Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

Quick revise
Both processes produce ATP from substrates but the Krebs cycle produces many more ATP
molecules than glycolysis! Every stage in each process is catalysed by a specific enzyme.
In aerobic respiration both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are involved whereas in anaerobic
respiration only glycolysis takes place.
The flow diagram shows that every time a stage produces two hydrogen atoms, in the
presence of oxygen, three ATP molecules are produced. The role of these hydrogen atoms
is shown in the electron carrier system.
Electron carrier system
The main feature of the electron carrier or electron transport system is that three ATPs are
produced every time 2H atoms are transported. It takes place in the mitochondria.

Glycolysis summary
ALL THE REACTIONS IN GLYCOLYSIS TAKE PLACE IN THE CELL CYTOPLASM
(OUTSIDE THE MITOCHONDRION)
Glucose is a stable molecule containing 6 Carbon atoms

Glucose contains many C-H bonds and contains significant energy

During GLYCOLYSIS one glucose molecule is split into two PYRUVATE molecules.
Each PYRUVATE molecule contains three carbon atoms

As glucose is a stable molecule it must first be made into a less stable FRUCTOSE
BISPHOSPHATE molecule before it can be broken down. This requires the input
of energy
(2 x ATP)
FRUCTOSE BISPHOSPHATE is split into two TRIOSE PHOSPHATE molecules

The two TRIOSE PHOSPHATE molecules are converted into two GP molecules,
releasing energy (2 x ATP), and Hydrogen. Hydrogen is picked up by NAD to form
reduced NAD (redNAD). The Hydrogen is taken to the mitochochondria where is is
used to generate
ATP by OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
2GPs are converted into two PYRUVATE molecules releasing energy (2 x ATP).
Thus at the end of GLYCOLYSIS, one glucose mocule has generated
2 pyruvate molecules (to the LINK REACTION)
2 ATP molecules (2 input, 4 output)
2 red NAD molecules (to OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION)
NO CO2 is produced by glycolysis
The LINK REACTION
Overview
Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)which
enters the Krebs Cycle
No ATP is generated
H is released producing reduced NAD for Oxidative Phosphorylation
CO2 is released
The LINK REACTION step by step
Pyruvate(X2) is produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis
It is moved by active transport into the mitochondrial matrix
A series of chemical changes occur:
o decarboxylation (CO2 removed) by pyruvate decarboxylase
o Dehydrogenation (H removed) by pyruvate dehydrogenase
o An Acetyl group (2C) is produced which reacts with Coenzyme A to
form Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA is the end product of the Link Reaction and is needed for the next stage
of cell respiration: Krebs cycle(also called the Citric Acid cycle)

note that the Coenzyme A is not used up in the Krebs Cycle but is recycled back to
the link reaction to make another Acetyl CoA molecule - thus Coenzyme A acts as
a carrier for the acetyl molecule
The Yield of the Link Reaction

o One CO2 molecule per pyruvate (waste product)

o One (2 carbon) Acetyl group per pyruvate for Krebs Cycle

o One reduced NAD molecule per pyruvate for Oxidative Phosphorylation

Acetyl Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A is made up of vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), Adenine and Ribose.
CoA carries the acetyl group (as Acetyl CoA) from glycolysis to Krebs cycle and is
repeatedly recycled
Most molecules used by living organisms for energy are converted into Acetyl CoA

Respiration of Fats
Fats Fatty acids and glycerol

Glycerol triose phosphate for glycolysis

Fatty acids 2C chunks acetyl CoA to Krebs Cycle
In reverse - excess Carbohydrate can be converted into fats via acetyl CoA
Krebs Cycle Overview
Also known as the Citric Acid cycle, it was discovered in 1937 by Hans Krebs
Krebs Cycel is a series of 9 enzyme controlled reactions that breakdown Acetyl CoA
into CO2
Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
The 2C Acetyl molecule is broken down into:
o

2 x CO2 molecules (waste product)

o releasing energy to build up 2ATP molecules,

o releasing H carried by NAD (red NAD) and FAD (red FAD) to generate
more ATP via oxidative phosphorylation
Krebs Cycle Step by Step
The (2C) acetyl group from AcetylCoA combines with (4C) oxaloacetate to make
(6C) citrate
Citrate is decarboxylated (removal of CO2) and dehydrogenated (removal of
Hydrogen) to give a 5C compound, CO2 and reduced NAD.
Further decarboxylation and dehydrogenation gives the 4Carbon compound
oxaloacetate, CO2, reduced NAD, reduced FAD and ATP.
The 4C oxaloacetate combines with a new molecule of acetyl CoA and the cycle
starts again hydrogen carriers take H to the electron transport chain.

Energy and ATP

Quick revise

Without maintenance a building becomes derelict. All things become disordered. Energy
input is needed to maintain order
Specifically, energy is needed for:
Synthesis of complex molecules eg proteins from amino acids
Active transport (c. 50% of ATP used for this in resting mammal)
Mechanical work eg muscle contraction, movement of microtubules, cilia, flagella,
movement within cells
Bioluminescence and electrical discharge, eg fireflies, electric eel
Maintenance of warm body temperature
The Importance of Photosynthesis
The source of almost all energy on earth is sunlight.
Living organsisms:
Convert light energy to (stored) chemical energy
Build up inorganic Carbon (CO2) into organic molecules (containing Carbon and
Hydrogen)
AUTOTROPHS can use inorganic Carbon to build up molecules, those which must use
organic C sources are HETEROTROPHS.
Respiration
Respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis - it is the breakdown of organic molecules to
release the stored chemical energy for the cell's specific needs.
Energy is stored organically in the form of glucose (C 6H12O6) during photosynthesis and
released during respiration.

Respiration takes place as a series of small steps for 2 reasons:

this allows precise control via feedback mechanisms
it also avoids a sudden release of a lot of energy which would be difficult to harness
Glucose is a stable compound and the high activation energy must be lowered by enzymes
and by raising the energy level of glucose by phosphorylation (adding phosphate groups).