METHODS OF MAKING SALTS & TESTS for IONS & GASES

Doc Brown's Chemistry GCSE/IGCSE ScienceChemistry Revision Notes

The pH scale of acidity and alkalinity, acids, alkalis, salts and neutralisation

6. Methods of making salts and chemical tests for salts (for GCSE Level)

These revision notes on methods of making salts and chemical tests for ions (positive cations and negative anions)
should prove useful for the new AQA chemistry, Edexcel chemistry & OCR chemistry GCSE (91, 9-5 & 5-1) science courses.

How do we make salts? What preparations are available to us?

Four basic methods for preparing salts are described on this page, with annotated diagrams.
BEFORE preparing a salt there are two important facts to know ...
(i) Is the salt is soluble or insoluble?
(ii) If using a base, is it soluble (alkali)? or insoluble?
... because these facts decide which method you use!
Method (a) Making a salt by neutralising a soluble acid with a soluble base (alkali)
Method (b) Making a salt by from an acid with a metal or insoluble base oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
Method (c) Preparing an insoluble salt by mixing solutions of two soluble compounds
Method (d) Making a salt by directly combining its constituent elements
A summary of chemical tests to identify ions in a salt, hence the identity of a salt
For chemical analysis analysts have developed a wide range of qualitative tests to detect specific chemicals which may be
molecules or ions. Chemical tests are based on reactions that produce a gas with distinctive properties, or a colour change
converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

produced by adding a reagent or the production of an insoluble solid that appears as a precipitate.
Apart from knowing how to make salts, you need to know how to identify salts and other compounds from their constituent
ions. There is no single test for a salt, you must do at least two tests to confirm the identity of the two constituent ions. Most of the
methods described below are simple precipitation tests.

Tests for METAL IONS cations (positive ions)

Simple method for a flame test to identify metal ions: The metal salt or other compound is mixed with concentrated
hydrochloric acid and a sample of the mixture is heated strongly in a bunsen flame on the end of a cleaned nichrome
wire (or platinum if you can afford it!). Before doing the test the nichrome/platinum wire should be cleaned in conc.
hydrochloric acid and heated in the hottest part of the flame to make sure there is no contaminating flame colours. It doesn't
matter whether the salt compound is soluble or insoluble.
the lithium ion Li+ gives a red-crimson (carminered) colour in the flame

the sodium ion Na+ gives a yellow-orange colour in the flame

the potassium ion K+ gives a lilac-purple colour in the flame

the calcium ion Ca2+ gives a brick red colour in the flame

the copper ion Cu2+ gives a bluegreen colour in the flame

A nonchemical test method for identifying elements atomic emission line spectroscopy
An instrumental method for METALS from LINE SPECTRA

If the atoms of an element are heated to a very high temperature in a flame

they emit light of a specific set of frequencies (or wavelengths). These are all
due to electronic changes in the atoms, the electrons are excited and then lose
energy by emitting energy as photons of light. These emitted frequencies can
be recorded on a photographic plate, or these days a digital camera.
Each emission line spectra is unique for each element and so offers a
different pattern of lines i.e. a 'spectral fingerprint' by which to identify
any element in the periodic table .e.g. the diagram on the left shows some of
the visible emission line spectra for the elements hydrogen, helium, neon,
sodium and mercury.
Note the double yellow line for sodium, hence the dominance of yellow in its flame test colour. In fact the simple flame
test colour observations for certain metal ions relies entirely on the observed amalgamation of these spectral lines.
This is an example of an instrumental chemical analysis called spectroscopy and is performed using an instrument called
an optical spectrometer (simple ones are called spectroscopes). This method, called flame emission spectroscopy, is
a fast and reliable method of chemical analysis. This type of optical spectroscopy has enabled scientists to discover
new elements in the past and today identify elements in distant stars and galaxies. The alkali metals caesium (cesium)
and rubidium were discovered by observation of their line spectrum and helium identified from spectral observation of our Sun.

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

You can use the flame emission effect to measure the concentration of metal ions in solution.
Using a flame photometer instrument you can do quantitative analysis
based on the light emitted from a solution of a metal ion.
The sample is evaporated at high temperature in a flame and the
light emitted is measured with a special detector.
You can determine the precise concentration of a metal ion in
dilute solution by using a calibration curve (right).
Solutions of known concentration are tested and a measure of
the emitted light (flame photometer signal) can be plotted against
the concentration to produce a linear calibration curve with an x,y
origin of 0,0
Then, a solution of unknown concentration can be tested with

the same set-up, and from the emitted light value you can
obtain the unknown concentration from the calibration curve.
You can use special light filters to exclude the colour produced by other ions that may be present so
improving the accuracy of a specific metal ion measurement.
Many instrumental methods of analysis are available and that these can improve sensitivity, accuracy and speed of
tests. More on instrumental methods of analysis

Quiz on identifying salts and other compounds

Some metal ions (cations) can be identified by the formation of coloured precipitates with sodium hydroxide solution
The nonmetallic ion, the ammonium ion, can be detected with the same reagent, sodium hydroxide, because ammonia gas is
released, especially if the mixture is gently warmed.
A few drops of sodium hydroxide solution are added to a solution of the salt under investigation to see if any precipitate (insoluble
solid) is formed, and, from the observations e.g.

Metal ion detected

colour of precipitate with NaOH

ionic equation for the reactions

white precipitate

Ca2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) ==> Ca(OH)2(s)

blue precipitate (3 in diagram below)

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s)

dark green precipitate (1 in diagram below)

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) ==> Fe(OH)2(s)

orangebrown precipitate (2 in diagram below)

Fe3+(aq) + 3OH(aq) ==> Fe(OH)3(s)

white precipitate (4a in diagram below), which

dissolves in excess to give a clear colourless
solution (4b in diagram below)

Zn2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) ==> Zn(OH)2(s)

calcium, Ca2+
colourless
copper(II), Cu2+
blue
iron(II), Fe2+
pale green
iron(III), Fe3+
orange
zinc, Zn2+
colourless

Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH(aq) ==> Zn(OH)4]2(aq)

aluminium, Al3+

white precipitate, which dissolves in excess, to

give a clear colourless solution (same as zinc ion,

Al3+(aq) + 3OH(aq) ==> Al(OH)3(s)

colourless

4a + 4b in diagram below)

Al(OH)3(s) + OH(aq) ==> [Al(OH)4](aq)

ammonium, NH4+

no precipitate formed, but ammonia gas released

which you can smell, the gas turns damp red
litmus paper blue

NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) ==> H2O(l) + NH3(g)

colourless

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

************************** ************************************************************** ********************************************************

The above reactions are illustrated in the diagram below

For more on ionic equations see How to write equations and Making salts by precipitation

Quiz on identifying salts and other compounds

Tests for NONMETAL IONS anions (negative ions)

Tests to detect and identify halide ions X, the negative ions (anions) formed from the halogens, chloride, bromide and iodide.
To the suspected halide ion solution add a little dil. nitric acid and a few drops of silver nitrate solution.
Depending on the halide ion you get a different coloured silver halide precipitate, summarised below.
halide ion

Ionic equation to show precipitate formation

chloride Cl

Colour of precipitate with silver nitrate

white precipitate of AgCl silver chloride (slowly
darkens when exposed to light)

bromide Br

cream precipitate of AgBr silver bromide

Ag+(aq) + Br(aq) ==> AgBr(s)

Iodide I

yellow precipitate of AgI silver iodide

Ag+(aq) + I(aq) ==> AgI(s)

Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) ==> AgCl(s)

The silver nitrate tests for halide ions is illustrated in the diagram below.

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

You can only use this silver nitrate test on soluble chlorides.

Quiz on identifying salts and other compounds

Test for the carbonate ion CO32

Addition of dil. hydrochloric acid to any carbonate or hydrogen carbonate results in fizzing! The
effervescence is due to the evolution of carbon dioxide gas. If a sample of the evolved gas is
carefully collected and bubbled into limewater a white precipitate is formed. The formation of
the carbon dioxide confirms the original compound was a carbonate. It doesn't matter whether the
compound is soluble or insoluble.
carbonate + acid ==> salt + water + carbon dioxide
The ionic equation is

CO32(s) + 2H+(aq) ==> H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Test for the sulfate ion SO42

The suspected sulfate is dissolved in water. A little dilute hydrochloric acid added followed by a few
drops of barium chloride solution. If a sulfate is present a white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed.

barium ion + sulfate ion ==> barium sulfate

Ba2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)
This can only be done on soluble sulfate compounds.

Quiz on identifying salts and other compounds

Qualitative TESTS for common gases

CHEMICAL TEST
FOR ...

TEST METHOD

OBSERVATIONS

Chemical equation and comments

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

hydrogen
gas H2 a

Apply a lit splint or

spill.

A squeaky pop!

Bubble the gas into

limewater (aqueous
calcium hydroxide
solution).

It turns cloudy fine

milky white
precipitate of calcium

colourless
and odourless gas

Chemical test for

carbon dioxide gas
CO2 a colourless and
odourless gas

Chemical test
for oxygen gas

Apply a glowing
splint or spill.

2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l) + energy!

(might see
condensation on test
tube)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ==> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l

carbonate. BEWARE

It reignites to
a flame.

C(in wood) + O2(g) ==> CO2(g)

The relighted splint is mainly combustible
carbon.

O2 a colourless
and odourless gas

Chemical test
for ammonia
gas NH3

Damp red litmus.

colourless gas with a

strong pungent odour

(i) Litmus turns blue.

(i) Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas.

(ii) Gives white

clouds with HCl

(ii) It forms fine ammonium chloride crystals with

HCl

fumes.
Apply damp blue
litmus. (Can use red
litmus and just see
bleaching effect.)

Chemical test for

chlorine gas Cl2
pungent green gas irritating and
potentially toxic if
breathed in - take
care!

(i) litmus turns red and

then is bleached
white.

Nonmetallic chlorine is acid in aqueous solution

and a powerful oxidising agent which is why
you get the double colour change and its the
bleaching effect that distinguishes chlorine for
some other acidic gases.

Quiz on identifying salts and other compounds

Quiz on identifying salts and other compounds

ALL chemical tests for GCSE/IGCSE/A Level etc.
GCSE/IGCSE Acids & Alkalis revision notes subindex: Index of all pH, Acids, Alkalis, Salts Notes 1. Examples of
everyday acids, alkalis, salts, pH of solution, hazard warning signs : 2. pH scale, indicators, ionic theory of acidsalkali
neutralisation : 4. Reactions of acids with metals/oxides/hydroxides/carbonates, neutralisation reactions : 5. Reactions
of basesalkalis like ammonia & sodium hydroxide : 6. Four methods of making salts : 7. Changes in pH in a
neutralisation, choice and use of indicators : 8. Important formulae of compounds, salt solubility and water of
crystallisation : 10. More on AcidBase Theory and Weak and Strong Acids
See also

Advanced Level Chemistry Students AcidBase Revision Notes use index

6. METHODS of MAKING SALTS salt preparation procedures, now on four separate pages
6a. METHOD (a) Neutralising a soluble acid with a soluble base (alkali) to give a soluble salt
6b. METHOD (b) Reacting an acid with a metal or with an insoluble base to give a soluble salt

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

6c. Method (c) Preparing an Insoluble Salt

6d. Method (d) Making a salt by direct combination of elements
Water of crystallisation is dealt with in section 8.
Salt solubility affects the method you choose to make a salt and so

section 8. contains tables of informationdata on salt solubility

which will help you decide on the method to prepare a salt.

Multiple choice revision quizzes and other worksheets

GCSE/IGCSE foundationeasier multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases, Neutralisation and Salts
GCSE/IGCSE higherharder multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases, Neutralisation and Salts
GCSE/IGCSE Structured question worksheet on Acid Reaction word equations and symbol equation questions
Word equation answers and symbol equation answers)
GCSE/IGCSE wordfill worksheet on Acids, Bases, Neutralisation and Salts
GCSE/IGCSE matching pair quiz on Acids, Bases, Salts and pH
See also

Advanced Level Chemistry Students AcidBase Revision Notes use index

Revision notes on methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE/O level Chemistry Information
on methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts for revising for AQA GCSE Science, Edexcel Science chemistry IGCSE
Chemistry notes on methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts OCR 21st Century Science, OCR Gateway
Science notes on methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts WJEC gcse science chemistry notes on methods for
making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts CIE O Level chemistry CIE IGCSE chemistry notes on methods for making salts
procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts CCEA/CEA gcse science chemistry (help for courses equal to US grade 8, grade 9 grade 10) science
chemistry courses revision guides explanation chemical equations for methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts
educational videos on methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts guidebooks for revising methods for making salts
procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts textbooks on methods for making salts procedures for preparing salts tests for ions in salts

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

SEARCH
Enter specific words e.g. topic, formula, compound, reaction, anything!

converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com