MSM1Aa CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

1. Exponentials and Logarithms to the Base a

Definition 1.1. Let 0 < a R. The exponential function to the base a is the function
expa : R R defined by the rule
expa (x) = ax .
Theorem 1.2. If 0 < a R, then:
(1) ax1 ax2 = ax1 +x2 for all x1 , x2 R;
1
(2) ax = x for all x R;
a
ax1
(3) x2 = ax1 x2 for all x1 , x2 R;
a
(4) (ax )r = arx for all x, r R;
Note that expa : R R+ is a bijection.
Definition 1.3. Let 0 < a R. The logarithm function to the base a is the function
loga : R+ R defined by the rule
loga (x) = y,

where ay = x.

So the logarithm to the base a of x is the power of a that is equal to x:

aloga x = x.
Theorem 1.4. If a R+ but a 6= 1, then:
+
(1) loga (x
2 ) = loga x1 + loga x2 for all x1 , x2 R ;
1 x
x1
(2) loga
= loga x1 loga x2 for all x1 , x2 R+ ;
x2
(3) loga xr = r loga x for all x R+ and all r R;
(4) x = aloga x for all x R+ ;
logb x
for all x R+ and all b 6= 1 R+ ;
(5) loga x =
logb a
It is not true that
loga (x1 + x2 ) = loga x1 + loga x2
or that
loga (x1 x2 ) = loga x1 loga x2

MSM1AA CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

2. The Exponential Function and the Natural Logarithm Function

Definition 2.1. The number e is the number such that the gradient of the tangent
to the function expe at the point (0, 1) is 1. The exponential function is the function
expe : R R. We write exp(x) or ex for expe (x).
The natural logarithm function is the logarithm function, loge : R+ R, to the
base e. We write ln(x)or sometimes log(x) for loge (x).
The derivatives of exp and ln:
Note first that because the gradient of exp at 0 is 1, we have
exp (0 + h) exp 0
eh 1
= lim
h0
h0
h
h

1 = exp0 (0) = lim

Now

d x
ex+h ex
ex (eh 1)
e = lim
= lim
h0
h0
dx
h
h
h
e 1
= ex lim
= ex
h0
h
dx
Moreover, if y = ln x, then x = ey so that
= ey and
dy

dx
dy
1
1
=1
= y =
dx
dy
e
x
so that, for x > 0,
d
1
ln x = .
dx
x

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

3. The Hyperbolic Functions

Definition 3.1. The hyperbolic sine function is the function sinh : R R defined
by the rule
1
sinh x = (ex ex ).
2
The hyperbolic cosine function is the function cosh : R R defined by the rule
1
cosh x = (ex + ex ).
2
There are four other hyperbolic functions:
sinh x
ex ex
1
2
tanh x =
= x
cosech x =
= x
x
cosh x
e +e
sinh x
e ex
cosh x
1
2
ex + ex
sech x =
= x
coth
x
=
=
cosh x
e + ex
sinh x
ex ex
3.1. Hyperbolic Identities.
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1
sinh(x y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
cosh(x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x
x
2t
1 + t2
: sinh x =
,
cosh
x
=
,
2
1 t2
1 t2
3.2. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

(1) sinh1 : R R, where sinh1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .

If t = tanh

dx
2
=
.
dt
1 t2

(2) cosh1 : [1, ) R+ , where cosh1 x = ln x + x2 1 .

1 1+x
ln 1x
2
Some mathematicians write either arcsinh x or argsinh x, arccosh x or argcosh x,
arctanh x or argtanh x instead of sinh1 x, cosh1 x, tanh1 x respectively.
(3) tanh1 : (1, 1) R, where tanh1 x =

MSM1AA CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

4
60
40

20
y2

0
-4

-2

x
-20
1

-40
-60

0
-2

-1

The graph of y = sinh x

The graph of y = cosh x

0.5

y
-4

-2

0
0
x
-0.5

-1

The graph of y = tanh x

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

4. Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Function
sinh x

Derivative
cosh x

Validity
All x

cosh x

sinh x

All x

tanh x

sech2 x

All x

cosech x
sech x
coth x
sinh1 x
cosh1 x
tanh1 x

cosech x coth x All non-zero x

sech x tanh x
2

cosech x
1

1 + x2
1

2
x 1
1
1 x2

All x
All non-zero x
All x
x>1
1 < x < 1

MSM1AA CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

5. Examples
Example. Show that

d
1
cosh1 x =
dx
x2 1

Solution. Let y = cosh1 x. By definition of cosh1 , y > 0 so that sinh y > 0.

Now x = cosh y and p
so dx/dy = sinh y. Hence dy/dx = 1/ sinh y. Since cosh2 y

sinh2 y = 1, sinh y = cosh2 y 1 = x2 1.

But sinh y > 0, so we take the positive square root and
d
1
cosh1 x =
.
2
dx
x 1

Example. Show that sinh1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .

Solution. Let y = sinh1 x, then
x = sinh y
so x = (ey ey )/2
hence 2x = ey 1/ey
or 0 = (ey )2 2xey 1.
This is a quadratic in ey , so solving for ey using the quadratic formula, we have

2x 4x2 + 4
y
e =
= x x2 + 1.
2

2
2
Since x 6 x +1, x 6 x2 + 1, so that x
x2 + 1 < 0. But ey > 0, so we
must take

the positive square root. Hence ey = x + x2 + 1 or sinh1 x = y = ln x + x2 + 1 .

Example. Find all real solutions, if any, of the equation
5 tanh x + 4 sech x = 4
Solution. Now

so

5 tanh x + 4 sech x = 4
1
sinh x
+4
= 4
so 5
cosh x
cosh x
or 5 sinh x + 4 cosh x = 4
5 x
4
(e ex ) + (ex + e1 ) = 4
2
2
i.e. 9ex ex = 8.

Multiplying through by ex , we get a quadratic in ex :

9(ex )2 + 8ex 1 = 0, so (9ex 1)(ex + 1) = 0. Since ex > 0 for all x R, the only
possible solution is 9ex = 1 or x = ln(1/9) = ln 9 = 2 ln 3.

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

1.5

0.5

0
-1

-0.5

y 0
0

0.5

x
-0.5

0.5

-1

-1.5

The graph of y = tan 1x

0.5

The graph of y = cos1 x

1.5

-3

The graph of y = sin1 x

x
-0.5

-0.5

-2

-1.5

-10

-1

x
-1

-1

-20

10

20

MSM1AA CALCULUS: EXPONENTIALS, LOGARITHMS AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

6. Trigonometric Identities
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
sec2 x tan2 x = 1
sin(x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y
cos(x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x
tan x tan y
tan(x y) =
1 tan x tan y
2 sin x cos y = sin(x + y) + sin(x y)
2 cos x sin y = sin(x + y) sin(x y)
2 cos x cos y = cos(x + y) + cos(x y)
2 sin x sin y = cos(x + y) cos(x y)
x
2t
1 t2
dx
2
If t = tan : sin x =
,
cos
x
=
,
=
.
2
1 + t2
1 + t2
dt
1 + t2

Chris Good, Nov. 06