemaking, but also vertically, between these different levels of decision-making within the
home community. Ideas and proposals that emerge from a "top-down" perspective have no
foundation in a society if they dont bring up the grievances and problems that are
experienced by the population. Each level of a society needs to accept and embrace peace in
order for an agreement to be negotiated and implemented effectively. However, these
different groups often have very different needs, depending on their exposure to violence or
their role in the conflict. Whereas the grassroots population may need healing from trauma,
relief operations or empowerment programs, the leadership elite needs to be encouraged to
look beyond entrenched values towards common goals and visions. Often, by empowering

and encouraging the middle range leadership to explore options and pursue reconciliation
initiatives, they can act as catalysts for both the leadership and the grassroots to accept
change. The middle-range leadership often serves as a communication link between the other
two levels, making sure that top-down peace programs "trickle down" or that bottom-up
initiatives are heeded by the leadership. The successful management of a destructive conflict
thus requires work to "undo" the destruction of conflict on all levels of a society in order to
achieve peace.
Actors and Tasks
The actors engaged in conflict management and peacemaking can be internal or external,
international, regional or local. Ideally, societies deal with conflict by exposing it to the
political process, where competitive politics substitutes for direct violent confrontations.
However, in circumstances where states are either weak or collapsing or where a
participatory political system is absent, external actors may need to be deployed to carry out
some of the conflict management activities. Exactly who carries out the activities is not
imperative, as long as they property address the challenges that stand in the way of peace.
However, due to this problem-based approach, there is also a risk of different actors doing
overlapping activities without proper coordination.
The goal of any external intervention is in some ways to "make itself redundant," by training
and capacitating internal and local actors to manage and prevent conflict situations
independently without external help. The extent of external support needed will therefore
vary in each case depending on the severity of a conflict, the degree of collapse of a society
and the extent to which human and social capital is available. External actors therefore have a
vital role to play in terms of supplying the capability needed for creating a viable political
environment. The tasks that are carried out can be everything from funding local peace
initiatives to taking over the administration of a country during its transition.
Here are some examples of actors and tasks involved in the conflict management process:

External

Internal

Examples

International

National political

of Actors

Organizations

organizations, regional and

local government

Foreign Governments
Non-profit, nonGlobal non-

governmental local

governmental & non-

institutions

profit organizations
Citizen-participation
International Relief

groups and religious

Agencies

associations

Regional organizations

Local and traditional

leadership

Types of

Diplomacy (Track I+II),

Tasks

Negotiation &
Mediation

Track II Diplomacy
Administration &
Workforce

Demobilization & Peace

Enforcement

Implementation of Peace
Accords

Funding, Services &

Supplies

Knowledge and Knowhow

Organization &
Coordination

Services & Humanitarian

Assistance

Technical assistance &

training

Implementation &
Monitoring of peace
accords
Security Guarantees
Economic assistance

Diplomacy as Conflict Management

Conflict management activities carried out by foreign government representatives are usually
referred to as diplomacy. Since the time of Machiavelli, diplomats have become known as
the official link of communication between states and in the past diplomacy was often the
forum where the decisions on war and peace were ultimately taken. In their capacity as
foreign emissaries, diplomats today in embassies around the world handle everything from
cultural relations to trade and politics. The use of the term diplomacy can therefore be both
vague and misleading, especially if one is referring only to official political relations between
states in matters of war and peace. Because of this confusion the literature has come to
distinguish between track I & Track II diplomacy, where Track I represents the official
relations between states conducted by elite representatives, and track II refers to unofficial
communications between lower level officials, academics or intellectuals, whose
communications can potentially lead to higher-level communications in the future (a good
example is the Oslo Process between Israel and the Palestinians).
First Track, First Tier, or Track I Diplomacy, as it can be called, is therefore the
interaction between official state actors or elites that represent each party to a conflict. It also
often involves diplomats or officials of other states - partisan or non-partisan - in the capacity
of facilitators or mediators. However, Track I diplomacy refers not only to the actors

themselves but also to the processes used in conflict management. Usually Track I diplomacy
is overt, using open channels and with full knowledge of all parties involved, including their
consent and authorization. In order for Track I diplomacy to be worthwhile, diplomats have to
have the capacity to offer credible and non-retractable commitments and concessions. It is
therefore expected that Track I diplomats either have full decision-making capability or stand
in close contact with those individuals at the center of power whose consent is needed for any
agreement to be accepted.

Track I diplomacy has been used to determine rules for warfare and conditions of defeat. Yet,
in the past fifty years, the face of diplomacy has changed. More international contact and the
development of relations with states also mean more ministries, agencies, and other
organizations working under the auspices of official authority. This can be seen in regional
organizations becoming increasingly involved in international affairs and with them new
types of Track I diplomacy. More agencies and organizations are able to participate in
international relations yet at the same time, with the loss of concentration in representation,
there is more availability for representatives to be present in all stages of conflict
Second Track, Second tier, or Track II diplomacy is the interaction between lower-level
actors in a conflict. As with Track I diplomacy, this refers not only to the actors themselves
but also to the methods used during Peacemaking. Track II diplomacy provides supplemental
and parallel functions to help foster relations at various levels in support of Track I efforts.
Often times it seeks to carry out the mandates of Track I diplomacy but through more covert
and subtle means, through secret channels or lower-level official talks. The means and efforts
of the Track II diplomat extend beyond Peacemaking into the Conflict Prevention and Peace
building stages of conflict.
In recent years, a new level of diplomacy has emerged. Track One-and-a-half Diplomacy
refers to situations when official representatives give authority to non-state actors to
participate, negotiate and act on behalf of the state actors.

Empowering Local actors

External actors can do a good job of managing a conflict through peacekeeping or peace
enforcement, but there is unlikely to be true conflict resolution and transformation without
the involvement and commitment of local actors. Communication therefore needs to go in
three directions during a peace process: internally-externally between leaders of the local
parties and foreign sponsors or guarantors; vertically, between the leaderships of the
antagonistic parties; and horizontally, between the top leadership and the lower echelons of
both societies. A peace process implemented by a foreign sponsor that lacks the vertical and
horizontal elements is unlikely to properly address the real grievances of the parties involved
and may therefore fail to take root in local society. On the other hand, former enemies are
often unable to produce enough trust and reconciliation on their own to be capable of
implementing a peace process without the help of outsiders to guarantee their security. .
Local leadership thus has to be empowered on each level of diplomacy in order for
agreements to not be imposed from the top-down. Each leadership group has different tasks
and responsibilities:
The elite: The top leadership mainly focuses on high-level negotiations over ceasefires or peace agreements. Members of the elite either have the ability to make policy
related changes, or are in close contact with those leaders who have such decisionmaking capacity. In order for a peace process to "fly" with those groups who have
suffered and fought in a conflict, elites have to make sure that their constituents most
important grievances are addressed through the negotiations and that change although slow - is visible on the ground.
The Middle Range leadership: They focus on such issues as the coordination of
training in conflict resolution, the implementation of peace commissions, as well as
problem-solving workshops. The Middle Range leadership can often serve as a back
channel to top-level negotiators by engaging themselves in Explorative, or Track II
diplomacy. Because intellectuals and academics lack the public pressure exerted on
the political leadership, they are often free to be more creative in searching for new
options or alternatives. Because their decisions were not binding, the small group of
Arab and Israeli intellectuals who lay the groundwork for the Oslo agreement was
able to be much more flexible than those officials who were negotiating in the parallel
Washington process. When higher-level government officials became involved, much

of the facts had already been laid out on the table and previously unthinkable options
had been explored.
Grassroots: These leaders often have to carry the heaviest load of all the three
groups, in that they are faced with the largest target group, but with the least resources
and capabilities in terms of political decision-making. Tasks include grassroots
training, prejudice reduction, and socio-psychological work in reducing post-conflict
trauma of the many victims of violence. In short, the grassroots activists are
imperative for creating local peace and reconciliation between groups, but are often
unable to do so without top-down or foreign/external assistance.
For societies with little prior experience with representative government, the peace process
itself can be a good starting point for practicing increased citizen participation required for
future State building. Local actors can often carry out much of the administrative activities
of foreign sponsors and donors (such as humanitarian aid or development assistance), while
requiring less of the training. They are valuable for providing local access to target groups
and for identifying real needs and grievances both in preventive conflict situations and in the
stages of post-conflict reconstruction. Local actors on all levels also have a growing role
during Evaluation and assessment of conflict management activities, where money spent on
the right causes may be critical for the success or failure of a peace agreement.
There are thus important choices facing the external parties when investing in a peace
process, so as to follow the principle of "doing no harm". Grassroots are easily swayed by
demagogic or religious leaders who often use the manipulation of public sentiments as a
means in their struggle for power and popularity. As economic and social conditions in a
society worsen, be it because of the ongoing conflict or because of internal political
mismanagement, it is always very practical to put the blame on the enemy group. External
parties have to be careful not empower the "wrong" local elites in such a struggle. Looking
back at the breakdown of federal Yugoslavia, many analysts put the blame entirely on
Milosevic and the Serbian civilian/military elites who used "ethnic rallying" to bolster their
own power.
However, outside parties and sponsors also have to make sure not to leave out important
players from the process if these players are vital for the implementation of an agreement.
Outliers or extremist groups who are barred from negotiations or who opt out because their

demands are not met by an agreement, often feel that they have nothing to loose from
spoiling the process through extremist acts or terrorism. In some cases the most extreme
groups from either side of a conflict end up in an "unholy alliance" that opposes a peace
process, thus in a way projecting their own expectations of non-compliance on to the enemy.
What is conflict?
Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes,
beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences.
Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed
information is available.
Dealing with Conflict:
Conflict occurs when individuals or groups are not obtaining what they need or want and are
seeking their own self-interest. Sometimes the individual is not aware of the need and
unconsciously starts to act out. Other times, the individual is very aware of what he or she
wants and actively works at achieving the goal.
How do people respond to conflict? Fight or flight?
Physiologically we respond to conflict in one of two wayswe want to get away from the
conflict or we are ready to take on anyone who comes our way. Think for a moment about
when you are in conflict. Do you want to leave or do you want to fight when a conflict
presents itself? Neither physiological response is good or badits personal response. What
is important to learn, regardless of our initial physiological response to conflict, is that we
should intentionally choose our response to conflict.
Whether we feel like we want to fight or flee when a conflict arises, we can deliberately
choose a conflict mode. By consciously choosing a conflict mode instead of to conflict, we
are more likely to productively contribute to solving the problem at hand. Below are five
conflict response modes that can be used in conflict.

Why learn more about conflict and conflict management?

Listening, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and teamwork rank near the
top of skills that employers seek in their new hires.3 When you learn to effectively manage
and resolve conflicts with others, then more opportunities for successful team memberships
are available to you.
If we can learn to manage this highly probable event called conflict (we average five conflicts
per day), then we are less apt to practice destructive behaviors that will negatively impact our
team. Although conflict may be misunderstood and unappreciated, research shows that
unresolved conflict can lead to aggression. Most of us use conflict skills that we observed
growing up, unless we have made a conscious effort to change our conflict management
style. Some of us observed good conflict management, while others observed faulty conflict
management. Most of us have several reasons to improve our conflict-management skills.
Faculty members should help students develop their conflict management skills. Most people
do not resolve conflicts because they either have a faulty skill set and/or because they do not
know the organizations policy on conflict management. All team members need to know
their conflict styles, conflict intervention methods, and strategies for conflict skill
improvement.
Conflict is inevitable:
o Conflict develops because we are dealing with people's lives, jobs, children, pride,
self-concept, ego and sense of mission or purpose.
o Early indicators of conflict can be recognized;
o There are strategies for resolution that are available and DO work.
o Although inevitable, conflict can be minimized, diverted and/or resolved.

Beginnings of conflict:
Poor communication
Seeking power
Dissatisfaction with management style
Weak leadership
Lack of openness

 Change in leadership
Conflict indicators:
Body language
Disagreements, regardless of issue
Withholding bad news
Surprises
Strong public statements
Airing disagreements through media
Conflicts in value system
Desire for power
Increasing lack of respect
Open disagreement
Lack of candor on budget problems or other sensitive issues
Lack of clear goals
No discussion of progress, failure relative to goals, failure to evaluate the
superintendent fairly, thoroughly or at all.
The ingredients of Conflict:

Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise when we
ignore others' needs, our own needs or the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse
needs with desires (things we would like, but are not essential).

Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the

severity, causes and consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing
perceptions may come from: self-perceptions, others' perceptions, differing
perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat.

Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number
and types of conflicts that occur. This also influences how conflict is managed.
Conflicts can arise when people try to make others change their actions or to gain an
unfair advantage.

Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important. Serious

conflicts arise when people hold incompatible values or when values are not clear.

Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept the fact that the other party holds
something as a value rather than a preference.

Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major
influence over how they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people
ignore their own or others' feelings and emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings
and emotions differ over a particular issue.

Conflict is destructive when it:

Takes attention away from other important activities
Undermines morale or self-concept
Polarizes people and groups, reducing cooperation
Increases or sharpens difference
Leads to irresponsible and harmful behavior, such as fighting, name-calling

Conflict is not always negative:

Conflict is constructive when it:
Results in clarification of important problems and issues
Results in solutions to problems
Involves people in resolving issues important to them
Causes authentic communication
Helps release emotion, anxiety, and stress
Builds cooperation among people through learning more about each other; joining in
resolving the conflict
Helps individuals develop understanding and skills
In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed. Healthy conflict can lead to...
Growth and innovation
New ways of thinking
Additional management options

If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus that meets
both the individual's and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits and strengthens the
relationship. The goal is for all to "win" by having at least some of their needs met.
How public and private conflicts differ?
o Most of us have experience with conflict management and negotiation in private
disputes (with a salesman, among family members or with your employer).
o Public conflicts, like those that can occur during watershed management efforts and
other environmental issues often are rooted in trying to balance environmental
protection and economic growth and jobs.
o Keep in mind, however, that effective watershed management can result in both
economic and environmental benefits. Some complicating factors include:
Distribution of costs and benefits: Those who benefit may not be the same as
those who pay the costs.
Perceptions of problems: People tend to blame others for causing the problem.

WHAT DOES CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AIM AT:

Conflict Management aims to:

Prevent the eruption of destructive conflict.

Facilitate a move from violent to spoken conflict

Enable a transformation from conflict to lasting peace by addressing root causes

and effects of conflict.

The Conflict Management Toolkit identifies five devices or strategies of conflict
management:

Conflict Prevention

Peacemaking

Peacekeeping

Peace building

Conflict Prevention:
Conflict Prevention is the object of a wide range of policies and initiatives; its aim is to avoid
the violent escalation of a dispute. Conflict Prevention includes:

Monitoring and/or intervening to stabilize a potentially violent conflict before its

outbreak by initiating activities that address the root causes as well as the triggers of a
dispute.

Establishing mechanisms that detect early warning signs and record specific
indicators that may help to predict impending violence.

Using planned coordination to prevent the creation of conflict when delivering

humanitarian aid and in the process of development.

Institutionalizing the idea of preventing conflict at the local, regional, and

international levels.

The concept and practice of Conflict Prevention evolved from being focused almost
exclusively on Preventive Diplomacy, to a new more comprehensive approach that can be
defined as Structural Prevention. This new approach includes long-term initiatives targeting
the root causes of conflict. The evolution of Conflict Prevention as a practice will depend on
the necessary resources being committed to Conflict Prevention initiatives in the future.
Conflict Prevention faces serious problems in this respect because it is extremely difficult to
evaluate whether conflict prevention initiatives have been responsible for a conflict not
having happened.
It is possible to distinguish three sets of elements that compose the process of Conflict
Prevention:

The definition of the context with reference to the nature of a conflict, its causes, and
its cyclical phases;

The use of mechanisms to monitor indicators and signs to forewarn impending

violence; and

The selection of the specific initiatives to be taken.

Peacemaking:
The Peacemaking section of the Theory category focuses primarily on the negotiation
process, as it forms the basis for mediation, conciliation, and arbitration.
Definition: Peacemaking
Peacemaking is the diplomatic effort intended to move a violent conflict into nonviolent
dialogue, where differences are normally settled through representative political institutions.
The objective of peacemaking is to end the violence between the contending parties. A peace
agreement is the desired end result of negotiations; such an agreement can be comprehensive
or limited. To be sustainable, peace agreements have to include all key players of the
conflict, end destructive violence, which is often established through a ceasefire agreement,
and address the root causes of the conflict. The peace agreement should outline the means to
strengthen a non-violent process of conflict de-escalation that ultimately leads to the
transformation or resolution of the root causes of the violence. Peacemaking can be done
through negotiation, mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. International law provides
another channel through international ours
Peacekeeping:
Peacekeeping is a military third-party intervention to assist the transition from violent conflict
to stable peace. Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs) contribute to this goal providing security;
supporting and facilitating other non-military initiatives; and making available the tool of
military force. PKOs evolved from neutral monitoring missions to complex multi task
endeavors. Their effectiveness is heavily influenced by their institutional structure and by
practices at the operational level. A theoretical analysis of Peacekeeping should go beyond a
historical perspective, to define theoretical guidelines that help distinguish between different
types of missions. This distinction allows to best match the types of intervention with
conflicts; to guide training programs for peacekeepers; and to set the criteria to measure the
effectiveness of the operations.

Peace building:
These web pages outline target areas for Peace building efforts. For the complex process of
post-conflict reconstruction, all of these subject matters should be considered for a
comprehensive strategy.
Peace building is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and tries to
prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of conflict through
reconciliation, institution building and political as well as economic transformation.
Peace building initiatives are not limited to the post-conflict environment. Most of the tasks
described above are effective tools to prevent conflicts. Furthermore, a negotiated peaceagreement should include an agenda for reconstruction to secure sustainability. And during
peacekeeping missions the first steps into post-conflict reconstruction can be taken.
Reconstruction should be multidimensional and multi sect oral.
Peace building is complex and results materialize only in the medium and long-term. A great
number of agents engage in a wide variety of reconstruction efforts. These efforts include
addressing the functional and emotional dimensions of peace building in specified target
areas, such as civil society and legal institutions, among others. Evaluating the success and
failure of peace building efforts is therefore especially challenging.
Tasks

Create an environment conducive to self-sustaining and durable peace: Resolve

the problems of willingness to cooperate. Social and economic transformation is
paramount for the establishment of durable peace.

Reconcile opponents: Consider the psychological and emotional components of

protracted conflict and the relationships between antagonist groups.

Address structural and social factors: Direct efforts towards transformation of the
conditions that caused the conflict.

Prevent conflict from re-emerging: Create mechanisms that enhance cooperation

and dialogue among different identity groups in order to manage conflict of interests
with peaceful means.

Integrate civil society in all efforts: Include all levels of society in the post-conflict
strategy. Design political transformation to include civil society in decision making
(bottom-up and top-down approaches).

Establish mechanisms to handle issues of justice: Set up institutions that aim to

avoid impunity of crimes that were committed during the conflict (truth commissions,
war crime tribunals, fact finding missions).

Dimensions
In carrying out the tasks, Peace building should address all dimensions of society; the societal
and state structures as well as the emotional conditions of individuals.

Functional structures: Building institutions that provide procedures for channeling

conflict into acceptable solution mechanisms.

Emotional conditions and social psychology: So much less tangible than the
physical destruction of war, the effects of conflict on the psychology of individuals
and a society are as profound as they are neglected. If the attitudes that lead to conflict
are to be mitigated, and if it is taken that psychology drives attitudes and behaviors of
individuals and their collectivities, then new emphasis must be placed on
understanding the social psychology of conflict and its consequences.

Social stability: Restoring peaceful interaction among groups on the horizontal as

well as on the vertical levels.

Rule of law/ethics: Re-establishing social norms, the rule of law and ethics in the
population.

Cultural dimension: Understanding the needs and cultural peculiarities of the

affected groups.

Agents
Peace building targets all levels of society as well as all aspects of the state structure.
Therefore, a wide variety of different agents engage in the implementation of post-conflict
reconstruction. Notice that success requires local ownership, thus external agents
(international organizations and NGOs) can only facilitate and support Peace building, but
can never impose it.

International organizations intervene at the governmental level on request of the

affected country. Their engagement carries the legitimacy of the international
community, thus they have the ability to change and transform established structures.

Donor institutions provide the necessary funding for Peace building projects.
International organizations are the largest donors. Private foundations contribute
through project-based financing.

Regional institutions are international organizations with a regional mandate. They

fund and/or implement Peace building strategies

NGOs in most cases carry out small-scale projects to strengthen the grass-root level
of affected countries.

The Government of the affected country is subject as well as object of Peace

building. The government structures are often changed after conflicts. At the same
time, the government oversees and engages in reconstruction.

Specialists (lawyers, economists, scholars, educators, teachers) are employed to carry

out the specific Peace building projects. Their expertise plays an important role for the
reconstruction of the state and transformation of society.

Religious networks can play an important role for the reestablishment of moral
ethics. Their role might be questionable in cases where the conflict had been
aggravated by religious differences in the population.

Academia provides important insights for practitioners through research and theories,
which are derived thereof.

MANAGING CONFLICT

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Analyze the conflict
Determine management strategy
Pre-negotiation
Negotiation
Post-negotiation

Step 1: Analyze the conflict:

o The first step in managing conflict is to analyze the nature and type of conflict. To do
this, you'll find it helpful to ask questions.
o Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage.
You may want to actually interview some of the groups involved.
o
Step 2: Determine management strategy:
o Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved will need
to analyze and select the most appropriate strategy. In some cases it may be necessary
to have a neutral facilitator to help move the groups toward consensus.
Conflict Management Strategies:
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation
Avoidance

Collaboration
o This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win."
o This strategy is generally used when concerns for others are important. It is also
generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach helps
build commitment and reduce bad feelings.
o The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition, some partners may take
advantage of the others' trust and openness.
o Generally regarded as the best approach for managing conflict, the objective of
collaboration is to reach consensus

Compromise
o This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a
moderate concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose
some."
o This strategy is generally used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive
power struggles or when time pressures exist.
o One drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and long-term
objectives. This approach can also distract the partners from the merits of an issue and
create a cynical climate.

Competition
o This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with less
concern for others. The outcome is "win/lose."
o This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when basic
rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate
and losers may try to retaliate.

Accommodation
o These results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win."
o This strategy is generally used when the issue is more important to others than to you.
It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you recognize that you are
wrong.
o The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You may also
lose credibility and future influence.

Avoidance

o These results from a low concern for your group's own interests coupled with a low
concern for the interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose."
o This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other issues are more
pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more
information is needed.
o The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.

Conflict Analysis Exercise:

Think of a controversial issue to analyze. On a separate sheet of paper, answer these
questions.
Groups involved
Who are the groups involved?
Who do they represent?
How are they organized?
What is their power base?
Are the groups capable of working together?
What are the historical relationships among the groups?

Substance
How did the conflict arise?
How are the main and secondary issues described?
Can negative issues be reframed positively?
Are the issues negotiable?
Have positions been taken and, if so, are there common interests?
What information is available and what other information is needed?
What values or interests are challenged?

Possible strategies
Would consensus serve all interests?
Are there external constraints or other influences that must be accommodated?
What are the past experiences (if any) of the groups working together?
What is the timeline for a decision?
How will the public and the media be involved and informed?
Will an outside negotiator be needed?

Step 3: Pre-negotiation:
To set the stage for effective negotiation, the groundwork must be laid. The following should
occur prior to negotiation.
Initiation
One partner raises the possibility of negotiation and begins the process. If no one is willing to
approach the others to encourage them to reach an agreement, a trusted outsider could be
brought in as a facilitator.
Assessment
o Conditions must be right for negotiation to be successful.
o Key players must be identified and invited.
o Each side must be willing to collaborate with the others. Reasonable deadlines and
sufficient resources to support the effort must exist.
o Spokespersons for each group must be identified and involved.
o Parties need to determine which issues are negotiable and which are not.

Ground rules and agenda

o The groups must agree on ground rules for communication, negotiation and decision
making.
o They should agree on the objectives of the negotiation process.
o An agenda of issues to be covered needs to be developed.

Organization
o Meeting logistics must be established, including agreed upon times and places.
o People must be contacted and encouraged to attend.
o Minutes must be taken so that information can be distributed before and after
meetings.

Joint fact-finding
o The groups must agree on what information is relevant to the conflict. This should
include what is known and not known about social and technical issues.
o Agreement is also needed on methods for generating answers to questions.

Step 4: Negotiation:
Interests
o When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated positions.
o Interests include the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying positions.
Satisfaction of interests should be the common goal.
Options
o To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests.
o Do not judge ideas or favor any of the options suggested.
o Encourage creativity, not commitment.
Evaluation
o Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be discussed.
o Determine together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.

Written agreement
o Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding.
o This helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated clearly.

Commitment
o Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of the
agreement.
o Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor their
commitments.

When evaluating options...

o Use objective criteria for ranking ideas
o Make trade-offs among different issues
o Combine different options to form acceptable agreements

Step 5: Post-negotiation:
Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some
key steps include:

Ratification
o The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that have a role to
play in the agreement.
o These organizations should be partners and should have been involved in the previous
steps.
o Each organization will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt the
agreement.

Implementation
o You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement.
o Communication and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried out.

o The partnership will need to have a plan to monitor progress, document success,
resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.

Negotiation skills:
o Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts develop
at home, at work and when dealing with issues like those related to watershed
management. When negotiating...

Separate people from the problem:

When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique needs,
emotions and perceptions.
Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions:
These conflicts may exist mainly in peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put themselves
into the other's shoes so they can understand each other's point of view.
Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions:
Be careful not to place blame. In addition, recognize and understand the other side's emotions
as well as your own.

Interest vs. Position:

o People often confuse interests with positions.
o An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are many possible ways
of addressing this interest.
o One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another position might be a
deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organizing a clean-up day.

Focus on interests, not positions:

o Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up with better
agreements.
o Even when people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few shared
interests.
o It takes time and effort to identify interests.
o Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to write down each
group's interests as they are discovered.
o It helps to ask why others take the positions or make the decisions they do. Partners
will have multiple interests.
o Interests involving important human needs (such as security, economic well-being, a
sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are difficult to negotiate.
Develop optional solutions:
o When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to meet as
many of each side's interests as possible.
o Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision).
o Brainstorming is discussed in the Leading & Communicating guide.

Some obstacles to developing innovative options are:

Judging and rejecting prematurely
Searching for a single best answer
Putting limits on scope or vision
Considering only your own interests

To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different partners. Focus
on shared interests to make the process smoother for all involved. Look for meaningful
opportunities, not simple solutions.
Developing objective criteria:
o When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives, revisit the
conflicting interests.

o These can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin
developing criteria for judging alternatives.
o Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.

Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it helps to
explore the criteria used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with your partners or
outside experts.

Chapter 4
CONCLUSION
Productively engaging in conflict is always valuable. Most people are willing and interested
in resolving their conflicts; they just need the appropriate skill set and opportunities in which
to practice this skill set. Without a conflict skill set, people want to avoid conflict, hoping it

will go away or not wanting to make a big deal out of nothing. Research and personal
experiences show us that, when we avoid conflict, the conflict actually escalates and our
thoughts and feelings become more negative.
Through conflict self-awareness we can more effectively manage our conflicts and therefore
our professional and personal relationships. Furthermore, by discussing issues related to
conflict management, teams can establish an expected protocol to be followed by team
members when in conflict. All teams and organizations have a conflict culture (the way the
team responds to conflict). However, most teams never discuss what the conflict culture is,
therefore providing the opportunity for individual team members to make assumptions that
can be counterproductive to the team.
Practicing ones conflict management skills leads to more successful engagement in conflict
with outcomes of relief, understanding, better communication, and greater productivity for
both the individual and the team. When we manage our conflicts more effectively, we use less
energy on the burdensome tasks such as systemic conflict and get to spend more of our
energy on our projects at work and building our relationships. Below are references that can
assist both individuals and teams to greater conflict management success.
In a world where huge friction exists between individuals, Conflict Management becomes an
area which needs to be addressed very seriously & the topic should be inculcated in the BSchools & Corporate around the world.

Bibliography
The information has been collected from the following:
Websites as on 2016

www.soople.com

www.google.com

Organizational Behavior by Stephens Robbins.

The Times of India (Sunday Edition).

Power Point Presentations have been adapted from the text.