A Short Manual of Comparative Philology For Classical Students Giles

SHORT MANUAL
OF
COMPAKATIYE PHILOLOGY
FOR CLASSICAL STUDENTS
BY
P.
GILES
M.A.
FELLOW AND LECTUKEB OF EMSIANUEL COLLEGE

AND KEADEE IN COMPARATIVE PHILOLOQT
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
fj,ddos
5',
&s jU^y vOp vytrjs, eipri^vos îttui
Hon&on
MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YOEK
1895
[Âll
Rights reserved]
CO.
CambttBgE
FEINTED B
J.
AND
i;.
F.
CLAY,
AT THE UNIVEBSITT PEESS.
PKEFACE.
MORE than
to write
lology for
six years
"A
Classical
have passed since
undertook
Short Manual of Comparative PhiStudents."
Considerable progress
had been made with the work and several sheets were
already printed off when in 1890 and again in 1891
such large additions were made to my work as a teacher
in the University that it was impossible for me to complete the book immediately.
Hence the long delay
between its first announcement and its appearance.
The book is intended for the use of Classical
who, without being professed students of
Comparative Philology, desire some acquaintance with
Accordits principles as applied to Latin and Greek.
students
ingly Parts II and III are devoted to what
is
practically
a comparative grammar of those languages. As the

book is not intended for comparative philologists I
have not adduced, except in a few instances, words

from Sanskrit or other languages of which the reader
was likely to know nothing. On the other hand it

seemed worth while to cite, where possible, forms from
English, or from other members of the group of languages to which English belongs, when they have cogFor the same reason
nates in the classical languages.
PREFACE.
VI
that
it
is
better to proceed from the
unknown than vice versa

Part I are drawn from
account
many of the
English.
known
to the
illustrations
But though some
necessarily incomplete has been given of the

which the same word assumes in English
the classical languages, no attempt has been
treat English otherwise than as illustrative of
different forms
and
in
made
to
Latin and Greek.
have endeavoured throughout to keep the needs of

Hence, in not a few instances,
the same point will be found discussed several times in
different parts of the book, my design being to elucidate
I
the learner before me.
in this
manner the
different bearings of
facts in the science.
seemed
for it
originality
to
me
some important
have not aimed at originality,
that, in a subject of this nature,
must frequently mean the propounding of
hypotheses which the circumstances of the case or the

limits
would render it impossible to prove.

more objectionable in an elementary work on
of space
Nothing
is
a comparatively
new
new
subject than to state dogmatically
theses, the truth or falsity of
which the learner
has no means of testing, while his belief in the results

of the investigation as a whole may be rudely shaken
by finding that what he has accepted as sound is presently shown to be the contrary.
On the other hand,
even had it been advisable, it would have been impossible, within the space at
my
disp(Dsal, to discuss all
the various views of authorities on the

unsettled with which the
many
questions
book deals.
I have
therefore put in the text what seemed to me after
careful consideration to be the most plausible view in
such cases, while in the footnotes I have given other
views which seemed worthy of mention.
Where no
still
PREFACE.
Vll
existing explanation seemed to cover satisfactorily all
the facts
of the case, or where for other reasons no
certain conclusion could be reached,
I have indicated
doubts in the text or footnotes. The notes are
intended neither to be a bibliography nor to give neces-
my
the originator of the view which is mentioned, but

only to indicate where a discussion of the subject in
.sarily
hand may be found. Advanced students will find a

bibliography in Brugmann's Grundriss which, the Syntax excepted, has now been translated into English.
Books or papers which have appeared since the completion of Brugmann's
Phonology and MorpJwlogy have

been referred to more freely in the belief that the
student would find such references useful.
The first part of the book has been made as simple

and as free of symbols as possible. In the other parts
symbols were necessary and, in order not to confuse
the learner, who, it may be hoped, will pass from this to
I have employed those used by Professor
Brugmann. His Grundriss is at present the standard
book of reference and without a rival. It seemed better
therefore to adopt his system of symbols though somewhat complicated than to harass the serious student b}'making him pass from one system to another. It was
not without hesitation that I came to this conclusion.
To the difference in terminology and symbols must be
attributed, I think, the wide-spread belief in England
that the New Philology represented by Brugmann and
others is something different in its nature and results
from the Old Philology that was taught by Curtius and
There is no doubt a difference, but it
Schleicher.
larger works,
is
The
new school were recognised and enunci-
a difference not of character but of degree.
principles of the
PREFACE.
Vlll
ated by Curtius and Schleicher.
The
difference is that
the older philologists applied these principles less rigidly

than their successors. This difference in the application
of the principles no doubt
makes considerable differences

But there is no more
here and there in the results.
reason to suppose the foundations of the science shaken

on that account than there is to doubt the principles of
Physical Science because the theory of the formation of
dew which served as a model of scientific induction for
many
generations
of
hand-books
on Logic has now
given place to another.
The Syntax of the Noun was already completed

when Delbriick's large treatise (the continuation of
Brugmann's Grundriss) appeared. My treatment of the
subject was based, as any such treatment must necessarily be, on Delbriick's earlier books and papers, and I
did not find it necessary to make any changes.
Some
of his
new views
are indicated in the footnotes, but,
like several of his reviewers,
think that Delbriick's
second thoughts, contrary to the proverb, are not always

the wiser.
For the extraordinarily

parative Syntax of the
difficult subject of
the
Moods and Tenses there
Comis,
at
no complete authoritative work in existence.

I had therefore to do what I could avToStSaKTos, though
for Greek and Sanskrit I had Delbruck's Siintdktische
Foischungen to guide me. Here as elsewhere Latin is
present,
more
and has been less studied from the comof view than other languages.
The
syntactical examples I have borrowed freely from the
ordinary grammars, chiefly however for Early Latin
from Holtze's Si/iitnxis princorum scriptorum Latinorum
and for Greek from Kriiger's excellent Griechische
difficult
parative
point
PREFACE.
Sprachlehre.
from
My
arrangement
IX
is
naturally different
theirs.
The account
of the Greek
the specimens given

the beginner
will, it
who has
and
may
Italic
dialects
and
be hoped, be useful to
at present nothing of the kind
References have been given to

For
from whom the text is taken.
convenience the appendix is divided into sections like
accessible in English.
the authorities
the rest of the book, the numbers running from 601
onwards.
As regards my
obligations to others, those which I

and lectures of my teacher Professor
Brugmann are the greatest. Without the assistance of
his great work Grundriss der verghichenden Grammatik
der indogermanischen Sprachen such a summary as the
For the
present would have hardly been possible.
syntactical part Delbriick's treatises on Comparative
Syntax have been equally useful. But I have read the
literature of the subject for myself, so far as it was
accessible to me, and have drawn my own conclusions.
I have to thank many friends for their help in
Dr Peile, Master of Christ's
various parts of the work.
College, my teacher and predecessor in the. same field,
gave me advice at the beginning and read some parts
Dr J. S. Reid of Gonville and Caius
in manuscript.
College, Mr Neil and Mr Whibley of Pembroke College
owe
read
to the books
all
the early part in the
first
proof.
My
friend
and former tutor the Bev. E. S. Boberts gave me the

advantage of his wide knowledge of the history of the
Above all I
Alphabet and of the Greek dialects.
gratefully acknowledge the kindness of
Trinity College, Professor Strachan of
Dr Postgate of
Owens College,
Manchester, and Professor Streitberg of Fribourg, Switzer-
PREFACE.
who have undergone the drudgery of reading the

whole book in the first proof and have greatly helped
me in many ways. They have saved me from many
land,
mistakes, for those that remain
alone
In spite of the vigilance of so
am
many
responsible.
eyes, to
which
be added those of the excellent reader
must
Cambridge University Press, it was inevitable in
a work of this kind that some misj)rints should escape
notice.
Those I have observed which are likely to
cause confusion I have noted below (p. xxxviii) along
with some important matters that have appeared since
in justice
of the
the parts of the book to which they relate have been
printed
off.
P. G.
Cambridge,
April 15, 1895.
NOTE.
The numbering of Acts, Scenes and lines in references to
Plautus are those of the Tauchnitz edition the only complete
text likely
to be in the hands of yomig students.

The
passages quoted have been collated, however, with the
most
recent texts.
The numbers in brackets refer to the plays
edited by Fleckeisen in the Teubuer series or to
the first
tyô fasciculi of
to the
Goetz and Sohoell's new text. The references

Greek tragic poets are according to the numberincr
the lines in Dindorf's Poetae Scenici.
of
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAOE
Table of Abbreviations
Addenda
et
Corrigenda
....
...
PAET
xxxiii
xxxvlii
I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
CHAPTER
I.
Wliat is Philology
SECTION
1
name
2.
Inexactness of the
3.
Other names suggested
........4
3
4.
Scope of Philology in this sense
5.
Methods of studying Philology
CHAPTER
What
6
7.
8.
10.
.5
an Indo-Germanic language
on English of borrowing
on Armenian and Albanian
12.
Criteria of Idg. languages
13.
Importance
,,
II.
Distinctions between languages
Effects
Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Keltic

All Idg. languages descended from one original
Effects
11.
is
....
of borrowing
...
9
.
14.
pronouns and numerals as criteria

Identity of words having different sounds in diiierent
15.
Classification of the Idg. languages
16.
Original
17.
Civilisation of the primitive Indo-Germans,
18.
Connexion between
of
19.
,,
12
.13
languages
home
11
of the
Indo-Germans
different Idg. languages

Italic
and
Keltic dialects
...
...
.
14
18
19
,,
21
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Xll
chapter'
Holo do Indo-Germanic languages
III.
from
differ
other languages ?
PAGE
SECTION
20.
Latin equos and
21.
Latin xnduos
22.
Nominative
,,
,,
suffix, stem-suffix, root
23
Division of equos and viduos as above

Definition of a root.
2.5.
Latin mens and
26.
Component parts of men^. Its related verb forms

Latin dos and do and their cognates
Noun suffixes and Verb suffixes. Adaptation theory
Case suffixes and their uses
28.
29.
30.
2.
33.
34.
24
27
28
Loss of inflexions in English

Vowel-gradation in roots and
Distinction between Idg.
Are
all
....
....
29
30
suffixes
31
and Isolating languages
,,
Agglutinative
,,
,,
,,
Semitic
,,
'
35.
36.
words come to be roots
cognates in other Idg. languages
its
these famiUes sprung from one original
CHAPTER
22
23.
How
,,
24.
27.
31
cognates in other Idg. languages
its
33
36
37
IV.
The Principles of modern Philology.

37
8.
Prescientiflc attempts at
etymology
39.
study of language
Bopp, Eask, J. and W. Grimm
40.
Pott, Curtius, Schleicher, MiiUer etc.
41.
Ascoli's theory of
42.
Brugmann's theory
Scientific
two fc-sounds
of nasals.
Verner's accent theory
434.
45.
Principles of
38
.39
.40
etc
42
Vowels
40
modern philology and
their authors
Is Philology a science ?
46.
How
47.
Analogy
^y
Philology differs from the natural sciences
...
48.
Logical analogy
49.
Proportional
44
'
g
49
V,
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
60 3.
64.
66.
56
7.
59
PAGE
Formal analogy
Combination of logical and formal analogy
Analogy in gender
syntax
64.
Semasiology
Borrowing of words
Dialect and language
66.
Continuous action of natural laws
58.
63.
Xlll
CHAPTER
V.
Phonetics.
66.
Definition of language
....
67.
Physiology of language.
Breath and voice
68.
Mute consonants
69.
Spirants
70.
Three classes of dental spirants
71.
Greeli spiritus asper
72.
Breathed and voiced consonants
73.
Aspirates
qh, sh
74.
Affricates
pf, U, kx
75.
Change
of Aspirates
76.
Nasals
m, n, ng.
77.
Liquids
78.
Vowels
79.
Classification
or stops
kh,
gh
th,
through
How
dh ph bh
...
;
affricates to spirants
they differ from spirants and
stops
:
close,
r,
and
open
their different forms
of vowels
;
back, front
82.
Examples of vowels
Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds
Sonantnasals and liquids
Long and short sounds
83.
Division of syllables.
84.
Glides.
85.
Vowels with and without
86.
Final glide
87.
Consonants with and without glides

Table of the more important sounds.
80.
81.
high, mid, low
rounded, unrounded
.
Diphthongs
On-glide and off-glide

initial glide.
Spiritus lenis
51
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
VI.
Accent.
PAGE
SECTION
79
Accent used in two senses

Stress-accent
90,
Pitch-accent
91
Languages with pitch-accent
92,
Effects of pitch-accent
93
80
stress-accent
81
94
Accent of Idg. language
95,
Three degrees of pitch- and stress-accent
96
Accent-points
97
Kinds of pitch-accents
Unaccented words
...
82
CHAPTER
Differences (1)
and
99.
and
the
Classical languages
English and other Oermanic languages.
(2) hetiveen
......
.......
.......
Diiierences between the
Germ, and other Idg. languages
100.
Grimm's Law
101.
Idg. breathed aspirates in
103.
Germanic
Grassmann's Law
Consonant combinations not affected by Grimm's
104.
Veruer's
105.
106.
Boots with bye-forms

Germanic changes of Idg. sonants
107.
Change
Assimilation
102.
108
between English
YII.
Law
of Idg. accent in
111.
112.
High German consonant change
84
85
87
n
Germanic
final sounds
English spelling
Value of early forms in philology
9.
110.
Law
83
...
88
89
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART
XV
II.
SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS.

CHAPTER
VIII.
Indo-Germanic sounds.
SECTION
PAGE
113.
Idg. consonants
114.
Idg. sonants
115.
Idg. diphthongs
95
......
CHAPTER
Attic Greek alphabet
...
116.
Attic alphabet
Attic pronunciation.
118.
Pronunciation of f
P
Greek nasals
Pronunciation of vowels
120.
121.
122.
IX.
and pronimciation.
117.
119.
96
97
Btops
.
Proper and improper diphthongs.

History of at, et, 01, vi, 1^, rj, qi
CHAPTER
Pronunciation of ,
100
X.
Latin alphabet and pronunciation.

123.
Alphabet
124.
Pronunciation.
125.
Spirants
126.
Liquids
127.
Nasals
128.
Vowels
Diphthongs
129.
101
Stops
/, h, s, v,
102
103
(j)
104
105
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XI.
History of the original Indo-Ger manic sounds in Greek and

Latin.
SECTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
XVIU
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
190.
191.
192.
Varying changes according as a consonant

one or more consonants
Combinations of two consonants
two stops
stop
,,
and
Latin
195.
Latin -An-
196.
Combinations of stop
-in-
spirant, of stop
Origin of gerund
194.
-*i-.
,,
stop
198.
,,
stop
liquid
-1-
+
+
Loss
of s before nasals
203.
Grk- initial tu-,
sr in
Greek and Latin
first
153
element
is
,,
Latin ku-
154
155
a spirant
si
204.
liquids
initially
medially
,,
156
and
157
element
206.
Combinations where the

7nr in Greek and Latin
207.
Nasals and liquids followed by
208.
Combinations of H with j
Tables of consonant combinations
first
-i-
in
is
a nasal or hquid
Greek
158
159
CHAPTER
On some
other
,,
160
XIII.
Sound Changes.
Contraction of vowels in Idg. period in suffixes of dat.

sing., gen. pi., loc. sing.; contraction with augment.
166
.167
Contractions in Greek and Latin
;
oft
,,
,,
-s-
in Greek
,,
,,
-'i-
in Latin
211.
,,
212.
,,
218.
214.
215.
,.
u-
202.
210.
151
nasal
.
201.
209.
u
150
152
Combinations where the

in Greek
su in Greek and Latin
205.
149
197.
200.
followed by
...
193.
199.
is
by
loss
Table of the chief vowel contractions.

Anaptyxis in Latin -do-; in foreign words in Latin
216.
217.
218220.
221226.
in Greek
,,
168
,,
.
169
,,
Compensatory lengthening
,,
,,
>,
of vowels
in Greek
in Latin
170
171
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xix
.......
Shortening of vowels
Loss of a syllable. Syncope only in Latin.
2303.
Prothesis
I73
only in Greek
Prothesis of
I74
a, ., 0,
234.
Causes of prothesis
235.
Phonetics of the sentence.
Differences between spoken
and written language

236.
287
8.
239.
240.
241.
242.
172
Loss of one
of two similar syllables

229.
PAGE
I75
Consequences of the fusion

Words wrongly divided
of
words in the sentence
.......
...
and dcjielXu
Wrongly divided words in English
wtpekito
Loss of final consonants

Loss of final s in Latin
Greek
assimilation
.......
248.
Crasis.
244.
Latin
245.
Scansion of diphthongs before vowels in
246.
TTporl
Homer
and wpds
and eh
247.
^f
248.
Survival of double forms
CHAPTER
177
I78
,,
I79
dv, dw, Kar, etc.
atque
et, ac,
i<pe\KV(TTi.K6v
i>
176
,,
180
181
XIV.
Accent.
....
249-
Pitch and stress accent
250.
Two
251.
Vowel gradation.
252.
Vowel
253.
Typical forms of roots.
254.
255.
Levelling of vowel grades in Latin

Special cause of levelling in Latin
256.
Long vowels
257.
Vowel
258.
series
The e
Examples of
182
systems of accentuation to be discussed
...
analogy
series
Interchange of
and
by
not equally conspicuous in
Weak forms
188
affected
all
arise
languages
from
184
stress
accent
259.
185
186
in the short vowel series
series rarely
complete in any language
series
....
187
62
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
190
SECTION
260.
Examples
of e
series
261.
262.
191
263.
264.
265.
Examples
266.
267.
of mii-grade in Sanskrit
192
Bartholomae's vowel series

(ii) Streitberg's lengthened grades
Difference in nature between Greek and Latin accent
Note,
(i)
193
194
Changes in
Cause which produced special Greek accent.

position of accent under new system
Accentuation of dactylic words
195
268.
196
270.
Analogy in accentuation
Nature of the Greek accents
271.
Interchange of acute and circumflex
272.
Two changes in the special accent of Latin

Traces in Latin vocalism of the earlier accent
198
273.
274.
Changes of quantity in Latin produced by
199
269.
PART
197
stress accent
III.
WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS.

CHAPTER XV.
General principles of word formation.
...
275.
Words
276.
Structure of the word and sentence
277.
Differences between substantive
278.
English but
Adverbs. Analogy in their formation
Analogy in the formation of English
in combination
(iii)
279.
adjective.
adverbs
280.
...
and
203
204
.....
....
207
...
208
(i)
verb,
Course of development in such formations
(ii)
pronoun,
adjectives
iSiiB-qv,
205
and
.
Xiynadai
210
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Noun
xxi
XVI.
Morphology.
SECTION
281.
PAGE
Parts in a nouu form.
283.
primary and secondary

Compound stems. Analogy in such stems
Second part of compound stem becoming suffix. Eng. -ly,
284.
Case forms in compounds
285.
Brugmann's
282.
Lat. -iUr
287.
288.
211
212
to
distinguish
CHAPTER
215
216
217
218
220
XVII.
Classification of
289.
Boot nouns
290.
Nouns with formative
291.
Suffix -a
without,
(h)
Nouns.
with gradation
suffixes.
Suffixes
their signifi-
cation
and feminine gender
.......,,
....
Gender in other
293.
Natural sex and grammatical gender
294.
296.
Gender in words indicating objects without sex

Gender in different stems
Number. Three numbers. Plural in abstract nouns
297.
The
298.
Neuter plural with singular verb

Schmidt's theory of this construction
295.
299.
223
dual: its earliest usage
Latin
lost in
300.
Noun
301.
Idg. system of cases incomplete
cases.
....
Are two confused in Instrumental ?
225
226
227
228
229
230
232
.....,,
.
302.
The vocative not
303.
No
304.
Endings pronominal and postpositional.

Grammatical and local cases
Three causes of syncretism in cases. Table of syncretism
a case
separate forms for some eases
233
Origin of cases.
305.
221
222
292.
suffixes
213
214
from
composition
Mistaken division of compounds and its results

Living and dead suffixes
Four methods of forming new substantives
(a)
......
........
criteria
juxtaposition
286.
Suffixes
234
235
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
XXll
CHAPTER
Case
SECTION
Siiffixes.
.......
,,.....
...
306.
Nominative singular
307.
Vocative
308.
Accusative
309.
Genitive singular.
Gk.
XVIII.
PAGE
237
238
Gradation in
suffix.
Loss in Latin,
-Tos
Separate from gen. only in
stems
240
810.
Ablative singular.
311.
315.
Confused in Gk. with loc.

Locative singular, -with and without suffix
Extended use of locative in Greek
Instrumental singular. Two suffixes
Dual: nom. voc. ace.
244
316.
Dual
24.5
317.
Nom.
318.
Accusative
319.
Genitive
320.
Ablative
321.
Dative
822.
Locative
312.
313.
314.
323.
-o
241
Dative singular.
242
243
other cases
voc. Plural
247
248
with and without

Instrumental Plural
CHAPTER
loc. suffix
250
XIX.
Pronominal Declension.
327.
Pronouns which distinguish gender

Stems of such pronouns in Gk. and Lat.
Differences between nominal and pronominal declension
Personal pronouns
328.
Forms
324.
325.
326.
329.
330.
....
251
253
257
of pers. pron. in Singular

,,
,,
Possessive adjectives
.......
Dual and Plural
259
26O
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
XXIU
CHAPTER XX.
Uses of
tlte
cases.
SECTION
Nominative
332.
Vocative
333.
Accusative
331.
(1)
.261
....
262
with verbs of motion towards, (2) of time p. 263, (3) of space ib.,
(4) of content i&., (5) with transitive verbs p. 2()4, (6) with
substantives
and
adjectives p. 266,
with prepositions
334.
PAOE
260
(7)
adverbial p. 268,
(8)
p. 269.
Genitive
270
with substantives of verbal

nature p. 272, (4) with verbs p. 273, (5) with adjectives p. 274,
(6) predicative p. 276, (7) adverbial p. 276, (8) with preposi-
(1) possessive, (2) partitive p. 271, (3)
tions
335.
(1)
336.
Pure
...
276
ablative, (2) abl. of
comparison
p. 279.
...
p. 284, (3)
with adjectives and
Dative
(1)
337.
ib.
Ablative
with verbs, (2) with substantives

adverbs ib., (i) final p. 285.
287
Locative
(1) of
281
space
p. 288, (2) of
time
p. 289, (3) of
persons
ib., (4) of
per-
ib., (5) with substantives and adjectives p.

motion towards p. 291, (7) with prepositions ib.,
sons with verbs

290, (6) of
adverbial p. 292.
(8)
338.
292
Instrumental
(1) sociative, (2) of
of
(4)
likeness
and equality
p. 293, (3) of
cause
p. 294,
means ib., (5) with verbs ib., (6) with substantives, adand numerals p. 29.5, (7) of measure p. 396, (8) of place
jectives
ib.,
339.
time
(9) of
tions
adverbial p. 297, (11) with preposi-
ib., (10)
a.
Absolute cases
297
CHAPTER
Fragments of
340.
Adverbs and prepositions
341.
Adverbs which are
342.
Conjunctions
relics of
how
XXI.
cases.
related
....
declension-forms
primitive, nominal, pronominal
299
,,
301
XXIV
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XXII.
Stem formation in
SECTION
the
noun.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
377 404.
stems in consonant + 0377 -bho-; 878 -to-; 379

sko-
PAGE
327
(a-)
-isto-,
3 -qO; -iqo-,
382
-mnto-, -nnto-; 380 -do-; 381 -ko-,
-'igo-,
3866 -TO-,
389 -dhro-; 3901 -tlo-, Lat.
-uqo-, -dqo-, -tiko-, Lat. -tico-,
-laKO-; 384 -SO-;
-ero-
387 -tero-
-cit)-, -Jo-,
392 Lat. -stro; -lo-; 393 -mo-; 394
.8956 -mo-;
XXV
397 -eno-, -ono-
.398
888 -tro-;
-Ko-, -elo-, -dhlo-;
-tmmo-
of superlative;
-ijio-;
399 -ireo-; 400
meno-, -moTW-, -mno- 401 -oi/i'o-, Lat. -iino-; 402 -io-, -iio-,
Lat. -e?o- 403 -M0-, -(M0-, -Tefo- 404 Lat. -IvO', two-.
;
405.
Stems in
341
-oi
CHAPTER
XXIII.
The Numerals.
406.
407^16.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
XXVI
.....
SECTION
Augment
445.
446.
Eeduplication.
447.
The
35.5
356
358
and Latin
Difference between Greek
voices of the Verb
448.
Greek Passive
449.
Latin
450.
Personal endings of Active and Middle

Scheme of personal endings
Difficulties in reconstructing original endings
,,
originally only in 3rd person
360
....
.
451.
452.
453
PAGE
461.
Primary endings of Active voice

Secondary ,,,,,,
,,
Middle
Primary
,,
,,
Secondary
462464.
463472.
473476.
Perfect
477.
361
364
365
....
367
368
CHAPTER XXV.
The Present Formations.
....
478.
Present suffixes identical with those of Future and Aorist
369
479.
Classification of present formations
370
480.
I.
Person
........
suffixes
thematic vowel
added
to
root with
or
without
371
and without reduplication ib., (6) roots

in strong or weak form + them. v. p. 378, (c) roots reduplicated but without them. v. ib., (d) roots reduplicated and
with them. v. ib., (e) roots with reduplication in -e- p. 374,
(/) roots with intensive reduplication ib., (g) roots with
them. v. in weak form ib.
(a) roots
481.
II.
without them.
v.
Boots with a formative
person
suffix in -n-
preceding the
suffix
374
-no- -n9- -n- ib., (b) -ne- -no- p. 375, (c) Greek -avo- (i)
without, (ii) with nasal in root p. 376, (d) infixed nasal
p. 377, (c) -nm- -nil-, -nu- -nu- p. 378, (/) -netfo- -nuo-
{a)
'
'
p. 379.
483.
Verb stems in -s-. Parallelism between noun

and verb. Non-thematic and thematic forms
379
Verb stems in -sko- (a) without, (h) with redupliIV.
484.
V.
482.
III.
cation
Verb stems in
381
-to- (-t-)
382
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
485.
PAGE
Verb stems in
and -dOther possible consonant suffixes

Verb stems in -to-. Suffix mainly secondary
VI.
486.
487.
VII.
(a)
-dh-
-h- appended to (i) strong, (ii) weak form of root, (iii)

long vowel p. 384, (6) root with intensive reduplication i
(c) 'io- secondary ib., denominatives p. 385.
488.
Causatives and intensives in
489.
Greek desiderative verbs

Latin frequentative
490.
383
....
.....
-gio-
386
388
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Future.
389
....
491.
Original future in
492.
Greek future forms
493.
Latin futures of three types
-sio-
doubtful
390
CHAPTER XXVII.
The
Perfect.
494.
Distinctive characteristics of the perfect
in
495.
Greek perfects in
392
496.
497.
498.
-ica
aspirated perfects
,,
Latin perfect
confused with
perfects in
-ti?
and
CHAPTER
-ui
-s-
aorist
393
394
XXVIII.
Fast Formations.
499.
Aorist, imperfect, pluperfect
500.
Strong aorist and imperfect identical.

Latin imperfects in -6am
501.
....
502.
The
503.
Thematic
504.
Aorists in
505.
Pluperfect a late development
-s-
aorists
-s-
and
506.
Greek pluperfect
507.
Latin
,,
-9S-
Gk. 2 Aor. Pass,
395
396
397
aorists
-es-
394
....
....
398
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIX.
The Moods.
PAGE
SECTION
508.
Subjunctive and optative
509.
Thematic
510.
Subj. of thematic stems
511.
Analogy in forms
Optative suffix of two types
513.
Optative of
515.
516
523.
-s-
399
indie.
512.
514.
398
from non-thematic
subj.
401
of subj.
.
aorist
thematic stems
402
Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives

Imperative
403
stem + dhi ib., 519 stem + tod p.

520 Injunctive as Imper, ib., 521 later developments p.
622 Imper. of Gk. Middle ib., 623 Latin Imper. Passive.
617 bare stem p. 404, 518
405,
406,
CHAPTER XXX.
Verbal Wouns.
525.
Infinitives are
noun
cases.
different cases
526.
527.
528.
529.
530.
531.
532.
407
Greek dative Infinitives

locative
,,
Different languages affect
408
409
,,
Latin Infinitives Active

Latin Supines
,,
Infinitives Passive
,,
Gerund
410
411
Participles
533.
,,
In -nt-
.
> J
534.
Perfect participle active
535.
Participles in -meno-, -mono-
536.
537.
538.
,,
,,
-to-, -teuo-.
Latin participle in -turo
gerundive participle
412
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXI.
Verb Forms.
Uses of the
SECTION
539.
5402.
540.
541.
542.
5434.
545555.
DifBculties of verb syntax
Uses of the Voices

methods of forming Passive
Transitive and intransitive meanings of Active
Different
The Middle Voice
.....
Durative and perfective verbs
Verb-types.
546.
Uses of the Tenses.

Durative and momentary forms in Greek
Tenses a later development
547.
Present
545.
....
may
express
(i)
action,
(ii)
process,
state
(iii)
present with adverb of time = past
(iv)
648.
Imperfect
narrative tense
relation to aorist
three
values
....
....
....
....
551.
Perfect an intensive present

Greek pluperfect
Latin
,,
552.
Aorist
549.
550.
(i)
perfective,
immediate past
(v) of
future
(ii)
554.
Future
Future perfect
556.
present, iv) of
Uses
of the
Moods
....
Different views regarding original
meaning
opt
557.
(iii
......
....
Latin Passive aorist perfect
555.
expresses a state
inceptive,
553.
556567.
Chief difBculties of the guestion
558.
Subjunctive has three values
559.
Subjunctive of will
560.
,,
,,
561.
,,
,,
interrogation
future (potential)
....
562.
Optative has three values
563.
Optative of wish
interrogation
564.
,,
565.
,,
future (potential)
of subj,
and
XXX
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
SECTION
568
566.
Greek optative with and without ac
567.
Greelf indicative forms in unfulfilled wishes
570.
568.
Latin subjunctive
Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive new forms
569.
History of Lat. present and aorist perfect subj.
570.
,,
imperfect and pluperfect
443
444
445
APPENDIX.
A.
The Greek and Latin Alphabets.
....
601.
Origin of Greek alphabet
602.
Adaptation of Phoenician alphabet
603.
Development of new Greek symbols

Eastern and Western Greek alphabets
Origin of Latin and other Italic alphabets
604.
605.
449
451
450
608.
Alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups

Confusion of breathed and voiced stops
Oscan,
XJmbrian,
Faliscan
alphabets.
Etruscan
609.
Adaptation of superfluous Greek symbols for numerals.
606.
607.
...
influence
447
448
452
,,
453
B.
The Geeek
Di.a.lects.
.....
610.
Physical features of Greece encourage development of
611.
Linguistic without racial changes
612.
The Dorian invasion
613.
Three stocks
614
6.
Sources
617
8.
Arcadian with specimen
dialects
Cyprian
...
.
457
of
455
^gg
Achaean, Dorian, Attic-Ionic

of our knowledge of dialects.
Causes
corruption
619620.
...
...
^gg
^rq
^gg
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
XXXI
SECTION
621.
622.
PAHE
Aeolio
Sources for Aeolio
623.
Thessalian with specimen
624.
Lesbian and Aeolic of Asia Minor with specimens

Boeotian with specimens
625.
626.
631.
.....
Common
characteristics of the three dialects
Dialects of North-west Greece in three groups
......
628.
Common
629.
Loorian with specimen
630.
634.
Phoolan including Delphian with specimen

Aetolian etc., with specimen
Dialects of Achaea and Elis
Elean with specimens
Doric where spoken sources
635.
Common
636.
dialectus severior, dial, initis
687.
Laoonian with specimens

Heraclean with specimen
Messenian
Dialect of Argolis and Aegina with specimen
Megara, Selinus, Byzantium, with specimen
631.
632.
633.
638.
639.
640.
641.
characteristics of all three groups
......
....
.....
.....
.....
........
characteristics of all Doric dialects
642.
,,
bucolic poets
643.
,,
,,
Corinth, Corcyra, Syracuse, with specimens
5.
,,
,,
Crete-(Gortyn) with specimen
646.
,,
Melos, Thera, Gyrene, with specimens
647.
,,
,,
,,
644
648.
649
dialects
Homeric Aeolio
Fick's
627
.......
comprehends three
656.
650.
651.
....
....
Ionic with specimens

Ionic of
,,
,,
Homer
lyric
and
elegiac poets
652.
Divisions of Ionic
653.
Common
654.
Characteristic differences of divisions
characteristics of all divisions
not found on inscriptions
655.
Ko-
656.
Eelations of Ionic and Attic Greek
KTj-
Bhodes, Gela, Agrigentum, with specimens

Doric and Ionic contraction
XXXll
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
The
SECTION
Italic Dialects.
ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE NAMES OF AUTHORS, ETC.
REFERRED
TO.
A. J. P. =Amerioan Journal of Philology (in 16th volume).

Arohiv [fur lateinisehen Lexicographie und Grammatik] (in 9th
vol.).
B.=Beitrage zur kunde der indogermanischen sprachen, herausgegeben von Dr Ad. Bezzenberger und Dr W. Prellwitz (in 21st vol.).
Bartholomae, Studien [zur indogermanischen Spraohgesohiohte]. 1890,
B.
1891.
Baunaok, Johannes und Theodor, Ins[ohrift] v[on] Gortyn.

Studien
,,
,,
,,
[auf
chisoheu und der arischen Sprachen].

Beohtel, Fritz,
dem
1885.
Gebiete des grie-
1886.
Hauptprobleme [der indogermanischen Lautlehre
seit
1892.
Scleicher].
(In Ahhand1887.
I. I., = Insohriften des ionisehen dialekts.
lungen der historisch-philologisohen Classe der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissensohaften zu Gottingen 34ter Band.
Bechtel,
Berichte d[er] k[onigliehen] s[achsischen] G[eseUsohaft] d[er] W[issenschaften].
Blass' = Ueber die Aussprache des grieohischen von F. Blass (3rd edition).
Bronisoh, G., Die oskischen
Brugmann,
K., Or.
or
nnd
GntjKJr.
e Vocale.
= Grundriss
1892.
der vergleichenden
Gram-
matik der indogermanischen Sprachen von K. B. und B. Delbriick.

1886.
(Brugmann's part, comprehending Phonology and Morphology,
has been translated into English in four volumes; of Delbriick'
part, the Syntax of the Noun is all that is yet published.)
Brugmann, K., Gr. G;-. = Griechisohe Grammatik, 2nd ed., 1889. (In
Iwan
Muller's
Handbuoh
der klassischen Altertums-Wisseuschaft,
vol. 2.)
G. P.
ABBREVIATIONS.
XXXIV
1892.
Buck, C. D., Vocalismus [der oskischen Sprache].

1869
Bull[etin de la] Soo[iet6] Lmg[uistique].

C.
G.= Corpus
I.
Inseriptionum Graeoarum.
L. = Corpus lusoriptionum Latinarum.

0. B. or Class. Rev. = Classical Review (in 9th vol.).
Cauer2=Deleotus inseriptionum Graeoarum propter dialeotum
C.
I.
bilium, iterum eomposuit P. Cauer.
Caw. = Fouilles
memora-
1883.
d'fepidaure par P. Cavvadias.
Curtius, G., Greek Verb (English translation
Vol.
1893.
i.
by Wilkins and England).
1880.
Curtius, G., Studien [zur grieohisehen
10 vols.
D.
I.
und
lateiniscben Grammatik].
the last appeared in 1878.
= Sammlung
der grieehischen Dialekt-Inschriften, herausgegeben
von Dr H. CoUitz und Dr F. Bechtel, 1885

Delbrliok, B., A. L.
I.
= Ablativ
= SyntaktischePorsohungen.
S. F.
,,
,,
Syntax
(in
(stiU unpublished).
Localis Instrumentalis.
Brugmann and
1867.
1871-88.
5 vols.
D.'s Gj-uniZms
Dittenberger, Guil., Sylloge inseriptionum Graecarum.
see
Brugmann).
1883.
2 vols.
Draeger, A., Hist[orisehe] Synt[ax der lateinischen Sprache].
2nded.
1878.
Fleckeisen's [Neue] Jahrbiicher [fur Philologie
und Paedagogik].
152nd vol.
Goodwin, W. W., [Syntax of the Greek] Moods and Tenses.
New
In
ed,
1889.
Hermes, herausgegeben von G. Kaibel und C. Robert. In 30th vol.

Hoffmann [0., Die grieehischen Dialekte in ihrem historisohen Zusammenhange mit den wiohtigsten ihrer Quellen]. 1891
2 vols.
published.
Hiibsohmann
1.
F.
[H., Zur] Casuslehre.
1875.
= Indogermauisehe
Forschungen: Zeitschrift ftir indogermanische

Sprach- und Altertumskunde herausgegeben von K. Brugmann
und W.
Streitberg.
(In 5th vol.)
Insoriptiones Graeciae Septentrionalis
Graecae SiciUae
,,
i.
ed. Dittenberger.
et Italiae, ed. Kaibel.
1892.
1890.
K. Z. = Zeitschrift fur vergleicheude Sprachforschung begriindet von A.
Kuhn; herausgegeben von E. Kuhn und J.Schmidt.
(In 33rd
vol.)
Kluge, F., D[eut3ohes] e[tymologisohes] W[6rterbuch].
The
edition referred to is the 4th.)
(Now
in 5th ed.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Kriigei-, Dialekt.
5th ed.
= Part
of K.
ii.
W.
XXXV
Kriiger's Grieohische Sprachlehre.
1879.
Gramm. = Grammatik
Kursohat, Lit.
Kursohat.
der littauischen Sprache von
Dr
P.
1876.
W. M., The Latin Language. 1894.

M. U. = Morphologisohe Untersuohungen auf dem Gebeite der indogermanisohen Spraohen von Dr H. Oethoff und Dr K. Brugmann.
Lindsay,
(5 vols.;
complete.)
Meisterhans2 = Grammatik der attisohen Insohriften von Dr K. Meisterhans. 2nd ed. 1888.
Meringer, R., Beitrage [zur Gesohichte der indogermanischen Declina1891.
tion].
Meyer, G., Gr. Gr. = Griechische Grammatik. 2nd ed. 1886.

Meyer, L., Verg. Gramm. = Vergleichende Grammatik der griechischen
und lateinischen Sprache von Leo Meyer. 2 vols. 1st vol. in 2nd
ed. 1882-4.
Monro, D.
B.,
H.
G.2=A Grammar
of the
Homeric
Dialect.
2nd
ed.
1891.
Osthoff, 0., Psychologisches
gisohe
Moment
Moment = Das
in der spraohliohen
physiologische
und psycholo(Sammlung
Formenbildung.
gemeinveratandlicher wissensehaftlioher Vortrage herausgegeben
von R. Virchow und

P. u. B. Beitrage
Fr. v. Holtzendorft.
= Beitrage
Heft 327.)
zur Gesohichte der deutschen Sprache
Literatur, herausgegeben
von H. Paul und W. Braune.
und
(In 20th
vol.)
Paul's Grundriss = Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, herausgege-
ben von H. Paul.
I.
Band.
1891.
Persson, P., Wurzelerweiterung=Studien zur Lehre von der Wurzeler-
weiterung und Wurzelvariation.
1891.
von Planta, E., Grammatik der oskisoh-umbrischen Dialekte
I.
Band.
1892.
Prellwitz,
W., Etymologisches Worterbuch der griechischen Sprache.
1892.
Bheinisches
Museum
F. Biicheler.
[fiir
Philologie], herausgegeben v. 0. Eibbeck
und
(In 50th vol.)
Roby, H. J., Latin Grammar=A Grammar of the Latin Language from

Plautus to Suetonius. 2 vols. 5th ed. 1887.
Schmidt, J., Pluralbildungen [der indogermanischen Neutra]. 1889.
Schweizer-Sidler,
Sprache.
H.,
und
Erster Teil.
Surber,
1888.
A.,
Grammatik der
lateinischen
ABBREVIATIONS.
XXXVl
Seelmann=Die Aussprache des Latein von E.

Sievers, E., G. d. G. P.
G.
,,
d.
ed.
P.
= Phonetik
= Grundziige
now
has
S.
1885.
in Paul's Grundriss, vol.
der Phonetik.
i.
1885.
(3rd ed.
4th
appeared.)
W. W., Etym. Diet. = Etymological Dictionary of the English

Language. 2nd ed. 1884.
The
Skeat, W. W., Principles of English Etymology. First Series.
Skeat,
Native Element.
1887.
Now
in
2nd
ed.
Skutsch, ., Porschungen [zur lateinischen
Band.
I.
Stolz- or Stolz, Lat. Gr.
von
lehre)
Grammatik und
Metrik].
1892.
Fr.
S.
= Lateiuisehe Grammatik
2nd
ed.
(In
Iwan
und FormenHandbuch der
(Laut-
Miiller's
klassisohen Altertums-Wissenschaft.)
Sweet, H.,
,,
Techmer's
Handbook
wissenschaft
1884
Torp,
[of Phonetics].
1876.
= History of English Sounds.

Zeitsebrift = Internationale Zeitschrift fiir
H. of E.
Den
S.
begrlindet
(5 vols.,
(2nd ed.
1888.)
allgemeine Spraeh-
und herausgegeben von
P.
Techmer.
discontinued.)
Grseske Nominalflexion sammenliguende fremstillet
Hovedtrajk af Dr Alf Torp.
sine
1890.
U. D. = Die unteritalischen Dialekte von Theodor Mommsen. 1850.

Umbrica, interpretatus est F. Buecheler. 1883.
Wharton, E. E., Some Greek Etymologies = Transactions of the Philological Society, 1891-4, p. 329
ft.
Whitney, W. D., Skt. Gr. = Sanskrit Grammar, by
W.
D.
W.
2nd
ed.
1889.
Zvetaieff = Inscriptiones Italiae inferioris dialecticae; composuit loh. Z.
1886.
ABBREVIATIONS.
SOME OTHEB COMMON ABBEEVIATIONS.

Eng.
= English.
XXXVll
ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA.
p.
22
The
ff.
subject treated of in this chapter
F. Misteli in his GharakterisHk der
is
dealt with very fully by
Typen des
hauptsachliclisten
Sprachhaues 1893.
is given by Murray {N. E. D. s.v.) as a special form of hrow.
Fee=pecu is obsolete, as has been shown by Mr Bradley (see
N. E. D.): Modern usages come from Low Latin /eodiim.
75 81. The whole theory of sonant nasals and liquids has been again
Brae
p. 25.
p.
p.
52
50.
called
in
question recently by several eminent authorities
pamphlet by Fennell
1892,
in
in
1891, by Bechtel in his Hauptprohleme in
and by Johannes Schmidt in a paper read
at
the Oriental
Congress of 1894.
p.
For Gothic jiiggs read yuggs.

For *pa-t<n\ ''ma-ter read *pB-ter,
For Gothic taikno read tdiJim.
For gncitfis read gnatus.
85 104.
86 104.
p. 87 105.
p.
p.
127
158.
147 187.
p. 151 193.
p.
p.
p.
155
199.
174 last
''im-ter.
Before remains insert smnetimes.
For
For
line.
/Sdj-a
i'f
read (Swd.
read
i'fw.
For never read rarely;
p67rTpoi'
= rafter
/.w
n probable
exampile.
p.
p.
190 260.
196 268.
For O.E.
sce-d
read sa-d.
After proper names insert
cp.
For aTreppidXayo! read (nrcp/j.6\6yos.

For di'5p(50oj'os read dvdpotpdvo!.
p. 213 282.
Lindsay {Latin Language p. 549) explains adverbs in -iter
p. 214 note.
as nom. sing. masc. of stems in -tero-.
Add at end of and ace. quoted by ApoUoniiis de pron.
p. 252 325 iv.
p. SSO/rom Sophocles' Oeiiomaiis (Fr. 418 Dindorf).
Bead: and riui, the latter being an analogical form.
p. 252 last line.
Lindsay (p. 420) explains, hie (which is short in Old
p. 253 325 vii.
p.
212
282.
'i
ADDENDA ET COKKIGENDA.
Lilt.)
= *7(e-ce
as
Skutsoh
(B. B. xxi. 85) as
where the word was prooUtio before an

as hia + c{e) with double
p.
300
1.
p.
301
1.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
8.
After -a add
XXXIX
= 'ho-ce,
initial vowel.
hie appearing
S. explains hic
-ee.
w -m.
o
For }mu- read hau.

The Greek comparative suffix is now explained by
Thurneysen (K. Z. 33 p. 551, ff.) as = -i((7)oj'- a confusion with -nstems existing also in Germanic and elsewhere.
314 358. To account of apvis add note The nom. dpriv is found on
an Attic inscr. (Meisterhans ^, p. Ill) and in Cretan as fap^v.
832 388. For (>oirTp6v read pdirrpov.
338 401 1. 1. After -o-wo- add ()j.vriij.buvvoi etc.).
339 note 2. For *a7-aos read *a7-aos.
342 405. Here add stems in -ou found e.g. in the numeral '''dud(u)
7.
308 352.
408.
p.
842 406. Before the Babylonians insert the sexagesimal system of.
375 note 1. J. Schmidt has shown (Festgruss an R. Roth p. 184) that
in Skt. two classes of verbs have been confused viz. (1) verbs in -nd-,
p.
A stem of the second class is to be

-nd-\ (2) verbs in -)ia(i)-, -nl-.
found in the Umbrian persuimu ( 665. 6 a).
Johansson {Beitrage zur griecMschen Sprachliunde
392 note 1.
p. 91 ff.) assumes a root-determinative -</-, etymologically connected
with Kiv, Kd, and probably in the primitive language an enclitic
p.
particle attached to certain verb forms.

p. 415.
A summary
of a similar treatment of the verb forms in
Greek
and Croatian by Dr A. Musid (published in Croatian in 1892)

given in German by the author in Streitberg's Anzeiger (attached
the Idg. Forschungen) for 1895 p. 92
Through inadvertence there
is
is
to
ff.
some variation in the marks used to

and a few other forms read
indicate length in Old English; for ceosaii
ceosan
etc.
They are corrected
Gothic, as viduvo, v
is
In two or three forms in
in the index.
inconsistently used for
= diphthong
al
the distinction of ai into t
and
which occurs elsewhere

has been sometimes
=e
omitted but the forms are corrected in the index.

An asterisk has been omitted before vollus p. 144
183,
KXaAw,
K\di,-foi
159 208, /j.epda\iovs p. 177 237, aUi p. 241 n., jecinis p. 310,
dn-tero-s p. 349 428, j7re((T)o p. 359 last line, diK-cr-ro, 1/uk-(t-to p. 397
p.
1.
8, (pepoia p.
402
514.
PAKT
GENERAL
G. P.
I.
PRINCIPLES.
What
i.
1.
It
is
is
an almost invariable rule in the growth
when a mass
of scientific knowledge that

facts large
enough
to
sum
of
of
form a separate science
has been collected, an old

cover this
Philology'?
new
name
is
information.
inexactness of
""^ "'""''
at first extended to
Thus Geology which
denotes properly the science dealing with the earth was

formerly used (and
is
still
so used in popular accepta-
body of knowledge dealing with

the remains of extinct animals found in rocks. But when
this became a very important branch of study a new
name Palaeontology was invented to distinguish it
from Geology properly so called.
2.
The same holds true of that body of knowledge
with which this book proposes to deal. When the sum
of facts dealing with language and languages was com-
tion) to include also the
paratively small and the study novel, the term Philology,
previously used in a somewhat different signification,
was extended to cover this branch of research.

The meaning of the word in former times was, and
its most common meaning still is, the study of a
language looked at from the literary standpoint. In
Germany the word Philohgie means only the body of
knowledge dealing with the
literary side of a language
12

A SHORT MANUAL OF
^nd character of a nation,

and consequently the department dealing with language
as an expression of the spirit
merely as language forms but a subordinate part of this

But in England the study of language
wider science.
developed
so largely in comparison with
as such has
the wider science of Philology under which it used to
rank, that it has usurped for itself the name of Comparative Philology' and in recent years of Philology' with'
'
This is justifiable by the derivation

word which only denotes vaguely all that deals
out any limitation.

of the
with words
but for the sake of definiteness
it is
better
some term not so open to the charge of amComparative Philology is an unfortunate

biguity.
to use
'
'
title',
for,
looking at the original application of the
ought to mean the comparative study of the

countries, whereas it is always
employed to denote merely the comparative study of
sounds and words as elements of language. The actual
usage of the word is thus at variance with the original
word
it
literature of different
meaning,
for
many
languages such as the Gipsy, the
Lithuanian and various others spoken by semi-civilised

or barbarous peoples have no literature, but are notwithstanding of the greatest interest and importance to
the student of language ^
3.
Hence various other names
^^^'^ proposed,
other names
suggested.
^^^ ^^^
latter is the
Grammar
for the science have

such as Comparative Gram-
is
^j^g Science of Language.

The
wider and the better term; Comparative
more properly applicable to the study of a
â-oup of languages closely related to
one another, such
as the Indo-Germanic group or the Semitic group.

1
Cp. Whitney in Encyclopaedia Britannica, s. v. Philology.

F. Miiller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 4.
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
5]
4Philology, therefore, if we may use this term to

denote the Science of Language, deals with
all the phenomena of speech
with the pro- ioiogy''îS tws
duction of the sounds which compose it,

with their combinations into syllables, with the union of
these syllables in words, and with the putting of words
together into sentences.
also the
In
its
widest sense
it
includes
important but abstruse question of the origin
of language, of articulate utterance, a characteristic so

remarkable that Aristotle fixed upon it as the test of
distinction between man and brute
\6yov 8e /aoVov
;
av6piaTro% t^tt
TO
crvfjL(l)epov
t,<L<iyv...6
tuji'
Kai
to
\oyo5
Se
/SXaêpov,
tTri
<ii(tt
tw
htfXovv
koi to
ecrri
koI
BiKaiov
TO aSiKOv'.
5.
But the number
of languages on the earth
enormous that it is a task far too great for
any single man to thoroughly master all,

,
is
so
Methods
of
studying PhUo-
Hence the
must be studied in connexion
or even a large part of them.

principles of the science
with a few languages which are taken as types of the

great body of languages. As the science sprang from the
study of the classical languages, and as these languages
have had a very important influence on the development of English thought and of the English tongue,
and are moreover members of the same great group

of languages to which English belongs, we naturally
turn to them in the
first
place
when we begin the
study.
Probably the great majority of philologists begin with

Latin and Greek, but no one can advance far in the study
he has made himself master of other languages which

throw a flood of light on the problems which lie before
till
the student of language.

1
Politics,
To
I. 2.
clear
1253
up many
a.
difficulties
A SHORT MANUAL OF
not only in Greek or Latin but also in English a knowledge

of Sanskrit forms is indispensable; to settle the cha-
and position of the original accent of words
racter
it is
necessary to study the early history of the Germanic'

languages, the family to which English belongs
some
Slavonic dialects again preserve features long effaced in
aU other Indo-Germanic tongues in short there is no

language and no dialect however remote which belongs
to the Indo-Germanic family that may not throw light
;
upon some important branch of the study of these

languages.
For other questions, again, some knowledge
of languages which are formed on different principles and
belong to different families
is
necessary
nothing eluci-
dates better the nature of inflexion than a comparison of
an Indo-Germanic tongue with Chinese on the one hand

and with Turkish on the other. The beginner must not
suppose that the philologist knows
all
or even
many
of
them fluently
supplied by the grammar
these languages so far as to be able to read
most cases his information is

and the dictionary alone but on each language or group
of languages there are specialists at work who store up
in
results available for the student of languages in general.
ii.
6.
What
is
an Indo-Germanic language?
In the last chapter
it
was mentioned that English,
Greek and Sanskrit belonged to the

Same family of languages. This family is
indo-German- Latin,
European, indo-
known at present as the Indo-Germanic. In

names for it will be found such as Aryan
older books other
or Indo-European, sometimes Indo-Keltic.

1
To
this
branch the name Teutonic
is
The
first
sometimes applied.
of
COMPABATIVE PHILOLOGY.
7]
these words
the use of
is
derived from Sanskrit and the objection to
it
in this
meaning
it more approby the Iranian and
that
is
priately denotes' the group formed
Indian dialects of the family, which are very closely connected.
Against
Indo-European
'
it is
'
urged that some
languages such as Armenian which exist neither in India
nor in Europe are excluded and that prima facie the
term suggests that
all
Indian and
belong to this family.

case
This
all
European languages
far
is
from being the
in India the dialects belonging to this family are
mostly confined to the broad belt across the north of the

Peninsula from the Indus to the Ganges, while the
Deccan and the south generally are occupied by people of

different
many
races
who speak languages
In Europe
origin.
also,
of quite another
on the other hand, there are
languages which do not belong to this family, such
as the Turkish, the Hungarian, the Basque, the Lapp,
and the Finnish.

The term
7.
'
Indo-Germanic
'
is
an attempt to de-
note the family by the names of those members of
it
which form the extreme links of a chain stretching from

the North-East of India to the "West of Europe.
name was
As the
applied to this family of languages before
it
was finally ascertained that Keltic also belonged to the

same family, it has been proposed to use Indo-Keltic inBut this is not necessary, for though the Kelts
stead.
have gradually been driven into the furthest corners of
the West of Europe by the inroads of the Germanic
tribes, yet Iceland the most westerly land belonging to
the European continent has been for a thousand years a
settlement of a Germanic people.
Whitney, Life and Growth of Language,
p. 180.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
A great
8.
AU
Ian-
Ids.
fnKl>nf?riginai language,
advance in knowledge was rendered pos-
sible
by the discovery of Sanskrit.
On
its
introduction to Europe by English scholars

j-j^^
g-^,
^jniam
Jones,
Colebrooke
and
was gained of a family of languages not derived from one another but all returning
like gradually converging lines to one centre point, to
one mother language the original Indo-Germanic. From
that felicitous conception the whole of the modern
The
science of Language may be said to have sprung.
others, the conception
similarity of Sanskrit to the classical languages
and
its
wide geographical separation from them made scholars

see that old notions such as that Latin was derived from
a dialect of Greek must be given up.
Men now
realised
between Greek and Latin was

not that of mother and daughter but of sisters. This led
to eager investigation for the purpose of determining
clearly that the relation
what other languages belonged to the same family. In

some cases the investigation has been far from easy, languages having occasionally lost the distinguishing characteristics
which would clearly mark them out as members
In some cases too it has been found very

hard to decide whether an individual dialect was to be
of the family.
treated merely as a local variety of another dialect or
whether
9.
it
deserved to be classed as a separate language.
The distinguishing marks which would be looked
How languages
for are
Very different in these two cases.
In
two languages the difficulty is

on*Engiih"'of often Occasioned by the mixture of words
1?mn'Vthe7Zf. borrowed from a neighbouring or a conguages.
quering nation and becoming at last so large
gutshedtromone Separating
a part of the vocabulary as to obscure the original character of the language.

Thus in the English languao-e a
9]
very large number of words in ordinary use are not of

Germanic origin.
very large part of any English dic-
tionary
taken up by words of Latin or Greek derivation

which have been imported into English at different times
is
and for different reasons. Some were borrowed in AngloSaxon times; these were more especially words connected with Christianity and the Christian Church, as
and many others; a very
bishop, priest
large
number
were introduced because the country came for a time

under the political control of the Normans. The words
introduced at this time have not come directly from
Latin but indirectly through the medium of the French.
The
influence
here
express
was
much
greater than
in
The Anglo-Saxons borrowed words

which were new to them. Listead
previous case.
ideas
the
to
of
might have done by 'overseer,' they preferred in this special and technical use to
keep the foreign term for the office. These new words
once introduced became part and parcel of the language
and changed with its changes, hence the Greek eTrto-KOTros
is metamorphosed in time into the modern English
bishop.
But the importations from Norman French
affected the most ordinary things of common life, and
hence it is that we use good Germanic words for common
translating
eirta-Ko-n-os
animals as cow,
these animals
as they
steer, sheep, swine,
we employ words
origin, beef, mutton, pork.
was
after the Renaissance
for the
new
while for the flesh of

of French,
i.e.
Latin
third period of importation
when men
in their enthusiasm
learning thought to improve their Saxon
tongue by engrafting multitudes of classical words upon

Hence we sometimes have (1) the same word appear-
it.
ing under two different forms, one being borrowed earlier

than the other, as in the case of priest and presbyter, both

A SHORT MANUAL OF
10
through Latin presbyter from rrpea-ISvTepo';, or (2) besides

difference in the time of borrowing one of the forms comes
through another language, as blame and blaspheme. Both

Latin blaspihe<5f these go back to /3Xa(r<l>r]ix('iv through
mare, but the former has also passed through France on
its
way from Latium
The same
to England.
is
true of
double forms like surface and superficies, frail and fraIn the later period when
gile, and a great many more'.
the literary sense had been awakened to the origin of
many of these words, old importations were furbished up
to look like
new by giving them a more
than they had previously had.
classical spelling
This has happened in
the case of words like fault and doubt, earlier faut and
doute.
But though
10.
so
many words have been borrowed
by English no one doubts that

for (1)
such inflections as are
it is
a Germanic lang-uage,
still left
to
it
are essentially
though the majoritj^ of the words in

dictionaries
are
Latin and Greek, a very large number
our
of them are not in everyday use, and in ordinary converGermanic and
(2)
sation words of Latin

It
such as
if
common
in a ininority.
rustic uses as a rule
more than 300 words and with a few exceptions,

fact and some others, these 300 words are all
Germanic origin. The statement however is not true
scarcely
and Greek origin are
has been said that the
use,
the vocabulary of the rustic about ordinary things
may
be small, but he has a very large supply of technical terms

^ Owing to the difficulty which exists in English of forming
new compound words we still fall back upon the classical languages
for new terms for scientitio discoveries, in most cases without much
regard to the proper rules for the formation of such compounds.
From
the classical standpoint, words like telegram, telephone,
photograph, are absolute barbarisms.
12]
11
mostly too of Germanic
ordinary work.
origin
for his
Of these a great number is always purely local and

would be quite unintelligible to the ordinary Englishman.
The most common borrowed words are

names of wares, implements
substantives
occasionally
But use
the
verbs
naturally
and
which express their function.
etc.,
do not come under this class, nor does

which has been borrowed from the Danish
invaders of the Anglo-Saxon period and which has completely ejected the Middle English words fangen (Old
English ytim), and nimen (0. E. niman) from the literary
language, though 'stow'n fangs,' i.e. 'stolen goods,' is
a phrase still known in Scotland, and Byrom's poem of
the Nimmers shows that 'let's nim a horse' was still
intelligible in some dialect last century and may be even
a,nd fact
take, a verb
now.
But
11.
in
some languages the history
of borrow-
ing and the relations of the neighbouring

,
tongues are not so clear as they are in

n
T
liinglish
hence some tongues, such as the
1
j_i
Armenian and the Albanian, are only even
now
Armenian and
Albanian
recently
only
distin-
guished as sepaanguages.
^
asserting their right to a position in the ludo-
Germanic family not as subordinate

independent languages.
dialects
but as
In the case of Albanian the
problem has been complicated by the great variety

of languages which have encroached
upon
its territory
Slavonic, Turkish, Greek, Latin have all foisted
words into
12.
some
it.
Hard, however, as the problem of distinguish-
ing nearly related languages
is,
it
is
far
surpassed in dif&culty by that of deciding
whether a language
is
Indo-Germanic or
criteria of idg.
languages,
not.
What
A SHORT MANUAL OF
12
12
can be laid down to guide the philologist in
criteria
this investigation
In order to assign a language to the Indo-Germanic

family several things must be proved
(1) That the word-bases or roots of this language are
:
same as those which appear in other

Indo-Germanic languages, (2) that the manner in which
nouns and verbs are formed from these bases is that
which appears in other Indo-Germanic languages, (3) that
prevailingly the
the changes which words undergo to express various
same kind
relations within the sentence are of the
as in
other Indo-Germanic languages.
Of these three
indispensable
(2)
is
the only condition which
(3)
may be
(1)
and
tically to disappear.
In English the distinction between
noun and verb and between both

in
many
cases disappeared.
fined to a limited
is
so obscured as prac-
number
of these
Noun
and roots has
inflexion is
of possessive
now
con-
and plural forms
verb inflexion remains only in a very mutilated condition.
13.
fairly certain inference
may
be drawn from
the identity of the pronouns and the nupronounf"
teiS!"
md
^' """
merals.
life
Pronouns are so essential to the
of a lang-uage that they are not likely
up in favour of others from a

But even these are not always certain
to be given
foreign source.
authority for the connexions of a language.
Perhaps the
question does not' arise in the case of the Indo-Germanic

languages, but in another family of languages
mitic
it
presents a great difiiculty.
the
Se-
The Coptic and
According to Gustav Meyer, however (Essays und Studien,

probable that Albanian has borrowed its article and
some important pronouns from Latin.
1
p. 63), it is
14]
13
the Semitic family are similar in their pronouns and
numerals and in
little else
'.
In order that the word-bases of a language
14.
may
be shown to be identical with those of the

other Indo-Germanic languages
,-,
.1
it
is
not may have differ-
necessary that the sounds which appear
them should be the same.
The
English bear corresponds to the
sounds
ent
different
b in the change
/in
the
"^
in
lan-
of sound
ereguar.
Latin fero, the 4> in the Greek cftipiti and the bk in

the Sanskrit bhdrdmi ; the k in the English know corresponds to the
Greek
./
in the Latin {g)nosco, the 7 in the

the z in the Lithuanian zinail and the
yi-yvoo-o-Kw,
in the Sanskrit jd-na-mi
but
all philologists
and bk in the one case and
are agreed
j in the
other represent severally but one original sound bh in
that
b, f,
(fi
the former and a ^-sound in the
k, g, y, z,
latter.
And
the repre-
sentation of the original sound by the corresponding
sound of the derived language

exceptions,
invariable.
Thus
is,
with some intelligible
all
that
is
wanted
is
that some system be observable in the interchange of
sounds among the connected languages.
If
we found
that no such system existed, that in the same
cir-
Greek was represented in English

sometimes by m, sometimes by x, sometimes by r and
occasionally disappeared altogether, we should have to
cumstances
conclude
(1)
<f>
in
that in these cases the philologists were
connecting words together which ought not to be conprevailed also mth all sounds
which had the same meaning,
we might be sure that Greek and English had no original
connexion, and that such traces of inflexion as appear
in English must have been borrowed from some Indonected,
and
(2)
if this
except in a few words
Eenan, Histoire des Langues Semitiques, pp. 84
85.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
14
14
Germanic language with which it had at some period

come into very close contact. At the same time, we
should have to admit that the borrowing of inflexion
was of very rare occurrence.
Philologists
15.
Classification
guiê^s.
*"'
^'
(i)
proceeding upon these principles
have identified the following languages as

belonging to the Indo-Germanic family.
The Aryan Group.
This includes
(a)
Sanskrit,
the ancient language
spoken by the Indo-Germanic invaders of the Punjab.

The earliest literature in it is the Vedas, the oldest
writings in any Indo-Germanic language preserved to
The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C. and stand in

somewhat the same relation to the classical language as
us.
Homer
does to classical Greek.
Sanskrit as a spoken
language had died out before the Christian era

succeeded by dialects derived from
and
Pali,
original
it
was
Prakrit
itself called
which have also long been extinct in their
form and are now represented by Hindi and
other modern dialects.
The Gipsy
dialect
is
a degraded
branch of this family which has wandered to the West.

(b)
The Iranian
dialects,
Zend,
the language of
the sacred books of the ancient Persians and the modern
show variety of dialect), and

Old Persian, the language of the cuneiform inscriptions
which record the doings of the ancient Persian monarchs.
The Zend sacred books are supposed to belong to
Parsis (which however also
various periods between 1100 B.C.
and 600 B.C. of the

King Darius
;
Persian inscriptions the oldest date from
520
B.C.
This
group
characterised by having lost the

between a, e and 0, all of which it
though the sound was probably different
is
original distinction
represents by a,
15]
15
from the original a sound.
In Zend later changes appear

sound also.
(ii)
Armenian. This language, known from the fifth
century a.d., has only recently been distinguished from
in this a
the Iranian family.

(iii)
Greek.
This language
is
known
to us
by an
extensive literature and by numerous inscriptions which
help us to distinguish clearly the characteristics of the
numerous
An
dialects into
which the language was divided.
account of the leading dialects of Greek wiU be found
in the Appendix.
(iv)
This has no early literature and
Albanian.
has been but lately added as a separate member to the
Indo-Germanic family of languages.

Latin and the kindred Italic
(v)
Umbrian and various minor branches.
dialects
Oscan,
In Latin be-
sides the extensive and varied literature there is a large

mass of inscriptions, rare in the early period, exceedingly
numerous under the Empire. The history of Latin and
the other Italic dialects is extremely important and
interesting for
(1)
two reasons.
strange parallelism
is
exhibited
as compared with Latin, and by Welsh
as
by Oscan
compared with
Irish (see below), in the treatment of guttural sounds.
In Oscan and Welsh p appears in

or c occur in Latin and Irish.
(2)
is
cases where qu
The second and much more important
that from Latin
not indeed
Roman
find it in the great
the
many
common
people
point
in its literary form as
writers,
we
but from the dialect of
are descended the various Romance
languages, French, Italian, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, Rhaeto-Romanic.
These form as
it
were a subordinate parallel to the
A SHORT MANUAL OF
16
history
of
Nearly as
Indo-Germanic
the
many
family
15
of
languages.
separate and mutually unintelligible
have sprung from Latin as there are branches
dialects
of the gTeat Indo-Germanic family, but in the former
we
case
what
possess
is
for ever lost to us in the latter,
We
the parent tongue from which they spring.
the original Latin
by hypothetical
The
we can never hope
restoration, the original Indo-Germanic.
origin of one dialect of Italy, the Etruscan,
shrouded in mystery.
It
moment
is
has been classed by various
scholars with almost every family of languages.
present
have
to have, except
the prevalent tendency
is
At the
to classify
with the Indo-Germanic stock and even to connect

closely with the other dialects of Italy.
it
it
(vi)
Keltic.
This includes (1) the old Gaulish
spoken in the time of Caesar, known to us by words
preserved incidentally in Greek and
proper names, names of plants,

scriptions
(2)
and
etc.
Roman
writers,
and by a few
in-
coins.
"Welsh, with an extensive literature beginning
in the eleventh century.

(3)
Cornish, extinct since the beginning of the
present century.
(4)
Breton, introduced into Brittany from Corn-
400600
wall
A.D.
(5)
Manx.
(6)
Irish, first in glosses of
plaining words in Latin

in its later stages
(7)
Irish.
Deer
the eighth century ex-
MSS. there is a large literature

known as Middle and Modern Irish.
Scotch Gaelic,
Its earliest records
closely
the
connected vnth the
charters of the
Book
date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
These dialects
fall
into
two great
of
divisions, the first
15]
four having certain points of similarity
17
among themselves
which sharply distinguish them from the last tliree'.

(vii)
Germanic or Teutonic. This group is divided
into three great branches
Gothic, preserved in the fragments
(1)
West-Gothic version of the Bible made by bishop
of the
Ulfilas
in the fourth century of our era for his people at that
time settled on the northern bank of the Danube.
The Scandinavian branch represented by the

and Danish. The Runic
(2)
Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish
and go
back perhaps to the 5th century a.d. The Gothic and
Scandinavian dialects are sometimes classed together as
inscriptions are the oldest remains of this branch
East Germanic.
The West Germanic
(3)
period these are Anglo-Saxon
dialects.
(i.e.
In the earliest
Old English), Frisian,
Old Saxon or Low German, Old High German, and Old

Franconian, from which spring Dutch and Flemish.
Of these dialects perhaps the oldest record is the Old
English poem of Beowulf which, in its original form, may
have been brought by the Saxon invaders of England
Low
from their continental home.
The Letto-Slavonic
(viii)
group.
As
in the case of
the Aryan, the Italic and the Keltic groups, this breaks
up
into
two well-marked divisions

Slavonic proper.
(1)
of dialects
tian
This includes a great variety
the old Bulgarian in which the early Chris-
documents of the Slavs were written down (the

from the 9th century), Bohemian, Polish,
earliest date
Russian in
all its varieties,
Servo-Croatian, Serbian and
Slovenian.
'
Some
authorities malce three groups by separating Gaulish
from Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

G. P.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
18
(2)
The
15
Lettic or Lithuanian group consisting of
three dialects, {a) Old Prussian, {h) Lettic, (c) Lithuanian.

Its
Old Prussian became extinct two centuries ago.
only relics are a Catechism and a glossary, and neither of

the other dialects have any literature properly so called.
and Lithuanian are still spoken in the frontier

district between Prussia and Eussia, Lettic being the
more northern of the two dialects. They differ in accentuation, and the forms of Lettic are more broken down
Lettic
than those of Lithuanian '.

i6.
There is no doubt that these eight groups of
dialects go back to one original language.
Original home
^
xl,
these
of the indo-Ger- and from a comparison of the torms
,
inans.
! _L^
various languages we are able to ascertain
what the original form in the primitive Indo-Germanic

may have been. Unfortunately we cannot
bring our induction to the test by comparing the hypothetical with the genuine form, for not one word of this
Our knowledge
primitive tongue has come down to us.
language
of the original
guage and of
home
its
of the people
who spoke
civilisation is equally meagre,
this lan-
ilany
have been the ingenious attempts of scholars to break

through the darkness which encircles this part of the
history of our race,
and great would be the importance

Anthropo-
of their results not only for Philology but for
logy had these attempts the slightest chance of success.
Formerly, partly from a desire to follow the Biblical narrative, partly
from a belief that the Aryan members of

all respects the most primitive
the family represented in
form of the Indo-Germanic tongue preserved to us, the

original seat of the primitive people was placed in the
1
For
fuller details
with regard to these languages ep. Sayce,
Introduction to the Science of Language'^, vol.
ii.
p.
65
ff.
COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY.
18]
uplands of Central Asia.

to
remove
it
19
Recent speculation has tended
to the borders of
Europe and Asia or even
to the north of Europe.

17.
used
for
From a study and comparison of

common things by the various
r
branches 01 the Indo-Germanic stock at,
tempts have also been made to ascertain
the words
Civilisation
of the primitive
Indo-Germans.
virhich the primitive civilisation had reached.

But here success is almost as hard of attainment, for it is
n(5t enough to show that some or all of the Indo-Germanic peoples used a certain name for some object as a
To ascertain the character of the
metal, a weapon, etc.
primitive civilisation it must be shown that the word
means the same thing in all these languages, or, at all
events, changes from the supposed original meaning
the height
must be proved by a chain
of evidence of which in
cases important links are
now and probably
will
many
ever
That the primitive Indo-Germanic people

knew the most ordinary domestic animals, the cow, the
sheep, the pig, is certain; the trees which they knew
and the metals are very uncertain. For people when
they change their abodes tend to apply the old names
be wanting.
new things and we have no means of determining

how far one branch of the family may have borrowed
til
names from another which was

its
neighbour.
much
to
Germans
and
;
fro
at the
at
some
prehistoric time
Perhaps no peoples have wandered so

upon the face of the earth as the Indo-
dawn
of the historic period
we
find the
,Vryan, the Slavonic, the Germanic, the Keltic races in a

state of active migration
their wanderings in the thou-
sands of years previous to that period who shall tell ?

18.
Another subject on which there has been much
learned discussion
in
recent years
is
the degree of
22

20
A SHORT MANUAL OF
inter-connexion
among the Indo-Germanic
18
languages.
Various ingenious theories have been pro-
pounded which are named
tweeidg"anKâgfs.
logical feature in
'genealogical-tree'
theory
of
after
some ana-
their structure, as
Schleicher,
the
'wave
the
Attempts have also
theory' of Johannes Schmidt, etc.
been made to show a clear division between the European and the Asiatic branches of the family on the
ground that the European languages show

the Asiatic members show only
because Armenian, which
is
But
a.
a,
e,
where
this has failed
an Asiatic branch', though
probably not settled from an early period in Armenia,
shows the t'-sound of the European tongues, and thus
There are
occupies an intermediate position.
striking-
similarities
between various members of the family in
individual
points,
as
between
the Italic and Lettic
the tendency to change the form of the
families
in
original
declension
of consonant stems
into -/-stems,
between Greek and Sanskrit in the treatment of certain

nasal sounds
and the formation of some verb stems,
between the Aryan and the Letto-Slavonic branches in

the treatment of guttural sounds, between the Germanic
and the Slavonic in the insertion of t between s and r,
Old Bulgarian
and some Keltic
as in English stream,
Greek,
the
Italic
o-strovii,
dialects
representing a class of original ry-sounds by
b,
Greek and Latin agree in changing an original

before ?/-sounds, as in /SatVw, ve/tio
(S
140),
and
'island'.'
agree
in
/SoCs, bos.
in into
in both,
the inflexion of the genitive plural of r7-stems in pronouns has infected r7-stems in nouns, rawv is-tdnim
1 Some, however,
contend that Armenian has crossed from
Europe into Asia, in which case this argument is not conchjsive.
2 Brugmann, Teclimer's Zeitschrift, i.
p. 234.
19]
21
(originally tdsom), causing Oidwv, dedrmn to be formed.

Again some forms of the verb seem to have been invented by both Greek and Latin at a late period, as
imperative X^yovrw, legunto which
pi.
is
no part of
the original inflexion of the verb.
But these
closer
similarities are not great enough to show

connexion between any two members of the family
than any other two. Such changes of original forms

often happen in languages quite independently.
Thus
some peculiarities of the Lettic dialects and the Ro-
mance languages have exact parallels in the dialects

descended from Sanskrit.
Not in Greek and Latin only
does the pronominal inflexion aifect the noun
exact
parallels to the phenomenon are to be found in Pali,
and in Gothic other cases of the noun are affected than
;
those which suffer in the classical languages.
The only members
19.
of the family which show such
important coincidences as to make
it
prob-
able that they stand in closer connexion
itaUcandKei'""i">i<='s.
with one another than with other members of the family
and the Keltic dialects.

some branches show^ representing an
are the Italic
guttural
passive
In both groups
original strongly
In both groups the

others .show c or qu.
formed in the same manner', and a secondary
k,
is
imperfect and future appear in both from derivative
There are some

verbs the Latin -bam and -bo forms.
minor resemblances, but the similarities in the verb are
so remarkable as almost to prove a more than ordinarily
close connexion between the languages, especially when
we consider that nowhere else can such passive and imperfect
1
and future forms be proved
Zimmer
to exist.
(KZ. 30, p. 240) considers this identity of form has
another explanation.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
22
How
iii.
20-
do Indo-Germanic languages differ from

oilier
languages
Let us take some common word which appears

i"^ ^ considerable number of Indo-Germanic
20.
Lat.f JIMS and

oVher" Wg."ianguages.
languages and compare the various forms
which
it
assumes.
(1)
Skt. dgvas.
(2)
Gk.
(3)
Lat. equos ("earlier form of equus).
iTTTTos
(dialectic ikkos).
Welsh
(4)
() 0. Irish ech.
(5)
Goth. aUma-tundi (thorn-bush,
thorn").
(b)
ep, eb.
lit.
'
horse-
0. Sax. elm.
Lith. aszvci (mare.
(6)
The masc. afzvas
is
ex-
tinct^).
From
Sanskrit, Latin, Gothic
easy to see that the word

'
For the formation
may
and Lithuanian
it is
be divided into
two
ep. /3oi/-Xi-|U/a, ôv-^pao-Tn,
English horse-
laugh, horse-play.
For the survival of the fem. and the loss of the masc. form
English m.are = 0. E. mere fem. to J7iar7i horse, preserved only
in the word marshal which English borrowed through Old French
mareschal from the Low Latin mariscalcus of the Holy Eomau
-
ep.
Empire, itself borrowed from 0. H. O. mara-scalh a derivative from

marah and scalh, Gothic slialls servant.' The word has still the
meaning of farrier' in French. The Teutons were great lovers of
'
'
horses; the legendary leaders of the Saxon invasion Hengist
and Horsa were both named from the animal. 0. E. heni/est

we have lost (German keeps it as hengst); 0. E. hors, 0. H. G.
hros, modern German ross we have retained and this has
driven
out mearh.
In Gennan, pferd (=Low Latin paraveredus. Old
French
palefreie,
common
same
word.
Eng. palfrey) has taken the place of
ross as the
= plough-beast
(from the
In Lithuanian
a;--S;?/s
root as Lat. ar-are, Eng. earing) has driven out *aszvas.
23]
23
syllables df-vas, eq-uos, mh-va, asz-va.

Now we know
from a long series of observations made upon these
languages that the first part of these words, though now
different in each,
was
Every
in all originally the same.
schoolboy also knows that in this class of words, whether
we
call
-s
them -o-stems
or
nouns of the second declension,
the sign of the nominative in
s is
at the end of the
all
masculine forms
word therefore we may mark
off
by
as a sign for a special purpose.
itself,
Now
compare with equos another word, Lat.

Taking the languages in the
^^t. viduos
same order we find a result of the same nVinother
21.
viduos.
Skt. vidhdvas.
(1)
(2)
Gk.
-qideo^ (i.e. 7;Fi'^tFos).
(3)
Lat. viduos {viduus adj., vidua subst.).
(4)
(a) 0. Ir. fedb.
(5)
Goth, viduvo (fem. -o-stem).
(6)
0. Bulg. vldova (also feminine)'.
From
22.
words there
is,
the
(b)
Welsh gweddw.
comparison we see that in these
besides the nominative suffix,
m the
^^
classical
suffix, i.e.
stem
is
is
called the nominal, formative, or stem-
formed from the still more primitive portion now

This primitive portion is called the root.
behind.
23.
Thus equos and viduos may be

(1)
^.
stem-suf-
the suffix by the addition of which the noun
di-
Vlded into
64
suffix,
languages in the form of -Fo- or
This
-U0-.
Nominative
another separable part, which appears
left
'""Stages.
^'^^'
WxiA.
-s,
nominative case
suffix.
Delbriiok (Die Indogermanischen
ff.)
Division of
their component parts.
in^to
Verwandtschaftsnamen, p.
considers the feminine forms of this stem to be the older,
but in any case the formation of the
suffix is the
same.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
24
(2)
-w- or
(3)
eq- or ec-,
The
sign +
is
23
noun-stem suffix.
and vid+ -, root.
-HO-,
put after vid because, as most of the

is another sound between the iirst
languages show, there

syllable
and the
suffix -co-,
which possibly
a sign that
is
these forms come not directly from the root but from
a verb stem '.
24.
iords come to
taiicT
by itself in an IndoGermanic language; that is to say, it has

no independent existence. A root is a conventioual term used by grammarians to
root never appears
Deflnition of
tithua-
when everything formative is stripped off.

The word root when so used is in itself a metaphor;
and as all Indo-Germanic languages spring from one
original or root language now lost, we ought properly,
when we speak of roots, to give them in the form which
we believe from a comparison of its various descendants
they had in this original tongue.
But not infrequently
we have not material enough to form a satisfactory
induction of this kind
therefore practical convenience
in speaking of the roots of
an individual
For when
we do so it is understood that we mean by the term not
somethingwhich exists byitself in the language, but merely
justifies us
language,
e.g.
of Greek roots
and Latin
roots.
the fragment of the actual word which,
when we have taken away
all
is
left
this point of view it is of small importance
root itself
may have been
behind
also or not.
behind
formative elements.
From
what the
or whether a long history lies
In every language there
is a
unable to deal,
because the forms seem to occur nowhere in the Indoit
residuum with which the philologist

1
Brugmann
Gr.
11.
is
64, p. 126.
25
24]
Germanic area outside the particular language with

which he is dealing. Such words may be whimsical
formations as Van Helmont's gas, Reichenbach's oclforce, which were attempts to form absolutely new words,
or they may be formed from proper names, which themselves belong to a different language.
Thus
in the English phrase 'to burke discussion,'
a coinage of the present century, the verb has

had a curious history. To elucidate the word we need
to know that in Edinburgh in 18278 there was an Irish-
which
is
man named Burke who
supplied the anatomical schools
whom he had suffocated.

with the bodies
burke or stifle discussion.
to
metaphor
the
Hence comes
is not an Irish word
Burke
that
further
know
need
to
We
of victims
but only the Irish pronunciation of the name De Burgh

which was borne by certain Englishmen who settled in
Tracing the name farther
Ireland some centuries ago.
we find that the word came to England from Nonnandy,
Northat though the people who thus came from
and
a dialect of French, still the name is of

Germanic origin, Germ, burg, Eng. borough. From the
bormediaeval Latin burgus, the Romance languages
mandy spoke
rowed the word, Ital. borgo, French bourg, and

even in Irish in the guise of borg, city.'_ In
'
history
it is
connected with berg,
'
hill.'
it
appears
its earlier
From
the
Scotch
same root come the Keltic word seen in the
nothing
say
to
the Sanskrit adjective hfhdt,
brae, and
oTproper names
Germanic Burgzindy and the

But to all intents and purposes
Keltic Brigantes.
from which nouns and verbs
English
is a root in
like the
burke
may
its
be formed.
It is
only accident which has preserved
meaning.
early history in quite a different
first sight of indispuat
looks
which
word
Another

A SHOET MANUAL OF
26
24
Yet Professor Skeat traces

is talk.
Danish to the Lithuanian and says it is
It seems, howthe only Lithuanian word in English.
ever, to have come into Lithuanian from Old Bulgarian
and is probably ultimately Turkish. If the early history of the Germanic and Slavonic dialects had been
tably English origin
this through the
as completely lost as the history of the original Indo-
Germanic lang-uage or the early history of Latin, we

should have had to acquiesce in calling talk an English
isolated, unless we had happened to
German dolmetscher (interpreter) was
word which seemed

guess that the
related to
This
it.
is
also of
Turkish origin
(Dutch
tolk) is
One
really the case, dolmetscher being

;
High German
the Middle
tolc
the same as the English word.
curious example of a British
another language
may
ordinary word for pedlar
be given.
is
szdtas.
name
passing into
In Lithuanian the
If
we did not know
that in the middle ages most of the trade of Lithuania
was done by Scotchmen we might probably have some

difficulty in recognizing the word as
Scot
(through
'
the
German
Thus we
'
Schotte).
meaning of a word may be attached

by accident; the word may be imported from another language in a meaning which it
never had before in that language, but once it has been
to it
see the
more or
imported
less
and throws out a mass of new

In other words it becomes a
root in the language into which it has been newly
The people who now use it are unable to
planted.
analyse it any further, but it may come to be treated
as a native word and analysed in the same manner us
some series of native words which it happens to reit
sticks fast,
formations from
semble.
itself.
26]
27
Sometimes in nouns this part which defies analysis

can be identified with a part similarly left in verbs, at
other times
we cannot
The
cannot.
it
which
eq-
is
left in equotf
certainly identify with the root of
any
except of course verbs derived from the noun
from
its
derivatives, as equitare.
Now
25.
let
us take another
The
appears in Latin as mens.
common word which

genitive
Lat.
shows us that there was a t in the stem,

and comparison of mentis with forms from
other languages shows us that
called
verb,
itself or
stems.
-ti-
Skt. matis,
(2)
Gk.
(3)
Lat.
mens =
(4)
[0.
Ir.
belongs to the class
it
i.e.
ma-ti-s.
jUaVrts.
orig.
form *men-ti-s.
er-mlti-u, the latter part of whicli
Lat. menti-o in form.]
(a)
(5)
8ses.
Thus
(1)
mcKsand
othe?dK.Tan'^
Goth, ga-munds,
(b)
Old English
fje-
mynd, Eng. mind.

(ff)
(6)
26.
If
we
Lith. at-mintis, (b) 0. Bulg. pa-m(^t1..

treat this in the
vious words and strip off

it
first
occurs at the end as the
same way
mark
of the
nominative and then the noun-suffix
we have
left
cases with
as the pre-
the s where
a syllable beginning in
parts*ôf''mra's*
^^''''
-ti-,
"^l'^*"'^
all
and generally ending with
n,
though the
intermediate vowel appears in a great variety of forms.
The reason
for this
and
for the variety of consonants
representing the q of equos will be explained later (157,

At present it is sufficient to recognise the form
136).
the syllable takes in the different languages and to observe the similarity between this and some verb forms.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
28
Skt. mdn-ya-te {e in Skt.
(1)
here
Gk.
(2)
ni), perf. participle
ixaiverai
plural
iscor
0.
(4)
26
a diphthong,
is
passive ma-tds.
jxav-ii-Tai
83),
fie-fJ-ov-a,
fjil-fxa-fjiiv.
= *me-mon-it, re-min-
Lat. mon-eo, me-min-it
(3)
*re-men-iscor.
do-moiniur, pres. dap.
Ir.
= Lat. puto
in
meaning.
(5)
Goth, ga-mun-an.
(6)
(a) Lith. min-iu,

(6) 0.
Lat.
nfrions ta'other
idg. languages,
Skt. ddti-vdras,
Gk.
he who loves giving
(3)
(4)
Lith. dU-ti-s.
28.
Thus we
U-hw-jXL.
*dd-ti-s
(cf. Hiew.s)
fZy.
dU-mi
see that from the
Verb; the mnnitive and the partici-
ples are really
nouns in their inflexion and
In their usage these parts form the con-
necting link between nouns and verbs.

of these forms acts as a verb.
is
used
for the
Sometimes one
Li Latin legimini, the
nominative plural of the obsolete

(= Xeyo/icvot)
same root come
both nouns and verbs, but that these differ

This applies only to the
iji their sufSxes.
Adapta- finite
not verbs.
dd-dci-mi.
'S(3-Tt-s
Lat. dos =
suffixes
suf-
way compare the
foi wliich appears in Latin as dds with

^j^g êrb from which it comes.
(2)
Noun
vofxtêiv.
same
In the
(1)
and Verb
fixes
^7-
d? and
keep in mind.
Bulg. mln-e-ti
present
participle
2nd person plural of the
same form or one phonetically

same but equivalent to the old Greek infinitive
Xeyiixivai for the corresponding form of the imperative.
present and either the

the
The form
is
somewhat
doubtful.
29]
29
There are not wanting philologists who draw the constill closer and try to prove that all verb forms
nexion
noun stems or iroun

amount of plausibility in
are
sing,
There
cases'.
identifying the
of the present as Skt.
is
a certain
-ti
of the 3rd
Gk. ia-n, with the
as-tl,
form of noun stem which we have seen in âv-n-s, and

which appears also by a regular phonetic change ( 133)
in
-yev-o-i-s,
cjiipovTi,
Attic
and in connecting the 3rd plural Doric

(jiepova-L,
But the theory
with the plural participle
leaves as
common one which
many
difficulties as
<^(.povTK.
the more
connects the verb endings with the
personal pronouns.
29.
The next point
changes within the noun

cases
and numbers and,
observe
to
is
the series
by which
most words,
itself
in
genders also are distinguished,
equos
is
of
case suffises
and their
uses,
a horse as sub-
eqiiom a horse as object of

of some statement
some statement involving action which affects the
noun; equl (gen.), equo (dat), equo (ablat.), express
the idea contained in the word horse in various relations
ject
within the sentence, equl,
i.e.
equoi
(pi.)
expresses horses
as the subject, eqiws horses as the object of a statement,
and similarly with the other cases. Now we cannot

doubt that these changes were not made at random, and
may be assured that these different sounds by which
horse in these various relations is expressed had once a
very distinct meaning of their own. But this was at a
period of which we know nothing and never can know
anything, except from the appearance of similar phenomena in languages which remain as primitive in their
formation at the present day as the Indo-Germanic in
There is little doubt that
that far pre-historic age.
'
Sayce, Techmcr's Zeiischri/t,
i.
p. 222.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
30
29
word in itself, and what we now call

and case or jjerson-suffix were words added
That
to it to define its meaning in particular ways.
stage was passed long before the Indo-European peoples
separated, but in other languages we see the same
thing still existing.
In Chinese the root is even now a
word in itself; there is no stem, no case or person suffix
distinction in meaning turns very largely upon the accent
and the position in the sentence. Turkish is still such
a language as Indo-Germanic was in its second stage
when it put two or more roots into close combination with one another, but still knew the meaning
of each, and could consciously separate them.
The
root was once a
tlie
stem-suffix
only
family of languages
footing
is
as the
which stands on the same

Indo-Germanic in point of formation
the Semitic, the principal branches of which are the
Hebrew, the Syriac and the Arabic;
and even the
Semitic languages differ from the Indo-Germanic in a

variety of ways.
30.
worth observing that in some cases ludoGermanic languages have lost the greater
It is
Lossofinflexions in English.
^^^^^ ^f ^j^gj,. i,,flexion.
Two
of
them
in-
deed have returned almost to the stage in which we find

Chinese
These are Persian and English. If I pro'.
nounce the word
bear you cannot tell without context

surrounding circumstances whether I
mean a verb, a noun, or an adjective (bare).
'
'
or reference to
Some good authorities regard Chinese as having passed

much the same stages as English. Thus the simplicity
through
of the
Chinese word would not be primitive hut due to the loss of

If so it is curious that it seems to be gradually regain-
inflexion.
ing the power to make compounds, thus starting anew on the

path to complete inflexion.
31]
The only
31
inflexion of substantives whicli remains in
English besides the plural
is a possessive here and there.

Even with very common words the possessive has died
out of use. When Byron says he sat him down at a
pillar's base/ we recognize the possessive as a poetical
licence, for in prose we should certainly say
at the
base of a pillar.'
We still retain some inflexions in the
personal pronouns and a few in the verb to mark some
of the persons, the past tense and participle.
In
English the past tense is formed in two ways either
-ed is added to the present form, as fill, fill-ed, or a
'
'
variation appears
in the root vowel as in sing, sang,
These we call irregular verbs,

and we from time to time allow some of them to pass
over to the so-called regular conjugation and to form
Hence the verbs which form a
a past tense with -ed.
past with -ed, though originally few, have now become
sung; come, came, come.
'
'
the great majority'.

If we look at a verb like SepKOfx-ai. we see the same
31
vowel-change taking place. We see by a com.
.,,
JjariSOn
etc.
,,
with other verbs as
that
we can
strip off
^cpo/iat,
Tifi.aOfj.at
Vowel gradaand
tion in roots
a personal ending
and a vowel which appears as o in the 1st pers. sing,

and the 1st and 3rd pL, but as e in SepK-e-rai, hipK-e-o-Oe,
and in the old 2nd sing. 86pKt(o-)at. We remember that
there is the same change of stem vowel in ifyep-0-iJ.ev,
(f>ep-e-Te
and that
it
is
not confined to the verb, for
appears in the nouns already so often cited and in

others.
We
also yeV-os
have
but gen.
tVir-o-s
but
-)/V-e(o-)-os,
t-rnr-e,
equos but eque.
Lat. gen-us (for
it
many
-os),
So
gen.
which r comes in regularly in Latin for s.

what is called stem-gradation and will have to
qcii-er-is in
This
1
is
Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, {First Series) 139 S.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
32
not confined to the stem
But the phenomenon
be discussed more fully later on.

is
31
It appears also in
suffix.
when we compare SepK-o-jxai with

Forms like the perfect stem apSe-8opK-a and
8opK-as
'gazelle' has the same form
nouns;
in
pear also
the root, as
we
see
e-SpaK-ov.
We
of the root as Sc'-SopK-a.
and
A-a
see also that forms with pa
weak forms as they are called are not confined
aorists only but also appear in verbal adjectives

which are really old passive participles of past time.
Thus we have Spards or Saprds from Sipoi with, on the
to
other hand, the
have or or
a\
Xa.
noun
In Latin the weak forms
Sopa.
ol or id corresponding to the Greek ap pa,
u?-,
Thus we have past
participles like vorsug
- *vort-
tu-s
while the present verto has the same vowel as
and
8epKop.ai.
We may
changes of the same kind,
but
ye-ya-jxiv in
but
iJ.i-p.ov-a
Homer.
This
is
/ie'-/Aa-/i6v,
Nowadays we
verbs sang or sung
in
sing, sang,
find that for the past tense in such

is
prose sang and rang

objects to Scott
ye-yov-a
what corresponds
Greek to the changes we see in the English

sung.
<êp<o
observe, even within the perfect,
used indifferently.
are
when he
Perhaps in
more common, but no one
writes
And, while his harp responsive rung,

'Twas thus the latest minstrel sung.
32.
In the oldest English there was a genuine
ence between the forms, just as there
and
is
differ-
between yi-yov-a
sang represents the old singular, sung the

The changes which we observe in UpK-o-
ye-ya-p.ev:
old plural form.

p.ai,
Se-SopK-a, i-SpaK-ov, in ye-yov-u
sang, s?ng are

'
now
This, the
known by the
German name
and
general
for the
yi-ya-p.ev, in s/ng,
name
of ablaut' or
phenomenon, seems
generally adopted in English books.
to he
34]
33
vowel-gradation.
This term includes within it not only

vowel changes in the root part of the word but also those
in the suffixes for which there is the special term stem'
gradation'
such varieties of form as were men-
viz.
tioned above
iTTTrog,
I-rr-m;
t^cp-e-re;
(f>ep-o-fjiev,
naTpuiv,
and many others. In no family of

languages other than the Indo-Germanic is there any-
TraTpacri,
Trarepcs,
thing exactly corresponding to

33-
The various
(1)
They
this.
which have been

enumerated distinguish the Indo-Germanic Distinction belanguages from all others.
o^he"langf|a|eb^
are
distinguished
languages
Isolating
Chinese belongs
characteristics
the
by
class
from
to
the
which
(a) the changes that
so-called
isolating lan^'^ses.
appear in the root, which in the isolating languages

unalterable
is
by the possession of various suffixes of

those which go to form the stems of the
{b)
two kinds (i)

noun and verb respectively, and
those which dis-
(ii)
tinguish the different cases in the noun and the different

(c) by the clear distinction which
can thus be drawn between different parts of speech.
persons in the verb
34.
They
(2)
are
glutinative languages
m
Turkisn
1
distinguished
the
class
rn
from
the
Ag-
to which
Distinction be-
by having suffixes
tween idg, and
which cannot be consciously separated from

the root or stem and which have no exist-
Sguapfs.'Êx-
belongs
(a)
tinatfve"
f^ma-
*'^'
Thus no Greek
could divide olkol 'at home,' into oUo 'home' and i 'at,'
though probably at some prehistoric period in the history
ence as independent words.
of the
Indo-Germanic languages such a division was

The only traces however of the possibility
quite possible '.

1
The
fact that
form does not

G. P.
ol'/cei
affect the
not
oikoi
was probably the
earliest
matter in hand.
Greek
A SHORT MANUAL OF
34
[|
34
of this division are that in certain Sanskrit stems, the

locative ending
may
be dropped at will in the early
language and that before certain endings the laws of
euphony prevail which otherwise aifect only the ends of

There is one great advantage in division of this
kind it permits of the plural having precisely the same
words'.
:
endings as the singular for the different cases, the plural
number being marked by an
inserted syllable.
Every
one who has ever thought about language, or who has
had long paradigms of forms to learn, must have wished

that for the dual he might, by the help of some syllable
which we may represent by 2, have such forms as
xvôm.
Ace.
Sing.
Dual
equo-s
equo-2-s
equo-m
equo-i-m.
way if we represent the plural by the

usual symbol for unknown quantity -x- we might have
In the same
Nom.
Ace.
and
Sing.
Plural
equo-s
equo-x-s
equo-m
equo-x-m.
so on for other cases.
This
is
languages.
precisely the principle of the Agglutinative
Thus
have cases as in
in the Turkish
oTkos or
Sing.
Plural
Gen.
ev-in
= domus
= domus
Dat.
ev-e
=domo
Nom.
ev
Whitney, SU. Gr.
425
tlropped also in aUs 'always' as

in the
word ev 'house' we
domus.
Latin preposition penes.
c,
n-ler
ec-ler-in
ev-ler-e
166.
The
compared with
locative suffix is
aiel='alfe(r-i
and
34]
35

A SHORT MANUAL OF
36
34
There are properly speaking no compound words in

compounds are extremely frequent
(b)
these languages, while

in
Indo-Germanic lang-uages.
There
(c)
is
in the lowest
noun and
The ending for the first person is the suffix used
in the noun to express 'my.'
In Hungarian hal-unk is
our fish,' vart-unli we have waited '.' In Turkish, which
forms of the class but
little
difference between
verb.
'
'
represents the highest grade of this class of languages
and which some writers declare to be an inflexional

is formed mostly of a participle with
the personal pronouns appended for the first and second
language, the verb
persons, while the third
is
the participle alone.
very like the Latin legiminl
This
is
28) and the periphrastic
future of classical Sanskrit ddtasmi 'I shall give,' really

'I
am
a giver;' while the 3rd sing,
is
data 'giver' with-
out a verb^.
35.
(3)
Distinction
^^n.^^
The distinguishing
characteristics
two inflexional families
of the
Indo-Germanic and
Semitic-are,
languages.
^^^
^j^g
vowel-gradation in
manic roots and stems,

(b) the peculiar form of the Semitic
Indo-Ger-
roots.
Semitic roots with very few exceptions possess three

consonants; within the root vowel-change appears, but it
is
different in character
in Indo-Germanic.
from the corresponding changes

are formed from roots mainly
Words
by varying according
to definite 'measures' or schemes

the vowels attached to the consonants, partly by prefixes
'
p.
0. Schrader, Sprachvergleichiing und Unicschichtc^
413
tii
Cp. with this the Lithuanian yra, an abstract substantive = exused for 3rd sing, and plural of the substantive verb. It
connected by some with the root of the English 'are,' etc.
^
istentia,
is
chap
ft.
'
36]
(fragments of pronouns
e.g.
ma =
37
'what' in ma-sjid 'place
of worship' from a root sjd), and to a very small extent
by
An
suffixes.
the verb salima
interesting example
is
the root
dm
of
he has been at peace whence come

the well-known words saldm (salaam) and Mam, both
'
'
of the
infinitives
verb used as substantives, mw-slim
(Moslem) properly a
With regard
participle,
Hellm and Soleyman.
measures.' the most notable point
is
the distinction between active and stative vowels as
it
to the
'
appears in the verb,

exalted,'
ahnraf
general this
Arabic shnriif {-a) 'he was
e.g.
{-a) 'he overtopped, excelled;'
distinction
and
in
runs through the languages,
malk will be 'king' (possessor), milh 'po,ssession.'

mentioned change bears a certain resemblance
to the Indo-Germanic vowel-gradation.
As regards inflexion the verb, which alone is highly
inflected, consists of noun and adjective forms combined
e.g.
The
last
with fragments of personal pronouns prefixed or
Compare with
the
this
Hungarian forms
afiixed.
mentioned
above.
The lack of the power of composition is compensated

by a very close syntactical arrangement and in the older
forms by simple appo.sition. The Semitic relative is a
particle which being prefixed to a clause changes a
There are no
demonstrative into a relative clause.
proper tenses but only perfect and imperfect actions.
The 3rd
You may
pers.
pronoun
generally used for a copula.
is
say 'great John' for 'John
is
great;' if that
is
ambiguous you say great he John.

Each of these three great classes of lan36.
Was there
guages which have now been mentioned
ongmal lanthe Isolating, tlie Aggiutmative and the guage from
'
Inflexional
includes within
it all
11^^
languages
families sprang?
A SHORT MANUAL OF
38
of that
36
type without regard to any histo-
particular
connexion between the different
rical
members.
So
widely are members of the same class separated that
connexion
historical
is
i^riori
improbable, and
we are
suppose that the development has been inde-
to
left
pendent but on the same

origin of language,
lines.
The question
of the
and the equally abstruse question
whether language spread from one single centre or from
number of independent centres, lie beyond our range.

Some eminent scholars contend for a relation between the
a
Semitic and the Indo-Germanic tongues, some even think
they can trace an historical connexion between Hebrew
At
and Chinese.
present the possibility of such con-
nexion cannot be denied.

history behind
most
it
Mankind has
the footprints of early
a very long
man have
in
been rudely obliterated by time, and the
cases
Chinaman and Semite, of Semite and IndoGerman, if it ever took place, dates from a period so
remote that independent development has removed, it
seems, most if not all traces of the original connexion.
separation of
The Principles of modern Philology.
iv.
37.
Most nations manifest an
..,.
attempts at etymology.
interest in the
logy of their names, but as
11'
etymo-
a rule this
mtcrest is uot according to knowledge,

though auguries are drawn from the real
or fancied derivation of a name.
We remember the
name given by the child's grandfather to the son of
Laertes
TToAXoicriv
'OSuo-o-eiis
yap
cyco
yt
oSva-o-a'/ii/09 ToS' iKavoj. {Oil.
XIX. 407)
'
39]
and
in
3[)
Aeschylus the good-omened name of Aristides,
ov yap SoKilv apiCTTOS
and the
terrible
dW
elvai.
Oi\u.
(S.
augury in the Agamemnon
eXtVas,
tXavSpos,
c.
T. 579),
(689),
eAcTTToAis.
It has been suggested, and perhaps with truth, that

the name of Nicias the son of Niceratus, as well as his
commended him to the favour of the Athenians.

Such plays on words are common everywhere. But
it has been well remarked that when the ancients
meddled with etymology they took leave of their usual
sanity, and even when they hit upon an accurate derivation it was merely a brilliant guess based on no scientific
principles, and as unlike the systematic induction of
modern philology as the methods of Democritus were
actions,
unlike those of Darwin.

38.
So late as
last century, the etymologies
com-
monly proposed were so rash and so improbable that

Swift ironically set up as a philologist with such derivations as ostler from oat stealer, and Voltaire remarked with considerable justice that 'Etymology is a
science in which the vowels count for nothing and the
consonants for very
little.
was in the case of the consonants that this

Since
reproach began first to be wiped off.
gcientiflostudv
vowels changed, as we have seen, so fre- of language,
39.
It
quently in different forms of the same word, people paid

if indeed they had nothing
But the consonants appeared in
the same form much more constantly, and hence scientific
little
attention to them, as
to do with etymology.
progress began with the
consonants.
1867) was the
careful
investigation
Franz Bopp (born 1791, died

first
great scientific writer on
of the

A SHORT MANUAL OF
40
39
However strongly Bopp may

comparative i^hilology.
have desired to establish a systematic relation of soundchanges between different languages, he often allowed
himself to be carried away by plausible derivations which
sound entirely at nought. The Germanic
first investigated by Bopp's contemporaries, the Dane R. K. Rask (17871832), and the
Jacob and wii- more famoxis brothers Jacob and Wilhelm
set all laws of
languages were
helm Grimm.
(.^.^^^ ^j^^^^
The
1859).
first
1785 1863, Wilhelm 1786
part of Jacob Grimm's 'Deutsche
matik' appeared in 1819.
work, which appeared in 1822, were
down the
Gram-
In the second edition of this

first
clearly laid
regular sound-changes which exist between
make
the classic and the Germanic languages, and which
English words look so unlike their Latin and

equivalents (see
100).
Greek
The principle of the change
had been seen by Rask at an
earlier period
known perhaps even
before him, but
to enuntiate
and
fully
it
it
the
was
first
Hence this great

known in England as
scientifically.
has always been
generalisation
and
Grimm was
'Grimm's Law.'
As has been hinted, Bopp was not so strong in ety-
40.
mology as
The
basis
first
in other
departments of comparative philology.
systematic book of derivations on a scientific
was the Etymologische Forschuugen' of A. F. Pott

(1802-1887) which appeared in two volumes
'
in 1833-36.
number
Avords
To him we owe a very
large
of the recognised etymologies of Indo-Germanic
and the
first
tabulated comparison of sounds from
the languages included in his investigation.

He was
followed by George Curtius (1820-1885)
Curtius.
of Greek
-(vhose
well
known work 'The
Etymology' (1858,
5th
edition,
principles
1879,
2nd
40]
41
English edition 1886) comprehends a comparison of the

Greek words with their Sanskrit, Zend, Latin, Germanic,
Letto-Slavonic and Keltic equivalents. Here the sounds
were discussed fully and systematically, and changes
which apparently proceeded on no system were grouped
together under the heading of sporadic change.' From
1850 to 1870 the efforts of the great philologists were
'
devoted rather to organising and systematising the

matter already acquired than to breaking new ground.
Much was done
in this period for individual languages
of the Indo-Germanic family, but no great discoveries

affecting the whole were made.
August Schleicher (1821-1868), who has exercised on

the history of philology even a greater in,
tluence than Curtius, resembled
power of organisation while he

point of view.
him
in his
differed from
Curtius looked at language in
him
its
Schleicher, as himself a skilled scientist, viewed
the stand-point of natural science.
landmark in the history of philology
in his
history;
it
from
The next
great
after the
com-
Grammar of Bopp (1833-52, 3rd ed. 1869-71) is

Compendium of Comparative Grammar by Schleicher
parative
the
Theodor Benfey (1809-1881) held

(1861, 4th ed. 1876).
an independent attitude and in later life concerned himUnvarying rules
self more immediately with Sanskrit.
were not as yet laid down with regard to sound-change,
but there was a general tendency to demand greater
correspondence between words which
precision in the
were said to be related to one another.
The general
results of the scientific investigation of this period were
made
Max
accessible to the public at large in

Miiller's 'Lectures
on the Science of
Language' (1861 and 1864).

A SHORT MANUAL OF
42
41.
Ill
Ascoii's tiieory
andTs
dCTeiop-
"*''-
1870 the Italian scholar 6.
I.
Ascoli pointed
out that the A-sound, modifications of which
appear in such words as Skt. dgvas, Lat.

equus, Lith. aszvu ( 20), was of a nature
originally different
nakti-, Lat.
41
nocti-,
from that which appears in Skt.

nakil-s.
The former sounds
Lith.
were called palatal, the latter velar gutturals
67-8).
Besides these ^--sounds, original g and gh sounds were

shown to exist of the same kind. In Sanskrit another
class of guttural
represented by
c,
sounds appeared which are usuallj'
j and
Ascoli observed that these
h.
gutturals were often followed by an /-sound, but he did
not work out the theory in detail.
In 1876
when
the
discussion of phonetic principles was most active and
attention had been drawn anew to the vowels by

Brugmann's discoveries ( 42), a number of scholars in
different
Danish and German universities found out
simultaneously and independently the

variety in the Sanskrit gutturals.
The
of
the
results were
fir.st
cause
published by Osthoff, Collitz and Johannes Schmidt in

essays which appeared in 1878 and 1879.
It has now
been shown conclu.sively that this second class of gutturals
, j and h arose from the velar k, g and gh owing to the
influence of a palatal sound behind
e
sound (pronounce
42.
them
i.e.
an
or
ee or eh).
This discovery, taken in connexion with certain
Karl Brugmann published in

1876 with regard to the nasal sounds of
Indo-Germanic, entirely revolutionised the theory of the
Brugmann's discoverics of
original vowels.
In Sanskrit and in Gothic, two

Vowels.
represent two
languages which
main branches of the Indo-
Germanic family there appear but three
simple vowels
a,
and
u.
the original vowels.
Grimm had accordnumber and character of
These,
ingly assumed, represented the
it
4H
42]
Bopp accepted Grimm's theory and

The
all succeeding works.
passed without demur into
multiplicity of vowel sounds in such languages as Greek
was taken as a later development, and the a, e, and o

which appeared in such languages where Sanskrit had
only a was explained by Curtius' theory of the 'splitting
of the original a-sound.'
Johannes Schmidt in a very learned work on

'Vocahsm of the Indo-Germanic Languages' (1871
1875) had collected a mass of valuable material,
the explanation of many phenomena of this kind
the
and
but
was
only rendered possible by a remarkable discovery made

This scholar
by Karl Vemer in 1875.
,f^^j,.^ ,,0*eory;
<>"'
showed that certain exceptions to the soundthe original
on
depended
changes known as Grimm's Law
This dislanguages.
Indo-Germanic
accentuation of the
and
mathematician
eminent
the
by
covery, and one made
regard
with
(18091877)
Grassmann
H.
scholar
Sanskrit
Sanskrit and
to the form which certain roots took in
Greek', finally removed all exceptions to Grimm's Law,
thus strengthening the views which had been gradually

gaining ground as to the strict observance of phonetic
and the avoidance of everything known to the

But Verner's
older philologists as 'sporadic change.'
settling once
this.
By
than
discovery did much more
rules
character of the original Indo-Germanic

a basis on which to found further
furnished
accent he
the vowels as well as the conconcerning
investigation
for
all
the
sonants of the Indo-Germanic tongues.

1
See 102.
In the same

A SHORT MANUAL OF
44
42
way Brugmann's investigation of the 'sonant nasals'

showed that various seemi ng inconsistencies
sonant nasals
;
sonant
Indo-Germanic languages
jj^ ^j-^g different
depended on a law pervading the whole group,
that e.g. the ace. ending in the singular of consonant
stems, Gk. a (7roS-a), Lat. -mt (ped-em), Goth, -u
(originally -um, *fot-um), Lith. -i (once nasalised) and
liquids.'
really
0. Bulg.
-e
represented one original sound,
all
viz.
-m acting as a vowel and forming a syllable

The ending of the ace. sing, was thus shown
nasal sound
by
itself.
to be
if
a vowel preceded,
sonant, eqiio-m, but
form a
syllable,
this original
On
if
was the ordinary con-
it
a consonant preceded,
it
had
to
ped-m, and in the different lang-uages
sound was represented in different ways.
the same principle, the sounds which appear as a
in the Skt.
en in Lat. menti-, as -un in
nia-th, as
the Gothic and
-in
corresponding
in the Lithuanian
were proved to represent an original n

standing between two consonants and thus having to
words (see
25),
make a syllable by itself, mwtis.

Even before this Osthoff had shown that
in
probability an original r appeared as a vowel in
all
the
same way, though in Sanskrit grammar indeed, an ; of

kind had always been recognised by the native
grammarians.
These new doctrines were excellently
summarised by Ferdinand de Saussure in a work of great
freshness M^moire sur le syst6me primitif des vo5relles
this
'
dans
les
langues indo-europcennes
Hand
43.
Two great^ prin.
modem
cipies in
piiilologyi
piionetic
Law
'
(Leipzig, 1879).
hand ivitli these important discoveries

went a more definite formulating
o of nhilor
in
...
logical
In theory philoloffists
^
principles.
111
had always
netic laws
admitted the existence of phoin other words they had recog-
43]
45
nised more or less clearly that, though there might be

a slight residuum which came under no rule, still in
certain circumstances sounds changed in the same wa}'.
In the making of etymologies phonetic laws were supposed to be more carefully observed than they had been
by Bopp, though precept and practice did not always
perfectly correspond.
Philologists
had
also
admitted in
theory that the action of the mind influenced the forms
had been recognised that,

in the mind of the
speaker with other forms which did not really belong to
it, this tended to counteract phonetic law. But the matter
had not been carefully enquired into. Now, however,
of words in various ways.
It
when a form was en-oneously connected
as this effect of the action

'False Analogy','
^"^
.
mind was
of the
called,
as a great factor in the history of language.
W.
Analogy.
became recognised
Professor
D. Whitney gave the impulse to this in

^'^^^'
'Language and the Study of Language'

(1867) where he dwells on the tendency children mani-
make
fest to
all
verbs uniform; to say 'bringed' because
they are taught to say 'loved,' or on the other hand to

say 'brang' because they remember 'sang' (pp. 27-.S,
W.
82, 85).
Scherer (1841-1886) in his work 'On the
History of the German Language' (1st ed. 1868) applied

the principle of analogy on a larger scale.
decisive
marked by the declaration in Professor A.

Leskien's prize essay on 'Declension in
Letto-Slavonic and Germanic' (1876) that
phonetic laws had no exceptions. In the introduction to
step was
As
'
Philology
'
mean
'
now
is
parative Philology,' BO
False Analogy.'
'
largely used in the sense of
Analogy
'
alone
is
'
Com-
constantly employed to

A SHORT MANUAL OF
46
tlie
first
43
and Bmgmann's 'Morphologische Untersuchimgen (1878) the principigg of Leskien's adherents were definitely
These principles were two (p. xiii).
volume of
Ostlioff
'
Osthoffand
Brugmann.
laid down.
Phonetic change proceeds according to laws

(1)
which have no exceptions. In other words a sound
changes uniformly over the whole area where a language
is
spoken,
dialects.
if
the language
is
not
split into
may and do
Different dialects
a number of
develop
in
different ways,
As it is obvious and admitted that in the

(2)
modern forms of language analogy or form-association
plays an important part in the history of words, so we
are entitled to assume a similar part for it in the past
history of language.
44.
The
older philologists had, as has been said,
admitted a large part of this in theory;

Discussion of
the modern the-
r-
they had formulated phonetic laws, they had
admitted the working of analogy in language, but they were
the hard and fast

by the 'Young Grammarians,' as the adherents of these ideas came to be
called.
During the following seven years a fierce constartled at
application of these principles
Two books which
troversy raged.
Deibriick
^^'^-
^-
Delbruck's
appeared in 1880,
'Introduction to the
study of language (Enghsh ed. 1882) and

Prof H. Paul's 'Principles of the History
of Language' (English ed. 1888) sketched the history of
'
the science and formulated the

care
1
and
at greater length
Professor Paul's work
new views Mith greater

than had hitherto been done'.
is,
however,
philosophical representation of the

to the principles of
new
much more than
views;
language in general and
it
is,
is
the
really a guide
apart altogether
45]
Gustav Meyer's
'
47
Grammatik' which
Griecliische
also
appeared in 1880 treated Greek from the
new
The controversy came

when Curtius pubHshed
stand-point.
a head in 1885
to
a pamphlet in
support of his views which was immediately answered

by counter- pamphlets from Delbriick and
'"s"""-
from Brugmann and supported somewhat

later by Hugo Schuchardt, while in the philological
journals
many
others joined in the fray.
was an undoubted triumph

philologists
'
who stand
Young Grammarians
'
for the
aloof from
show in
new
The
result
ideas.
Even
the party of the
their writings the in-
Brugmann's great
work Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der
Indo-Germanischen Sprachen, now in course of publication, though containing much more detail will stand
in the same relation to the New Philology' as Schleicher's
of the
fluence
party's hypotheses.
'
Compendium did to the old.

Though a great deal
45.
dragged
in,
of extraneous matter was
the issue at the bottom of the
whole controversy about phonetic law was

'Is or is
not Comparative Philology a science?'
we adopt Whewell's
knowledge,'
science.
is philology
^"''*'''
Now,
if
definition of a science as a 'body of
comparative philology has always been a
But
if
with Comte we affirm that science im-
plies prevision, that, given certain circumstances
and the
result in one case, science can forecast for us the result
in other cases,
knowledge
answer.
lish
If
are
we
scientific?
e. g.
entitled to declare philological
To
this
there can be
but one
an original sound resembling the Eng-
becomes in one Greek dialect under exactly the
from the standpoint of the author, of the very highest value to

every student of language.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
48
45
same circumstances, sometimes /8, sometimes the fipiritus

at the beginning of words,
and sometimes
while in the middle of words it disappears entirely or
as-per,
/j.
remains as
v,
it
is
absolutely
what form in any particular case

Philologists
will take.
may
impossible
to
foresee
this phonetic Proteus
gather multitudes of in-
phenomena
occur, but exwould be in chemistry

if, when two simple elements were mixed together, the
result might be indifferently water, or carbonic acid, or
spirit of salt.
The same causes under the same circumstances must produce the same results, otherwise scientific knowledge is impossible.
stances where these strange
planation
is
It is at this point that philology parts
46.
philology
How
,,.,
as impracticable as it
trom the
natural sciences.
differs
with the natural sciences.
If the
company
chemist
compounds two pure

simple
elements there
^
^
can be but one result and no power of the
chemist can prevent it.

Bait, as has been said, the
minds of men do act upon the sounds which they
produce.
The
result
is
that,
when
this happens,
the
phonetic law which would
have acted in the case is

stopped, and this particular form enters on the same
course of development as other forms to which it did
not originally belong.
The consequence is that a philologist must, in

formulating phonetic laws, be careful to see that he is
not including in his generalisation forms which have
been brought by this psychological force to resemble
other forms, but which are really fundamentally different.
The
tracing of regular sound-changes
search for the effects of analogy
must go hand
and the
in hand.
It is one of the hardest tasks of the philologist to duly

apportion the share which these two great forces, pho-
48]
netic law
many
and analogy, play
cases
scant that
it
49
in the history of words.
In
the facts of the linguistic history are so

would be rash to decide dogmatically till
more knowledge has been obtained. By a free use of

analogy where facts are few and speculation is easy, it is
not
difficult to
reach conclusions which further inquiry
at once renders ridiculous.
Writers on analogy generally class the various
47-
forms which
logical,
tion of
(ii)
(i)
48.
i.
it
takes under three heads
formal analogy,
and
(iii)
(i)
a combina-
(ii).
Logical analogy appears in those cases where
particular forms of a
word influence other
forms ofthe same word. In the original Indo-
Germanic word
/j^^'OKi"''^"^-
we have some
for 'foot'
reason to suppose that owing to the influence of accent,
some cases had an -0- and others an -e- sound, that

the accusative was *pod-m but the locative *ped-i.
In
Greek however the -o-cases have driven out the -ewhile
cases,
Latin
in
the
exact
reverse
has
taken
In Greek the only traces of the old inflexion
place.
are irtSa, the instrumental form

sition,
and such
Trela;
in Latin
now used
as a prepo-
derivatives as ireôs = *ped-ios,
and rpdno trace is left of the -o-cases. In

the same way iranjp had originally an ace. waTipa, a
locative Traripi and a genitive Trarpo's
but the locative
and ace. on the one hand affect the genitive and produce
:
TraTt'/oos
the genitive on the other hand affects the
locative (later used as dative)
and produces
Latin the weaker have, in
the oblique cases, ousted
all
-n-aTpi.
In
hence patrem patre patris. On the

the
long
form of the nominative dator has
hand
other
the stronger forms
been carried through

G. P.
all
the cases, datorem for *datdrem,

A SHORT MANUAL OF
50
datore for *datere, datoris for *datris.
48
For exactly the
Greek has ycyoVa/tcv etc. after yiyova,

instead of the correct Homeric form ycya/Ati/, and out of
same reason
later
the Old English preterite inflexion

Plur.
Sing.
1
sang
sunge
sungon
3 sang
we
obtain the
modern sang and sung used
indifferently
for singular or plural (see also 31).
The same thing
also appears in French.
to the position of the accent in
According
the Latin verb the
corresponding old French parts take different forms':

Plur.
Sing.
(1)
(2)
aim = dmo
aimes = dmas
aimeit) = dmat
lieve = lei}o
lieves = levas
lieve
With
influence,
= levat
the same
number
amons = amdmus
amez = amdtis
aiment = dmant
= levdmus
= levdtis
lievent = levant.
levons
levez
of parts in both cases to
analogy generalises the opposite forms
the
longer forms in aimer, the shorter forms in lever.
As
the long forms in aimer are twice as numerous as the

short ones, the result might be expected, but in lever the
fewer forms triumph over the more numerous ^

1
Osthoff, Psychologisches Moment, p. 29.
Darmesteter,
Im
vie
des Mots, p. 10.

"
It is,
however, possible that
here, because
many
we have
partially formal analogy
verbs as porter, etc. did not change their vowel
character in any of the persons.
50]
49.
kind
51
Sometimes the development of analogies of this

be represented by a proportion, a
Proportional
may
form being coined to stand in the same re- 'Kylation to an already existing form as two other forms
are to one another,
legimini is the plural of a participle
which has come to be used as the 2nd pers. plural pass,

of lego; legebamini is merely a spurious imitation of
this form, there being no participle of this kind.
It
way
arises in this
leg-or
leg-imini
An
in this case is legebamini.
legebar
and x
x,
interesting example of
the same kind occurs in some German dialects.
Of
the German personal pronouns those of the first and

second persons have a special form for the dative distinct
from the
ace.
dat. mir, dir;
ace. mich, dich.
literary language sich is the sole
form
for dat.
In the
and
ace.
But by proportional analogy

mich
,
and the form
mir^
air)
dicn
sich,
used in several places at the

is no form sir,
mir and dir have also been given up and mich and dich
present day.
sir is actually
In other places, as there
are used for the dative as well as for the accusative.

50.
ii.
Formal analogy appears where forms of
one word influence forms of another which

belongs to a different category.
This pro-
analogy, in the
duces the irregular declension of nouns and
genuine irregular verbs.
In Old English foot and booh
belong to the same class of nouns.
Both form the plural

by a change in the root vowel. Thus instead of books
we ought to have *beek (like feet) for the plural. Book
now
follows the analogy of the majority of nouns, which
have their plural in
-s.
In Greek
'2,wKpa.Tri%
has the same
42
A SHORT MANUAL OF
52
50
apparent ending in the nominative as 'AXxiîaSrys, hence

kiwv
also the accusative SojKpanji'.
is
the same word as
but the genitive of the one is \cov-to?, of

The feminine A-eaiva shows that the
the other leon-is.
the Latin
inflexion
leo,
was originally
like tIktwv, tcktovo?, so that the
Xiov-ro<;
is nearer the original than the Greek.
has arisen from a confusion with participial stems in -vt-
Latin
as irKiwv,
pitiiv
and noun stems
the nomina-
like yipuiv,
tives in both cases being alike.
In Latin there was a masculine and a neuter u- stem

{\)pectis corresponding to Skt. ;oaf&, masc. {2) pecu, Skt.
,
joafM, Goth, faihu,
Eggnj/^
(cf.
masc. stem changed in two different ways
neuter and
made
its
became
(a) it
genitive pecoris after neuter stems
genus, pectus (where
like
The
pecu-nia), neut.
represents an original
o),
instead of forming its cases like fructus or acus; (b)
it
became fem. and made a genitive in -d-, pecu-dis, probably first *pecMis on the analogy of forms like incus,
incudis.
Changes in the verb are very frequent.

^^ English, as has already been menlogy, m the verb,
tioned ( 30), many verbs have passed from
51.
Formal ana-
the one
conjugation to the other, the vast majority
transferring themselves from the old system with ablaut

to the later formation with
bake,
climb,
preterite
slit,
creep and
many
still
still'.
in
process and
1
Sev:,
etc.,
and in
beuk, clamb,
the preterites in Lowland Scotch, but in
literary English all these verbs
preterite
soiv,
others formed the
by a change in the vowel as sew,
various dialects they do so
crap are
Thus the verbs
-ed.
-ed.
The verb
have long formed the
irear
has
reversed
become a strong verb though
the
originally
Skeat, English Etymology (First Series), 139
ff.
52]
53
weak, no doubt under the influence of hear and tear.

These strong verbs occur now so rarely that the making
of
them comes within the province
of the humourist; 'a
smile he smole, and then a wink he wunk'
etc.
Oc-
casionally, as in the case of cleave (split) a strong verb,
and cleave (adhere) a weak verb, two verbs have become

confused together in their forms.
Sometimes such confusions are very old; in the oldest relics of the Norse
and West Germanic dialects there is the same mixture
of the forms of flee and fly as exists in modem English.
It is probable that
and do
'place'
some parts formed from the roots dhe
'give'
were confused even in the original
language.
In Attic Greek there

over from the
forms
parallel
tendency
is
SeU-vv-fJn
we have
-<
conjugation; hence arise
SeiK-vv-a)
end
<f>i\.r]fj,i,
In Aeolic the
etc.
thus iu the con-
yikaijii,
SokI/jluiixi.
and the
Greek dialects the present and aorist
many
In
infinitives
a tendency in verbs to pass
is
to the
in the contrary direction
tracted verbs
like.
-/xt
in
-/j-ev,
as in the
Homeric
e/Â'"',
So/xcv,
In the inscriptions of Rhodes and some other
Gi/j-iv etc.
islands there appear forms in
and many
-/xctv,
The diphthong
others.
dfmv,
is
Oifiuv, S6fj.uv
produced by the
influence of the ordinary infinitives in -eiv\
In Latin the whole of the original -mi verbs
52.
except
sum have passed over
jungo with
êwyvu/xi,
do with
to the -o conjugation, cp.
hiû>fu etc.
In late and corrupt Latin formal analogy plays a

great part.
make
In the classical period credo and
and vendidi: in
their perfects credidi
pando makes pandidi

{stiti) is
as
a unique formation
1
well.
;
In early Latin steti
from the form with
G. Meyer, Gr.
've7ido
late Latin
Gr.''
596.
comes
A SHORT MANUAL OF
54
the
52
dedi becomes on
diedi from
Italian stetti;
analogy of this form detti; vendo, credo
etc.
the
follow the
example of the simple verb, and ultimately there are 29

Italian perfects in -etti all springing from the influence
of a single original form.
53.
Another set
widely developed
forms
of
Romance languages
in
descended from participles

which in late Latin followed the analogy of the few
the
is
forms from verbs in -uo, imhutus, acutus
Ruptus
etc.
was ousted in favour of rumputus, French ronipu;

tonsus was replaced by tondutus, Fr. tondu; venditus by
vendutus, Italian venduto, Fr. vendu; -etsus by vidutus,
Ital. veduto, Fr. vu.
54.
have a combination
and formal analogy. A good exthe word Zcv? for *Z?;i)5 correspond-
It is possible also to
iii.
of logical
and formal analogy combined.
ample
is
mg
* ?-'
to an Indo-(jermanic torm *d?jus.
Ac-
cording to Greek phonetic laws this should have gen.

Aifo's,
dat.
AlFl with ace.
Z-rjv,
which actually appears
three times at the end of a line in the Iliad,
viii.
206,
But through the influence of formal

analogy the ordinary ending -a was appended Z^va'.
From this form, partly by logical, partly by formal analogy,
Zrjvoi and ZrjVL were developed, and from these forms
Plutarch makes even a plural Zrjve?.
The inflexion of
Tis follows exactly the same course, and as the original
xiv. 265, xxiv. 331.
forms
Ato's,
clension of
ao-o-a
still
remain in
appear, so fragments of the old de-
or ctTxa in Attic
55.
Analogy
AnaJogy in
gender.
Au
Ti's
ri-a-i
and in the compound
*a-Tj-a).
affects also the
gender of substantives.
Indo-Germanic languages gender

^^^ apparently at first purely grammatical
In
^^^
>
Meyer, Gr. Gr.^
324.

it
COMPAEATIVK PHILOLOGY.
56]
55
did not depend, as in English, upon the meaning but
varied according to the nature of the ending which the
word had.
But one word soon
with a
cros
cause
ipa-Tj
masculine
affected another.
was feminine';
vr/a-os
culine endings followed the gender of
yrj.
In Latin,
apparently because arbos was feminine, fagus, ornus
became feminine.
etc.
Logical gender sometimes influenced
the grammatical gender.
noun
8p6-
became feminine beand -îrtipos with mas-
ending
Venus
is
properly a neuter
when the quality 'beauty' becomes the

goddess 'Beauty,' the word naturally changes to the
like genus;
feminine.
Grammatical gender seems sometimes to have
changed with the phonetic change in the form. If sedes

and plebes are really the same words as ?8os and ttXtjOo's
they are examples of this. As fides has connected with
it may have been originally
having in some way
word
like
genus,
which,
a neuter
passed from *fid-us to fides in the nominative, consequently changed from the neuter gender to the gender
of other words ending in -esÂnalogy affects also the domain of Syntax.
56.
One or two
Little has been done as yet in this field*.
it
a rare adjective fidm-tu-s^,
'
In Aeschyl. Agamemnon 561
Spbaot, is
followed by ridivres.
As it is preceded by Xei/j-dvLai (? -01) there is possibly some corruption,

but it is deserving of notice that the word is not found in Homer.
^ The formation, if
trustworthy (the word exists only as
quoted by Festus), is parallel to venus-tus from Venus, vetus-tu-s
from vetus, which was itself originally a substantive identical with
the Greek ôs (Ffros), cp. 138 note.
3 For an elaborate classification of the phenomena of analogy
see Analogy and the scope of its application in language, by Benjamin
Ide Wheeler, Ithaca (America), 1887.
* A beginning made by H. Ziemer,
ziige
im Gebiete der Syntax,'
2. ed.,
Middleton, Analogy in Syntax, 1892.
'
Junggrammatische Streif-
1883, is followed up by G.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
5G
examples
may be
56
show the problems which call

the original Indo-Germanic
cited to
Analogy in ^^ Solution.
Greek syntax,
Ill
language there existed an ablative case,

which indicated the starting-point of the action denoted
by the verb. In most stems ablative and genitive are
identical from a very early period, and consequently the
use of the ablative without a preposition even in the
Veda, the oldest literature of an Indo-Germanic language which we possess, is rare with verbs of going,
coming and such
In
like.
Homer
verbs of this class
never take the genitive unless when they are com-
pounded with a preposition. But the old ablatival form

which has become adverbial may be used with them
The
KXuTLrjdev lova-a, oiKoOev riye.
without a preposition,
Attic poets, however, do use the genitive alone (cp.
Soph. Antigo-ne 417-8 x^^'^ ruôj? acipas a-Krj-nTov), extending the usage on the analogy of other verbs as in
ratSos eSefaro etc. (see Monro's
Homeric Grammar
A parallel
SiSao-Ko/xcvos TroXiftoLo,
case
is II. xvi.
811
only instance of a genitive with this verb.
the analogy of
which in
ciSajs"^
The
takes a genitive.
this
152).
the
It follows
meaning regularly
occasional occurrence of
el
with
a subjunctive, of idv with an optative reaUy arises from

a similar tendency, two independent constructions being
confused together.
817A.0V
on,
and
018'
on
are so often
used as meaning emdently and doubtless that ultimately

they are treated quite as adverbs, cp. the ordinary use
of SrjXoi/oTt in Aristotle
oTi as
and such constructions with
Plato Apol. Socr. 37 B
OVTiiiVj =TOVT(JliV
V otSa
^x'^f-"-'-
<"'
'" o'^' o^t
018'
xaxw^
KQKa OVTa,
^ See Ameis-Heutze's commentary on the passage.

Monro, H. G. 151 d.
Cp. also
58]
57
In Latin, Plautus lias many similar construcIn Miles Gloriosm 371 we find quern
Analogy in
ôl ego capitis perdam. The construction, ^''* syntax.
57*
tions.
which
dam-
also occurs elsewhere, follows the analogy of
nare aliquem
In the same play 619, the poet
capitis.
writes
Facinora neque
The
construction of decorzts with the abl.
but
lelled,
decora neque tuis virtutibus.
te
it
unparal-
is
obviously arises from the use of the word in

Terms, an
the sense of dignus.
'
improper
'
preposition,
governs the ablative on the analogy of the regular prepositions; but it shows that, to
genitive, germs terms

of)
In
the knee.'
have
it is still
its
as far as (literally, to the extent
prepositional usage however,
we
terms 'up to the mouth,' etc.
o?-e
58.
'
With
the
phase of analogy Semasiology
this
development of
science which traces the
the meaning 01 words
This science also
only in
some extent,
the ace. of a noun by occasionally taking the
felt as
is
is
Semasiology.
closely connected.
its
infancy.
The
interest
of the subject can easily be seen from the history of
words
like
paganus, which originally denoted the
habitant of a pagus or country
district.
were late in receiving new ideas the
pagan developed out
of the word.
in-
As such people
modem
notion of
Literature has thrown
even a greater slur on the villanus, first the dweller in

the farm house, then, from the position of villani in
the late Roman empire, villein a serf and lastly villain
Knave once meant
in its
modern
boy.
In English the word has deteriorated, in German
sense.
only servant-
knabe means boy still. On the other hand

which also originally means boy, youth, appears
Jcnight,
in the

A SHORT MANUAL OF
58
sense of hero in both Old English and Old
58
German:
in the former it retains its nobler meaning, in the latter

baiier-knecht
now means farm
The word
servant.
loon,
which appears in the ballad of Chevy Chase as the

opposite to lord,
'
Thou
shalt not yield to lord nor loon,'
seems to have meant originally a base, low fellow

in
northern Lowland Scotch it is now the ordinary word
'
'
for boy.
Another word which has had a very interesting

is noon.
This is the nona hora of the Romans
and ought therefore to mean not midday but three
o'clock in the afternoon.
The cause for the change of
meaning was a strange one. It was the custom of the
pious in Early England to fast the whole day till three,
at least on Wednesdays and Fridays.
But though the
spirit was willing, the flesh was weak and, by judiciously
history
quickening the course of time, the holy fathers salved

their consciences
earlier
and enjoyed their meal three hours
'.
Among
the most extraordinary changes in signifi-
cation which can be historically traced are those of the
word Tripos, which is used in Cambridge University

to mean the Examination for Honours.
(1) The word
is
found as early as the middle of the sixteenth cen-
meaning of the three-legged stool (t/diVos)

on which the Bachelor of Arts sat, who conducted the
tury, in the
disputation for the University with the
'
Questionists,'
then to be admitted Bachelors.

(2) The disputation
presently degenerated into a farce, and the Bachelor was
now expected to show his wit in personalities rather than
^
See Prof. Mayor's note on Bede
iii.
5.
59]
wisdom in disputation the name

not to the stool but to the Bachelor.
his
59
is
now applied
The next
(3)
stage was that two Bachelors made speeches of a humorous character at the prior and latter acts of
Bachelor's
When
Commencement.
were given up,
(4)
two
these Tripos-speeches
had
sets of Tripos-verses
written by each of the two Tripos-Bachelors.

tice of verse-writing still survives.
to be
This prac-
About 1747-8
(5)
the
honour- lists began to be printed on the back of the sheet

containing these verses, and from the honour-list the
name has passed
to (6) the honour-examination ^'
Innumerable examples of similar changes might be
These words are but a few samples of the store,

but they fully confirm the observation of Lucretius
given.
832),
(v.
Namque
'
aliud putrescit et aevo debile languet,
Porro aliud clarescit et e contemptibus
The
59.
last point to
be mentioned in this connex-
that seeming violations of phonetic
ion
is
law
may
often be explained
by the borrow-
ing of forms from kindred dialects.

if
exit.'
we may
call
them
so,
The
Borrowing of
"^^^-
different relays,
of English words borrowed
from Latin either directly or through the French, have

already been mentioned
ferent
dialects
of the
Borrowing between dif( 9).

same language is often much
harder to detect and, from the nature of the case,
much more
is
Communication between different sections of the same people is, in most

cases, much easier than communication with distant
peoples, who speak a language which, though possibly
likely to be
frequent.
Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, pp. 17
21.

A SHOKT MANUAL OF
60
nearly allied,
is
59
nevertheless quite unintelligible without
Kindred dialects are likely to borrow

from one another in all the ways in which languages
borrow from one another. But they affect one another
in their syntax to a degree which mutually unintelligible
languages never do, except when the districts where they
special training.
are spoken border on each other and
many
of the people
on both sides of the frontier speak both languages. Dialectic syntax is likely to appear largely in literature,
for literary men have always tended to be migratory,
and
in former times a court
people
attracted
from
all
which patronised
quarters.
especially, if popular, is likely to
who from
letters
great
poet
have many imitators,
their birth have spoken a dialect different
but who
will repeat his words and constructions

though strange to their dialect, merely because they
His influence may be so great that the dialect,
are his.
in which he wrote, may become the standard or literary
dialect for the future, and natives of other regions will
This they will seldom be
be expected to conform to it.
from
his,
do with exactness.
able to
dialect will remain.
It
Traces of their original
has been remarked that some of
the best Scotch writers as
Hume
and
never able to write correct English.
Adam Smith were

" Hume is always
idiomatic, but his idioms are constantly

his best passages are,
wrong
many of
on that account, curiously grating
and puzzling you feel that they are very like what an
Englishman would say, but yet that, after all, somehow
or other, they are what he never would say
there is a
minute seasoning of imperceptible difference which
distracts your attention, and which you are for ever
;
stopping to analyse'."
'
Walter Bagehot, Biographical Studies,
p. 272.
61]
It is well
known that a
61
when once he has
foreigner,
thoroughly mastered a language, will write or speak in

it more idiomatically than a person who has been brought
up
may
to speak a kindred dialect, although this dialect
be, in
the main, intelligible to the speakers of the
language in question.
The reason
case, the similarities are so
is that,
in the second
much more numerous than
the differences, that the latter
fail
to be clearly
felt.
An
example of borrowing in poetry is the word

loon just discussed. According to the reguin
lar laws of phonetic change in English, this loan-words
word should appear as loun or lown, a form
which sometimes occurs but when Coleridge makes the
60.
Wedding Guest address the Ancient Mariner
as
'
grey-
beard loon' he employs a form which is not English',

but is borrowed from the Scotch of the Border ballads, as
in one of the Scotch versions of the battle of Otterburn,
'
61.
Ye
lie,
ye
lie,
Caxton gives an
ye traitor loon.'
interesting
account of the
dif&culty of forming an English prose style in his time.

" Common English that is spoken in one shire varieth
much from
another," he says and proceeds to
story of an English merchant
who was wind-bound

asked at a house
for
at the Foreland,
some
eggs.
"
tell
from the Thames,
sailing
and going on land

the good wife
And
answered that she could speak no French. And the

merchant was angry, for he also could speak no Prench,
but would have had eggs and she understood him not.
And
1
then at
last
another said he. would have eyren, then
In other words, the form does not belong to Mercian English,
which is the basis of the modern literary dialect, but to Northumbrian

English, of which Lowland Scotch is the descendant.

;!
A SHORT MANUAL OF
62
61
the good wife said that she understood him well. Lo

what should a man in these days now write, eggs or
eyren? certainly
it is
hard to please every
man by
cause
and change of language. For in these days

every man that is in any reputation in his country will
utter his communication and matters in such manners
and terms that few men shall understand them\" Here
there is more than a mixture of mutually intelligible diaThe form egg had indeed by this time become inlects.
corporated in an English dialect and, as it has happened,
in that which has become the literary language, but it
really is a Norse form introduced by the Banish invaders
eyren is the lineal descendant of the Old English plural
of diversity
(hgru with a second plural ending added, as in childer-n.

62.
The
classical languages, as usual,
have exact
parallels to this interaction of dialects.

loan-words
first
a vowel or p
But
-q as when other letters precede.

some apparent exceptions, Kopiq stands
so that the rule
^6017, y}.6-q,
d(J3vr]
Explanation
cited
declension the nominative ending after
u and not
is
this rule has
for KopFyj
It is
a well-known rule of Attic Greek that in the
in
<f>66y] is
is not really broken;

but
and a few others do transgress the rule^
not easy in every instance, but of those

supposed to be a medical word taken by
is
Plato from Hippocrates,
who
writes in Ionic Greek
where
regular: x^<^V in the best period is only poetical, for

the style of Plato, in whose prose it first appears, is on
rj
is
the border line between poetry and prose.

as
we have seen
59), it
an Ionic product, while

stand respectively for irvoF-ij and jSoFrj.
dialect; aû'ij is also

j3oT^
Consequently,
may have come from
Gaston's Preface to his Eneydos, p. 2.
Meyer Gr.
Gr.'' 48.
another
-irvorj
x^^n too probably stands for
and
x^'5/7).
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY,
64]
63
63.
In Latin some common words appear in forms
which are most probably Oscan. Thus both
bos and ovis are held by many philologists La^fn.""""'''*'"
to
contradict Latin phonetic
certainly does
to
l3i-^p<o-(TKeiv
laws.
as venio corresponds to
(v being left
bos
^Saii/w
and vordre
to represent original q-
ws ought to be the Latin form for /Sovs. In

Oscan and Umbrian b is the regular representative of
this g-sound as in kumbened (Osc.) = convetiit, benust
(Umbr.) = venerit.
The difficulties which present themselves in bringing
the sound-changes of Latin under phonetic laws are
perhaps more often the result of borrowing than is generally supposed.
When we remember that Rome was a
commercial town on the frontier of Latium and Etruria,
and that, according to all tradition, her population was
from the beginning composed of different tribes, the
existence of such borrowing will seem not only possible
140), so
but even inevitable.
The
is a subject in which
be done and on which
Dialect and
Language.
light will be thrown by the investigaAs in botany it is not always
tion of modern dialects.
easy to decide what is merely a variety and what is a
new species, so here it is hard to say where individual
peculiarity ends and dialect begins'.
In every classi-
64.
much
much
has
division of dialects
still
to
fication of dialects there
must be much that
is arbitrary.
There are very few characteristics which are peculiar to

any one dialect and shared by none of its neighbours.
When a body of people is sharply divided from its
neighbours as by living on an island, and intercourse
with the outside world
'
is
rare,
peculiarities
Paul, Principien der Sprachgeschichtey p. 36r
develop

A SHORT MANUAL OF
64
rapidly.
This
is
by the islanders
64
not always owing to changes made

they are even more likely to retain old
forms and phrases which presently die out elsewhere.

Greece owed its numerous dialects, partly to the character
made intercommunication difficult,

number of independent states within
of the country which

partly to the great
The members
it'.
of
any one of these
states, as being
frequently at hostilities with their neighbours or not
having much business abroad, naturally soon developed a

form of speech which was fairly homogeneous for them,
though some among them used words frequently which
others did not.
On
the other hand, there was an
As
down most of
peoples made
ever increasing difference from their neighbours.
soon as the Macedonian conquests broke

the old political distinctions, the various
ever increasing use of the
kolvt],
the most influential
Attic,
a dialect founded on the
of the old dialects.
The
same holds good now. If communication with America

had been as difficult always as it was three hundred
years ago, and if emigration from England to America
had ceased, peculiarities in American English would have
much
been
greater than they are at present.
times the locomotive and the
steamboat
dialects as effectively as the armies of
those of Greece.
Within England
itself,
In
modem
ruin local
Alexander did
though dialectic
pronunciation will involuntarily long survive, dialectic

is rapidly disappearing.
The man of Yorkand the man of Somerset will become more easily
intelligible to one another by the spread of the English
Koivrj
the literary dialect which, taught in Board
Schools and read in newspapers, is, in conjunction with
vocabulary
shire
first.
This second reason
is
of course largely
Separation maintained independence.
dependent on the
65]
65
the more migratory habits of the people, rapidly usurping

the place of
all local dialects.
This part of Philology proves perhaps more
65.
conclusively than any other the continuous

T
,,
action of natural forces. In the pre-scientinc
,.
Continuous
tion of
ac-
natural
geology frequent cataclysms were supposed

to occur in the history of the world, the record of which
The
then began anew.
older philologists
still
assert
that certain forces acted more violently at one period
than they did at others.
Curtius' held that, in the
early history of language, analogy did not play such
important part as
it
an
admittedly does in more recent
no proof. Just as a harder

more effectually the action
of the waves and by and by become a far projecting
headland, which alters the course and character of some
ocean current and changes the geological history of the
times.
But
layer
of rock
of this there is
may
resist
neighbouring coast, so in the history of language there

are many events which may accelerate or retard the
action of analogy and of other forces ; but in either case
the force
is
there,
and has always been, though we may
not be able to trace

history
for
is
missing,
Language than
of speech
is
many
a leaf of the
it.
In both cases
and
this is true to a greater extent
for Geology,
inasmuch as the history
written on a less enduring material than
that which contains the geological record.

1
Zur
G. P.
Kritik der neuesten SprcKhforschung, p. 67.
A SHOKT MANUAL OF
66
V.
Definition
language.
of
66-
Phonetics^.
Spoken language
66.
is
the result of a number of
Complicated processes, but as the individual

learns in his childhood to speak by imitating
other individuals, few people are aware of the complexity

of movements required in the production of a sentence.
Language is ordinarily described as voice modulated by
the throat, tongue and lips.
This definition is however
very inexact.
Voice
is
properly speaking produced only
when the vocal chords (below 67) are in action, and a

large number of sounds do not call these chords into
play at
Indeed a conversation
all.
without using them, as actually
may be
carried on
done in whispering.
Another well known definition which describes language
is
as 'articulate sound' is equally inexact, for in the pro-
duction of a number of the consonants called 'mutes'

or
'stops,'
there
is
a very brief interval of absolute
owing to the momentary closure of the breath

passage. This is the case in the pronunciation of k,t, p^
silence
68).
'Articulate communication' might be a
rigidly accurate definition, but in actual practice
phoneticians are content to use
'
sound,' the
more
most
word which
represents the most prominent feature of language.

1 For the facts in this chapter I am indebted
to Peile's Greek
and Latin Etymology", chap, iv., H. Sweet's Handbook of Phonetics
and History of English Sounds-, E. Sievers' Grundziige der Phonetik", and most of all to Sievers' excellent summary in Paul's
Grundriss
der
Germanischen Philologie,
vol.
i.,
pp.
266299
(Triibuer, Strassburg, 1889).

2
The
fact of this closure is
are pronounced not kay,
tee,
shown much
better if these letters
pee as usual, but as
ik,
it,
ip.
67]
67
In the production of these articulate sounds the
67.
chief factors are the larynx, the cavities of
mouth and
the
nose,
teeth and palate.
and the
tongue,
lips,
The larynx
physiology of
language,
a small cartilaginous
is
hox at the top of the windpipe. The upper end of this

box opens into the back of the mouth. Across the
middle of this box two folds of mucous membrane stretch
towards the centre line from the sides, to which they are
In the centre a
attached.
The
slit
is
membrane are the

between them is the
folds of
which
is left
left
between them.
vocal chords, the
When
glottis".
chords are tightened by the action of the

muscles, they project farther towards the
slit
these
Breath
and
^"'''-
centre line than at other times, and in this tense condition voice
is
produced by the
air
blowing across their
edges, which have been brought parallel to each other,
and thus causing them to
vibrate.
vibrate, whisper is the result.
the air
do not
this takes place
generally in process of being expelled from the
is
lungs, but
it is
as well as
by
vocal
If the chords
"When
possible to produce voice

exspiration.
by inspiration
In ordinary breathing the
chords are flaccid and, the glottis being wide
open, neither the musical note which constitutes voice,
nor
rubbing
the
noise
called
whispering,
is
heard.
Thus sounds may be produced either with breath or

with voice, and the difference between breath and
voice depends upon the slackness or tension of the vocal
chords.
The
further character of the sounds of language,
apart from being breathed or voiced, depends on the

'
fuller account of the mechanism of speech-production

Huxley, Lessoiis in Elementary Physiology, pp. 190 it.
For a
see Prof.
(revised edition).
52
A SHOBT MANUAL OF
68
action of the other organs mentioned.
the production of which
Sonndsnamed
they
are
,,
sound, in
soft palate
the
(vemm) takes a prominent
from that part of
themouthwhere
67
part,
_i.
-n
wili
v,
be
term applied to certain very

guttural consonants.
A sound produced by
called velar, a
pro-
when approximated to the roof of

the mouth is called palatal, when approximated to the
prominences caused by the roots of the teeth, alveolar,
when to the teeth themselves, dental. When the point of
the help of the tongue
the tongue
is
turned back, a cerebral sound
sound in producing which the
is
produced.
prominently help
lips
is
called labial.
68.
Mute
The
conso-
nants or stops,
mute or stopped consoknown by these names. In the
several classes of
i^nts are
original
Indo-Germanic language there was
a series of deep guttural sounds resembling
k, g. Mi, gli,
but probably produced farther back in the mouth than
These are velars ( 139 if.), written

Another series of gutturals also existed.
These were produced farther forward in the mouth and
the English gutturals.
q,
qh, q, qk.
are called palatals
On
k, kh, g, gh.
sounds called dentals
t,
the other hand the
where th represents not

followed by a breath are
d, th, dh,
the sound in then or thin but
in English pronunciation not dentals but alveolars, being
produced by the pressure of the tongue against the roots of

the teeth and not against the teeth themselves as they are
in German and many other languages.
The labial stops
of the original Indo-Germanic language were p, b, ph, bh.
In the production of these sixteen sounds the breath
passage
is
name mute
for
moment
entirely closed.
brief interval of absolute silence.
tested
Hence the
or stopped sounds, because there
by pronouncing slowly and
is
a very
This can be easily
distinctly combinations
70]
69
The name of the sound is taken

from that part of the mouth where the stoppage takes
place.
It must also be observed that, in producing all
these sounds, the nasal passage remains closed.
like oka, ata, apa.
69.
If,
however, the breath passage of the mouth
is
not absolutely stopped but only narrowed
,,,'
...
Spirants.
'
so tar that an exspiration produces a noise,
while the nasal passage remains closed as before,
have a
parallel series of
'spirants,'
which
dental (alveolar
stops
may
be guttural (velar or palatal),

or labial.
etc.),
we
sounds called 'rubbing sounds' or
we have a corresponding
Thus
to every set of
set of spirants,
(a)
To
q and q correspond sounds which phoneticians

represent by x and 3 respectively, x corresponding to
velar
the c^-sound in (Scotch)
loch,
3 to the pronunciation of
g after a-vowels in some parts of Germany as in the

word Lage. (b) The corresponding palatal sounds are
represented by x and
(c) To t and d correspond the
two sounds found in English thin and then, represented
by the old Germanic symbols and d: (d) Similarly p
and b have their correlatives in /, v and w, though
/ and V are not pure labials but labio-dentals, the lower
</.
}>
lip
being pressed against the teeth of the upper jaw.

70.
to
and
Besides
d.
J)
and
These are
^ two
and
z.
other spirants correspond
The tongue
position for these differs slightly from that
of
dental
spU
and ^which are frequently interdental,

while for s and z a groove is formed longitudinally iu
The difference between the two series is,
the tongue.
however, small, and foreigners in attempting to pronounce J> and ^ often produce s and z (as in blaze)
Other sounds
instead, or on the other hand t and d.
for
jj
of a similar nature are sh and zh (the 2-sound heard in
A SHORT MANUAL OF
70
seizure), wbicli are generally classed as cerebrals,
their
method of formation
An
71.
70
though
somewhat obscure.
is
unvoiced spirant produced in the glottis
Greek spirit- itself is the Greek S2nritus

usasper.
^^.^^^ ^j^j^ ^.j^-^ ^j^^ ordinary
asper
Con-
'.
A-sound
85).
however,^ and b are produced by the same

parts of the mouth and in the same way,
voiced
conso- how do they differ from one another?
p
and the corresponding sounds, t, h, q, are
produced without voice, and with the breath alone; b
and the corresponding sounds d, g, g, are produced with
72.
voice,
If,
i.e.
in the production of these sounds the vocal
chords are not only brought closer to one another but

are also
made
to vibrate.
Breathed and voiced sounds are also known by a
number
of
names, as
other
'
Surds
'
and
Sonants,'
'
'Tenues' and 'Mediae,' 'Hard' and 'Soft' sounds, and of

late as
'
Fortes
'
and
'
Lenes,' a nomenclature derived
from the strength or weakness of the exspiratory
effort
in their production.
73.
From the
must
spirants /, v,
carefully
]>,
etc.
( 69,
distinguish
the
70)
These have been already mentioned

kh, gk, tk, dh, ph, bh.
They
we
aspirates.
qh,q/i,
are distinguished from the
other stopped sounds by the breath which succeeds
them
sound is produced.
Sounds of this
nature are to be found in the vulgar Irish pronunciation
of pig as p-hig, of water as wat-her etc.
The ancient
Greek x, ^, <^ were sounds of this kind. In imitation
before another
of the spiritus asper of Greek
these sounds h\
74.
some phoneticians write
g', etc.
Another
series of
distinguished from spirants
sounds which must be also
and aspirates
is
the
affri-
76]
71
cates'.
These consist of a stop followed by the corresponding spirant when both belong to the
same
Affricates,
as in German pferd, zahn
kx appears in some Swiss dialects I
75. The Indo-Germanic aspirates soon changed their
character in most languages.
In the earliest Greek the
Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (gA, gh, 113 i. b),
dh, and bh had become breathed aspirates kh (x), th (6)
and ph {<j>). In modern Greek these breathed aspirates
have become ch (as in loch), th (as in thin) and /;
X, 0,
that is to say they are now spirants, and there is some
evidence to show that in Greek as in many other
languages the affricates formed an intermediate stage
between aspirate and spirant . The change from aspirate
to affricate seems to have begun very early, for on inscriptions we find x written as k-^, 6 as t6, and
as 7r(^.
Sometimes too a short vowel before these sounds is
(z
syllable,
= ts).
(j)
<j>
lengthened, as (âtoxiVwves {Choephoroe 1049).

76.
If
now we put the
d, or k, g,
11
velar)
b,
or
11
but leave the nasal passage open,
we produce a new
series of
the nasals.
sounds m,
As the
n,
t,
.,
1111
continuous, while on the other hand the
corresponding stops
In other respects m,
d, g,
Nasals.
ng (n
nasal passage
nasal sounds resemble the spirants in being

,
mouth
different parts of the
in the proper position to produce ,
is
palatal,
open the
How
differ
nasals
from
spi-
66) break off abruptly.

n,
ng are produced precisely
like b,
the vocal chords vibrating in the formation of both
series.
Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 282.
N.B. X
is
not the English sound but the phonetic symbol for
the velar spirant

3
69
a).
G. Meyer, Gr. Gr?
% 210.

A SHOET MANUAL OF
72
77
Other sounds which resemble these in being

continuous voiced' sounds are the Hquids
77.
"^'''
r and
'
I.
is
produced by closing the
mouth passage with the
centre of the
thus resembling
tip of the tongue,
but leaving an opening at either one
d,
The sound varies according to the manner

is made and the part of the mouth
which the tip of the tongue touches. The one symbol r
is used to denote a considerable number of distinct sounds.
Of these the most important are (1) the alveolar r pronounced, when trilled, by placing the tip of the tongue
loosely against the sockets of the teeth and causing it to
or both sides.
in which the stoppage
vibrate with a strong breath

trilled)
wards against the palate, and
by the uvula, the

downwards.
Foreigners have at
bination
pr
r produced
which hangs
(3) the trilled
English r at the beginning of words
first
An
tried and chide.
I,
so
unvoiced r
nasal passage
is
is
is
the
and d it is almost a spirant.

some difficulty in distinguishing
t
as in pride", etc.
an unvoiced
The
(2) the cerebral r (un-
tip of the soft palate
untrilled alveolar; after
is
produced by the tip of the tongue turned back-
found in the com-
is
Welsh
the English
II
as in Llangollen
in flat, help, etc.
closed in the production of the
liquids.
78.
In producing
all
the sounds which have been
enumerated, the breath passage

Vowels.
to
is
,
some
extent obstructed, and consequently in the

case of the stops there
when the passage

'
all
Though these
is
is
moment
entirely closed
are the ordinary kind,
of absolute silence
;
in the case of the
it is
possible to produce
of these sounds without voice.

^
Sievers,
Grundzuge der Phonetik^, pp. 107
Germ. Phil., p. 278.
ff.,
Grundriss der
79]
spirants there
73
a distinct noise, as distinguished from

produced by the breath rubbing against
the narrowed passage.
In the ordinary nasals and
a musical
is
note,
liquids this noise is not observable,
made
though
may
it
be
evident by increasing the force of the exspiration
and narrowing the breath passage. We come now to

sounds which are purely voice modified by different
'
configurations of the superglottal passages but without
These are the vowels.
audible friction '.'
the ordinary vowels, the nasal passage

it is
is
In producing
closed
open, nasalised vowels are produced.
The
when
factors
concerned in modifying the configuration of the mouth

passage are the tongue, the lips and the cheeks.
tongue
may be
raised or lowered,
The
drawn back, or pushed
the lips and cheeks may be contracted so as to

round the mouth, or their position may be changed in
forward
other obvious ways.

79.
i.e.
(a)
Some vowels
the voice
is
are back or guttural sounds,
modified by the appro xi-
mation of the back of the tongue to the soft

palate as a", 0, u.
Others are front or
ciaasffloation
"'(''back and
front vowels.
all of which are produced

i,
by approximating, to a greater or less extent, the upper
surface of the tongue to the roof of the mouth.
(b)
Vowels may also be classified, according to the
height to which the tongue is raised, as ^y j,;^}, ,y
high, mid and low vowels. Thus i is higher ^'" '8.
than e, u is higher than a.
palatal vowels,
(c)
as d, e,
il
Vowels are also divided into close or narrow
Sweet, History of English Sounds', p.
2.
These sounds are to be produced in the continental not in

the English manner, thus a = ah, u=oo, i = ee etc. a is an intermediate stage between a and e, for ii see 80.
2
A SHORT MANUAL OF
74
and open or wide vowels.

(c)
close
If the surface of that part
formed be made more convex than
natural shape, the vowel
its
79
tongue with which the sound
and 0^ the
open vowels,
is
close or narrow.
is
it is in
Thus
in
English the a oi father and the u of but are both back

or guttural sounds, biit the former
is
The vowel sounds
a close sound.
both front sounds, but the former
an open, the latter

and man are
in air
is
close,
the latter an
open vowel.
{d)
Lastly, vowels
may be rounded
according to the
((^
rounded
and unrounded
and
iips.
V0W6ls.
mi
The
or unrounded,
of the cheeks
position
greatest rounding
COgoes with
the highest vowels.
important degrees
of rounding
three degTees of high,
Hence there are three

corresponding
to the
mid and low vowels.
For example,
in pronouncing who, only a narrow opening is left
between the lips, in no the opening is wider and broader,
and in saw only the corners of the mouth are drawn
together'.
8o.
The vowels
'
vowefs."''^^
The
line
are often set in a pyramidal form
* illustrate these characteristics.

a,
e,
represents
the
gradual
raising
of the tongue from the low to the high position
the
u represents the successive stages from the

unrounded to the fully rounded vowel. These five
line a,
o,
sounds of course only represent the most clearly marked

The number of intermediate stages
between these positions is infinite, because the positions
vowel positions.
which the tongue may assume are infinite; a limited

but still a large number can be distinguished by the ear.
Thus we might have a, a\ a", a^
d', o\ o etc.
Some
1
Sweet, Handbook, p. 13.
Sievers, G. d. Phonetik^, p. 93.
81]
75
phoneticians distinguish a few intermediate grades by
such symbols as
a", e" etc.,
the larger letter indicating
that the sound approximates more to a or e and so on

as the case
may
'6
be.
the tongue position of
is
e.
a rounded vowel like o with

It is
found in such words as
German schiin. u bears a somewhat similar relation to u and i. It appears in the

French lune, the German iiber. " in Attic Greek and
the vowel represented in Latin by i or u indifferently,
as in optimus or optumus, were sounds of the same
the French pew and the
character.
Following these principles the technical language of

phoneticians describes the sound of a in English father
as a mid-back-open
lune
is
unrounded vowel
in the
French
a high-front-close rounded vowel.
A neutral
or indistinct vowel, that
is,
an unaccented
vowel the formation of which is hard to define, is

represented by the symbol 3, because on the whole the
sound approaches most nearly to
e.
This vowel
is
represented in English by the initial vowel of words like

against,
together
8i.
and by obscure sounds such
as the o
when carelessly pronounced.

The last important classification
into those
and er of
of sounds
is
which can form a syllable by themselves

A SHORT MANUAL OF
76
and those which cannot.
This
is
81
the most important
point historically in connexion with pho-
The discovery that,
netics.
non^syiiabiT
besides the ordi-
nary vowels, certain other sounds could form

syllables by themselves, has done much to revolutionise
These other sounds are the
comparative philology.
H^^^^ and
Sonant nasals
and
liquids.
Vowels, liquids and
nasals.
nasals are classed together as sonants while
name
of conso-
brittle,
German
the non-syllabic sounds retain their old

nants.
Words
fathom, smitten,
like
might as well be spelt fathm (as in Old English)

smitw, brit^, bitr.
There would be no difference in
bitter^
sound.
The second
syllable
consists
entirely
of the
sound of m, ?i, I, r respectively. Hence philologists

represent these syllabic nasals and liquids by the
ordinary symbols with a small circle below, m, n,
As
will
be seen later on
151
158),
I,
f.
these syllabic
sounds have played a very important part in the history

of the Indo-Germanic languages.
82.
All sounds
Long and short

sounds.
t^
jg
may
vary in length according to the
occupied in their production, and
appear in both long and short forms.

a,
etc.
83.
but also
n,
The manner
Division of syilabies.
a-i-a, (2)
ô
etc. (cp.
in
151
Thus we have
ff.).
which one syllable
another
is
combination aia
ai-a,
it
important to observe that aU sonants
(3) a-ia,
also important.
may
is
divided
Thus the
be divided into (1)

In every
(4) ai-ia ( 84).
is much more prominent

That sound is the sonant of the syllable.
Where two sonants seem to come together in the same
syllable, one of them really becomes consonantal.
Thus,
syllable there
is
one sound which
than any other.
'
In English there
is
no
final
sonant
r.
the
in
83]
combination ai-a, a and
77
which are both
i,
ordinary sonants, come together in the same syllable, but

if
we pronounce the combination,

much larger part in it than
plays a
remains a sonant while
evident that a
it is
i.
In other words a
becomes consonantal.
Similarly
in the combination a-ia
pronounced a-ya, a
and i consonant. Combinations of two
sonants in the same syllable are called
diphthongs.
The term
in
English
is
sonant
'"
"^^'
commonly
is
re-
stricted to those combinations
where the first element

remains sonant and the second becomes consonantal, as
ay but those where the first element is consonantal and
;
the second sonant as ya have an equal right to the

It is also to
title.
be observed that, though in English we
apply the term only to combinations of the ordinary
vowels a,
e,
i,
o,
may
u, it
be equally well applied to
Any
combinations with nasals and liquids.
vowel
may
become consonantal in such combinations, but i and u

do so most frequently, and are then known as consonant
* and consonant u (written i, u).
When the liquids and
nasals, which are more frequently used as consonants,
are employed as sonants they are distinguished by the
names sonant liquids and sonant nasals. We shall see
later ( 258, 259) that there is exactly the
tion between en
cp. irivOo'i
The
and
n, etc. as
and 7raî(=
vowels,
TttlBu
nasals
and
same
between eu and
157) with
liquids
</)evyo)
rela-
u, etc.,
and
vyri.
are the ordinary
syllables,
s also may do so as
Pst! and attempts have been made
sounds which can form

in the ejaculation
recently to show that the corresponding voiced sound z

really did often
form syllables in the original Indo-
Germanic language
1
'.
Thurneyseia, K. Z. 30, p. 351.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
78
84
In passing from one sound in a word to

^^lother, a transition-sound or glide is proGlides
On
giide and off- duced.
In a combination like duo there
^' "
is a transition sound which is produced,
84.
though not represented in writing, when the voice is

Some languages do actually reprepassing from u to 0.
In these
sent these sounds very carefully in writing.
we should probably
word written duwo.
find the
here the 'off-glide' from u, the 'on-glide' to

there
a transition-sound produced between
is
Compare
85.
Vowels with
la
is
d and
11.
83).
Vowels may have a glide to introduce them if the

glottis is gradually narrowed through the
and without
1
above
also ai-ia
Similarly
0.
in-
p,
..
positions tor breath
,
jiwliisper
and
e.
ji^
If the stress of
produced.
changed from the vowel
itself to this
produced,
\.
before voice
the breath
instead of the sound a
the aspirate (A)
is
the sound ha
is
heard.
the glottis
in the position to produce voice, the
is
If
e.g.
is
introductory sound,
the breath
kept back tiU
is
vowel
produced without a glide. If the glottis is completely

closed so that voice cannot be produced till the closure
is
is
broken by a special impulse, an explosive sound or

stop may be heard just before the vowel.
'
'
This sound, the result of the opening of the

glottis,
has been identified with the
Greek spiritus
lenis.
86.
In the same
way a vowel may
while the glottis
form voice, or
it
is still
may
die
finish abruptly
in the position to
away through the
and breath the final glide.

All consonants have an on-glide and off-glide,
87.
Consonants except wheii two consonants come together
.
with and without glides.
which are formed m precisely the same
successive stages of whisper
0)
O)
CO
CL
(0
(0
CQ
Tl
(Q
CD
96]
we
ever
Thus the
is
at work.
difference between the root vowels in
and
in Latin tego
(fiopd,
we have
disappearing entirely
find syllables
reason to suppose that there stress-accent
and
81
band, originates in a difference of pitch
<j>pii>
bind and
toga, in English
the disappear-
ance of a syllable as in the pronunciation of history as

Mstry, or in the French frhre, the historical develop-
ment of
\&\xa. fratrem, is the result of stress-accent.
Both phenomena
94.
the
interchange of high and
low pitched vowels and the disappearance
can be traced back to

1
01 syllables
ginal Indo-Germanic language,
the on-
Accent of the
indo-Ger. lan-
and conse-
quently we have a right to assume that in this original

language, as in those derived from
it,
both forms of accent
were active, though perhaps pitch and stress-accent were
more equally balanced there than they have been in the

later development of the Indo-Germanic languages.
It
may be that first one, then the other, was predominant.
In both pitch and stress-accent three degrees
95.
may
be distinguished
the principal accent,
the secondary accent and the absence of
accent,
-n
,1
a long English word there
Tlir66 cl.6Sir66S
ot
pitch
and
stress-accent.
is
really a different degree of stress-accent
on each
but the three degrees given above are all that
lable,
The secondary accent
necessary to distinguish.
removed from the principal accent by at
rule
is
least
sylit is
as a
one
intervening syllable.
11
two
uniformly,
G. P.
either
or
If the
accent-points.'
one
this indicates that
but
'
syllable has but
jerks,
may have
In both kinds of accent, the syllable
96.
either one or
else
Accent-points.
stress-accent point,
the exspiration does not come in

increases
first
or
increases
decreases
in
energy
and then decreases

6

A SHORT MANUAL OF
82
If the syllable lias
uniformly.
two
'
the exspiration in such a syllable
stress-
96
accent points'
not uniform, but
is
after a decrease of energy there is again an increase

without the continuity of the sound being so far broken
Such double 'stress-accent
as to form two syllables'.
points
'
appear in English words like do, man, and
may
be indicated by the circumflex do, man.

In pitch or musical accent we have to distin97.
guish, besides the uniform tone or monotone,
Kinds of pitch
accents.
(x) the falling \ (2) the rising ', (3) the
rising-falling "
(3)
and
and
(4)
the falling-rising " tones.
combined with
are generally
(4)
Of
pointed' exspiration.
this
'
double-
kind are the circumflex
accent in Greek and the similar accent in Lithuanian.
The Greek acute accent

grave the falling accent
is
the rising
(2),
the Greek
(1).
be observed that individual words as

may be unaccented.
Unaccented ^^^^ ^^ Syllables
98.
It is to
words.
These are called enclitics and proclitics,

and in such cases the whole clause or sentence forms one
word e.g. English at home, don't; Greek tyjv ttoXlv,
dire fior,
Latin noctes-que, in urbe
etc.
In the original
Indo-Germanic language this was carried to a much

greater extent
vocatives were not accented except
when
standing at the beginning of a sentence, nor was the

principal
verb
of the
sentence accented.
traces of this are left in the
and of the verb
to place the accent of the vocative

far
back as possible
the latter
thus
Interesting
tendency which Greek shows
TraTijp
but
TrdrEp,
e-axov.
as
In
example, as the augment was originally a
separate adverb, the verb really
still
In longer Greek words, however,

>
remains unaccented.
such as
Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 286.
itîpojxida,
100]
83
owing to a peculiar Greek law which appeared at a mach

later period and which forbade the accent to be placed
farther from the end of the word than the third syllable,
the original accentuation has been obliterated.
Differences (1) between English
vii.
and
sical languages
(2)
and
the Clas-
between English and other Ger-
manic languages.
The
99.
way
discussion of accent has
the
explaining
to
reasons
now
..p(,
-n
T
seeming ditterences between iingnsh words
,
1,1
1
and those words
the
Differences be-
cleared the
the
for
-11
classical languages
1
tween the Germanic and other

indo-Germ. lan-
which philologists declare to be identically

the same words or at any rate their congeners.
100.
Changes in the primitive Germanic
and
so affecting all the
(A)
i.
Germanic languages.
Changes in Consonants
(cp.
The Indo-Germanic breathed
130
period
'Grimm's Law.'
141).
stops k
{q, h), t,
became breathed spirants h (xw, x), I?,/'

ii.
The Indo-Germanic voiced stops g (q, g), d, b
became breathed stops k (qu), t, p
iii.
The Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (qh, gh),
dh, bh became voiced spirants 3, d, t and then voiced
:
stops, g, d,
b.
These changes are known as the Germanic 'soundshifting' or 'Grimm's Law' (see 39).
Examples of the changes.

Greek
84
A SHORT MANUAL OF
100-
104]
Hermann Grassmann and hence

Law'
known
is
86
as 'Grassmann's
(see 42).
103.
Certain combinations of consonants do not
(b)
nnderffo complete 'sound-shifting.'

..
Combinations
sp remain unchanged: Lat.
st,
piscis, Goth, fislcs (but
fish)
s/c,
(1)
not affected by
by a later change Eng.
Lat. hostis, Goth, gasts, Eng. guest; Lat. can-spicio,
0. H. G. spekvn, Eng. spae-wife (fortune-teller).
In the combinations kt and
(ii)
changed.
noct-),
joi,
remains un-
oKTw, Lat. octo, Goth, alitmi: Lat.
now (stem
Goth, nahts: KKiin-q^j Goth, hli/tus, Eng. cattle-
Uft-ing: Lat. captus, Goth, hafts.
Original
(iii)
*uit-to-s, f icr-To's,
104.
became
]>t
Verner's Law.
(c)
manic words
î
if
and
later
Goth, ga-wiss, 0. Eng.
In the middle of Ger-
the immediately preceding
sonant did not originally bear the principal

accent, original
original
s.s;
W2.s.
(q, k), t,p, s
Analogical
ir-
are not repre-
sented by h (hw), ]>,f,s but by g (gw), d,

the combinations ht, hs, ft, fs, sh, st, sp.
b, r,
except in
The
historical
order was (1) the ordinary change into breathed spirants,

(2) a
change to the voiced spirants
from these into

accent
is
often
by Sanskrit.
g, d, b, r.
The
7, S;tr, z,
and then
(.3)
position of the original
shown by Greek, much more frequently
A SHORT MANUAL OF
86
As has
104
already been mentioned, the accent varied in
the singular and the plural of the Indo-Germanic Perfect.
Hence the discovery by Karl Vemer of
why in Old
at once clear
this
law made
it
English seo\ian (seethe) had the
and the
and w\\j for-leosan (= 'lose'
singular of the perfect sea's but the plural sudon

participle 1,e-soden (sodden),
had in the
in meaning)
and in the
perfect sing, for-leas,
also varied in the different cases
Greek
pi. forluroii,
As the accent
of the noun (cp. in
German hase but in
participle forloren (forlorn).
ttovs ttoS-os etc.)
we have
in
English hare, in Gothic auso but in English ear, each
language having modelled the whole of
its
forms by
analogy on one part of the original noun forms.

pare with this the o throughout in
in pes,
though
declension
and
ttou's,
the
Com-
throughout
both appeared in the original
48).
Analogy has caused some other
irregularities.
Thus
Eng. brother corresponds regularly to an original *bhrdtor,
but father and mother should have d instead of th,

come from original *2}d-ter, *ma-tgr. The
since they
accentuation of these
original
words
is
represented
accurately by Sanskrit only, which has hhrd-td{r),pi-td{r),
md-ta{r);
Greek keeps the accentuation correctly in
the more regular philological form, is

by the grammarians) and in Tranjp, but has changed
it in tî]Trjp.
Old English had correctly feeder, mddor,
brod'or, and according to Professor Skea,t\ father, mother
4>pa.T-qp
{(fypdrap,
cited
with th hardly appear before 1500 a.d., the manuscripts

of Chaucer having fader, moder, brother.
In south-west
Cumberland and elsewhere the regular forms appear, in

northern Lowland Scotch the analogy has gone in a
'
Principles of English Etymology (First Series)
126.
107]
direction exactly opposed to English

all
87
and produced d
in
three cases.
105.
Some few
{d)
have arisen from
irregularities
the original root having a bye-form with a

different final consonant
some
milation to
produced by
Thus Goth.
suihx.
-g^^^^ ^;th
^y-^""^-
assi-
tdthiQ,
(token)
belongs to the verb teiha, BeiK-w-fn, dic-o, but comes
from a bye-form with g for It. In the same way /x.t-yvu/i,t

is from a root mik, and pango pepigi are forms from the
same root as pax
pjac-k.
Changes in Sonants.
B.
The main
106.
and the
Germanic
changea of IndoG. sonants.
the following.
Indo-G.
1.
became a
rt
Germanic
Lat. octo, Goth, ahtuu: Lat. hostis, Goth, gasts:
o'ktoj,
oTSa,
Germanic
differences between the
Indo-Germanic sonants are
original
Goth. waif.
Indo-G. a became Germanic
ii.
t^paruip,
fj.r]Tr]p,
Lat, /rater, mater, 0. English brUSor, mddor.
Indo-G. sonant tn and sonant n (m, n) appear
iii.
as
U721
and
icn
Goth, sum-s.
S-p-o-
(= *smma), Lat. sem-el (= *smm-eT),
Negative particle
Greek
a-,
Lat. in, Goth.
un, Indo-G. *n.

o
'
Indo-G. sonant I and sonant r {I, r) appear as

iv.
and ur (written aur in Gothic, or in some of the
raX-as, O.Latin tulo (perf.
other Germanic dialects)
ul
tuli),
all
Goth, \ul-a (dialectic Eng.
from
*tll-,
thole,
one form of the root
'bear patiently'),
tel-.
Koipvos
(Hesy-
chius), Lat. cornu, Goth, haitrn (Eng. horn).
107.
seen,
In the primitive Germanic period, as we have
the accent,
although no longer a pitch but a
A SHORT MANUAL OF
88
was
stress-accent,
107
the primitive Indo-Germanic period.

Germanic
the
of all
first syllable
But
by which
uncompounded words
soon a further change came
ac-
stand on any syllable as in
to
free
in,
was accented.
Further causes of dissimilarity
io8.
between English and
Assimilation;
final sounds.
nants
(jiggi-ent
^j^-j
appearance
words were
laws of assimilation of conso-
sounds of
different treatment of the final
(2)
in
classical
words.
log.
At an
Changes in
English g
changed to y;
What
destroyed by the influence of the Danish
otoc7t.
invasion,
conquest.
and
still
Further
English words
more
by that of the Norman

was produced by
dissimilarity
now
being
Many
fashion.
then.
Germanic languages
early period the
of their Noun Inlost a considerable part

^
was left in English was largely
flexion.
the
after
spelt
changes
other
have
Norman
occurred
since
Nearly every trace of inflexion has disappeared,
and many vowel and consonantal changes too intricate

One of those which
help most to disguise English words is the change of g
into the spirant y which took place in certain cases.
Thus Gothic ga-, German ge-, becomes Middle English
Ze, and in Shakespeare and Spenser we find it as 3/ in
to discuss here have taken placed
yclept, yhight.
Final
in similar wise
times as -dge, as in midge, 0. E.
intermediate stage migge, sometimes as

0. E. hur{u)g.
Final g
first
then passed into Z^ before

1
For a
full
-gli
through the
as in borough,
became gh, or h, burrh, and

e.
Another change of the
account of these changes see Skeat's Principles of

and Sweet's History of English
E. Etym. (First Series), chap. xix.

Sounds.
appears some-
my eg,
112]
same kind
is
that of the 0. E. palatal A--sound in cild-re
into the aifricate
no.
89
The
cli
of child, etc.
modern English
is little
dif-
ferent from that of Shakespeare's time, but
EngUsh
speii-
spelling of
'"^'
the pronunciation has changed immensely
Hence our
in the intervaP.
comparatively
spelling,
little relation to
which now bears
our pronunciation,
is
help to the beginner in tracing the connexions between
the words of English and those of other tongues, but
is
really a stumbling-block in tracing the history of the
English language
itself
because, as the spelling
stant, the incessantly varying pronunciation
is
con-
has to be
traced out laboriously from other sources.

111.
It is this incessant
change in the sounds and
forms of words which makes comparative

philologists always deal
by preference with
the earliest accessible forms of any Ian-
forms in phiio-
^'
guage, these being naturally less removed from the original type than later forms
number
of further changes.
which have undergone a

and separate de-
Isolation
velopment make people of the same family speak a

different dialect
the same causes
make
their descend-
ants speak languages which are mutually unintelligible,
and which at
first
sight bear
no resemblance one to
another.
112.
Hence languages so nearly related as High
German and English differ widely in both
vowels and consonants.
The most marked consonant
^^^^'
cause of this was the second or High Ger- "
man mutation
of consonants, which appeared within his-
^ Besides Sweet's H. of B. S. compare also A.

work Early English Pronunciation, the fifth and
which appeared in ] 889.
J. Ellis's
last
great
volume of
90
A SHORT MANUAL OF
torical times'.
It
began about 600
a.d.
in tlie
112
most
German}^ and spread gradually

northwards, but never covered the whole German area.
southern districts of
Nor were
all
The
the sounds affected everywhere.
centre
was in South Germany where the original

population had been Keltic, and as the effect moved
farther from the centre it became weaker and less
marked. The northern districts were almost untouched
of the change
by
it.
(=
fe)
(a)
i.
was
first affected,
becoming the
at the beginning of words
Eng.
affricate z
German
tooth,
zahi; Eng. tivo. Germ, zivid. In the middle and at

the end of words it became a spirant z and is now a
Eng. foot, Germ, fuss ; Eng. let. Germ.
simple s-sound.
lassen.
At
a later period other sounds were affected.
In the middle and at the end of a word Ger-
(b)
now
as the spirant ck (x), after
having
passed through the stage of the affricate kch (kx)-
Thus
manic k appears
Eng. speak (0. E. also sprecan),
H. Germ, sprechen:
districts
(c)
Low Germ,
ik,
Low Germ,
H. Germ.
ich.
sprel-en.
In most
k at the beginning of words remained intact.
In the middle and at the end of words
pi
became
Germ, schaf ; Eng. >:leep (Goth, slepan),

Germ, schlafen. Initial j^ remained in some districts,
Eng. pound (0. E. piind),
but became 2}f in most.
/; Eng.
sliee2},
Germ, pfund''.
'
For a
brief but clear
account of this see Wright's Old High
German Primer, 58 f.
^ This word is interesting
as a Latin word
f)0)jrf.s
borrowed
and German and

making the following changes exactly in the same way as the
at an early period in the history of both English
native words.
112]
ii.
The voiced
91
stops g, d, b ceased to be voiced at
an early period, and hence became confused with h, t,

p, from wliich they differed only in the smaller energy
with which the exspiration was produced.
stranger, g, d, h as
in
many
cases exactly like k,
stant variation in spelling
is
Hence
to the
pronounced in South Germany sound
t,
p.
Hence
also the con-
Inns-prucJc, Inns-bruck, etc.
almost invariably represented by
Bug. daughter,
H. G. tochter; Eng. deed, H. G. tat, etc.

iii.
Still later and independently the spirant th
became d over the whole

bnider.
area.
(]?)
Eng. brother, Germ.
PART
II.
SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS.
viii.
113.
original
Indo-Ger manic sounds.
Of the sounds discussed in Chapter v. the

Indo-Germanic language had the following
:
Consonants.
A.
Stops
1.
(rt)
Breathed, p,
ph ;
(b)
Voiced,
bh
As
b,
t,
th
d,
dh
;
;
k,
kh ;
q, qh.
g,
gh ;
g, qli.
the history of the original breathed aspirates ph,
kh and qh is in many respects

sounds will not be discussed here.
still
th,
2.
obscure, these
Spirants
(a)
Breathed,
s.
(b)
Voiced,
z,
Some
w, y.
authorities recognise also a guttural spirant
to account for such equivalents as Skt. ha, Gk. yi
Skt.
aham, Gk. kyw. It is also suggested that besides s,

Collitz finds this sound
there was an original sh (sy.
in Skt. kse-ti, Zd. sae-ii (3 sing.), Gk. kti-^m, Lat. si-no
and possibly
Goth, silnu
1
Collitz,
'
in Gk. ktc-Xo-;
'tame, quiet,' Lat.
to be silent, keep quiet
B. B.
XVIII.
201
ff.
'
all
silere,
from an Idg.
If this theory is correct probahly
Skt. ksam-, Gk. x^'^" ought to be derived rather from an original

root with initial hs- than from a combination with original 2 as
it is
given by Bartholomae and
Brugmann
{Or. Gr.^ 46).

A SHORT MANUAL OF
96
root
ghsei,
he derives
(1) Skt.
ksa-ird- 'lordship,'
/xos
and possibly
/isl fern,
The
Zd.
i,
'
coTLimls
sing.),
(3
l-6l-
Skt. hi-nd-ii 'destroys', Zd.
4>6eL<xi,
y has to be
the consonant z'-sound
ksdy-ati
hsa-]>ra 'kingdom,' Gk.
4>6dv<M, (2)
'misery,' Gk.
spirant
113
separate roots of identical form
From two
*Jcsei.
(pOlvw, tfid^Lpui.
carefully distinguished from
but in none of the descendants of
the original Indo-Germanic language have these a different representation except in Greek {l = y,'
is
still
greater difficulty in distinguishing
= [). There
from
u.
Hence, as in most cases there was probably no strong

rubbing or spirant sound, most philologists represent
both original sounds

3.
(a)
4.
(a)
n and
Liquids,
indifferentlj^
I,
by
m.
r.
Nasals, m, n, n, .
ra
are the nasals which occur in conjunction
with palatal and velar consonants respectively
76).
116]
and pronunciation.
Attic Greek alphabet
ix.
To
ii6.
developments
Greek
the
represent
97
of
these original sounds the Attic dialect had the following
symbols after 403
when the
B.C.,
Ionic
alphabet was
introduced':
officially
Stops
1.
(a)
Breathed,
ih)
Voiced,
tt,
4>; r,
P;
6;
k,
8;
x-
y.
Spirants
2.
(a)
Breathed,
s (cr)
in conjunction with breathed
consonants and when between sonants or

(b)
Voiced,
sonants, as in
o-
{=zh-), Siocr-Soros {=zd'').
o-yScVvv/xt
Greek represented u by f
a symbol
Ionic but preserved in other dialects,
4 which has
final.
in conjunction with voiced con-
also other values
lost in Attic
is
has in one or two dialects
a symbol for itself; elsewhere in some positions

appears, in others
170
'
dis(see
ff.).
3.
Liquids:
4.
Nasals
5.
Vowels:
A.,
/x,
many
p.
v,
a, c,
In Attic Greek
also in
t]
y (= n and
t,
o, v,
-q,
w).
(11.
represents not only original e but
cases original a.
The remaining
i/f
it
becomes the spiritus asper
it
and
represented by
letters of the Attic alphabet
represent respectively a guttural +
and a
^ and-
labial
s.
For the other symbols of the Attic alphabet, which have

only a numerical value, see Appendix.
^
For the other Greek
dialects
and
their alphabets see
pendix.
G. P.
Ap-

A SHORT MANUAL OF
98
116
Diphthongs ai, ei, oi av, ev, ov vi.

m at the end of words represent di, Si, di.
Elsewhere diphthongs with a long sonant shortened the
6.
a,
y,
Hence only the

But in some
sonant before a following consonant.

series
with a short sonant
preserved.
is
we can tell by comparison with other languages

where an original diphthong with a long sonant stood,
cases
Zcu's
e.g.
Skt.
dydus,
original *dieus
LTnrofs
= Skt.
dgvdis, original ekuois (see 181, 3).

vt is
a diphthong, which apparently did not belong to
the original language, but arose in Greek through the

of a consonant
loss
and subsequent contraction,
iSwa represents an older
vlo's
fi8vio--ia.
e.g.
represents
an
original *su-io-s not *sui-o-s.
Pronunciation.
117.
1.
The breathed and voiced
Stops.
stops
pronunciation
Ancient and present 110 difficulty, the
classical
approximately
being
in
the
period
mincStion' ''f
stops.
|.j^g^^
^jj^g
corresponding English sounds.
In the popular dialect y at an early period became a

spirant between vowels, and Plato the comic poet charged
Hyperbolos the demagogue (murdered 411
B.C.)
pronouncing dXiyos as
On
there
is
oAi'os,
that
is
oliyos.
often a confusion between g-
in vyiyaii/i9 for vytaiVtis,
and
with
papyri
^/-sounds, as
but this did not occur in the
speech of cultured Athenians.

In modern Greek y, S,
and P have all become spirants y, <?, v.
The aspirates <^, 6, x were pronounced as p, t', k', not
as/, ]>, ch ( 73). For otherwise we could explain neither
(a) the aspiration of tt, t, k before the rough breathing
(c(/>'
cS,
avG" ov, ovx
oTTios),
nor
(b)
the representation of
121]
99
the Greek aspirates in old Latin by breathed stops
= î\nnro'i, tus = 6vo?, calx = xo-î-^2.

As already mentioned ( 116, 2), s had two
The Greek ^ did not pronunciation
s and z.
e.g. Piliptis
ii8.
values
^^-
correspond to the English z but was pro-
nounced as zd, whether

an
earlier dz-
This
t,vy6v (see 144).
(a)
SioVSoTos, ^co'o-SoTos etc. are
'K6rivat,i is
{h)
8,
(c)
in
t,
is
t <Tv-t,rjv,
was zd not
crv-t,ivyvvvaL etc.
dz, for v
remains
Tov-Se etc.
zd in foreign words was represented by K as
= A/mra-mazda
3.
(Persian deity).
was a dental
written with
tions this breathing
(from Corcyra) =
4.
consonants,
forms like
ju.
as
is
r.
z.
The spiritm
indicates that it
p,
was breathed not voiced.
120.
dialect.
'Athens- ward.'
a later period the sound of ^ sank to
1 19.
which
if
and
facts.
found sometimes
even in the same
'A^jyvas-Se
V disappears before
'ilpo-iJi.<it,-i]s
At
etc.
undoubtedly
This could only happen

before
hi or y, as in Zeus
shown by the following
is
written Sioôtos, êo'ôtos
So
represented an original zd- or
it
sound formed from
But on
asper,
pronunciation
inscrip- "'^
found only once
PHOFAIZI
poaio-i.
was apparently a weak sound before some

on old vase-inscriptions pronunciation
d<j)i,
vv<j>rj
(for
a;it^t,
vviJLtfiri)
oftheGk.nasals.
appear.
The pronunciation
tain,
of -yv- in yiyvoiuu etc.
but later the y-sound disappeared, as
is
is
uncer-
shown by
ytVo/iai,
121.
5.
a was pronounced as ah.
vowel approaching
shown by the
,,.
-IN- mi,
contraction 01 ec into u as m ^lAeire. That
at a very early period this vowel was not
i
r-i
was a close
this is
Pronunciation
of
the
vowels.
72

A SHORT MANUAL OF
100
121
shown by the contraction of the augment

rj
thus c + ea-Oiov becomes -ijcrdiov not 'was also a close sound approaching u (= oo),
SO close is
with
into
crOiov.
whence the contraction of oo into ov as in SrjXovre, but it

had once been more open, as is shown by the contraction
with the augment into w w^fXov not ov^nKov.
In Attic V became at an early period u hence Attic
Greek had, like French, to represent a pure
M-sound by ou (ov). In the diphthongs av,
ev, ov, however, v retained its original value of u.
-q was
an open sound, as is shown (1) by its often
^
Of >iancl(u.
T
:
representing the d or other dialects, as
= Doric
Sdyiios
(tuxt)
Txea)
=-
represented
Trpofiarov
the cry of the sheep
jirj
S^/itos
by the fact that ca contracts to rj

and (3) since by it the comic poets
(2)
/3rj
Xeywv
(o
8'
ijXCdio^
wairep
" waS also an Open
/3a8iX')-
sound.
122.
In
6.
Et
and
two different values have to
ov
^^ distinguished
Proper
and
improper diph-
diphthongs
thongs.
Pronunciation o
ov as in XeiVw, a-TTov&v-
the improper diphthongs which are the
(2)
andov.
the original or proper
(1)
and
ij.
J-
result ot contraction, (jaXelTe, SrjAoBre.
In
the Attic inscriptions of the early period such words as
Xu-n-u) and o-itovSt^ are always written with
the diphthong,
while the vowel-sound of contracted syllables
sented by
and
o only,
classes of sounds
the
fifth
century
not
were
et
still
and
ov.
is
repre-
Whether these two
distinguished at the end of
or whether both proper
and improper
diphthongs were already pronounced as close e and
?7
respectively
is
B.C.
much
disputed'.
In the diphthongs
tendency
to
1
drop
ai,
the
Blassî 10.
ei,
ot,
vl
there was a constant
consonantal
Brugmann,
before
Gr. Gr.^ p. 34.
vowels.
123]
Thus
Tas
Thuc.
VIII.
TrXctov
T/jtiicrcas
TTouv
ToiovTos etc.
In the diphthongs
much
in the
almost uniformly
a, y, w,
on the
u'o's
which were always written

AI HI
line
Pronunciation
B.C.
and history
The modern method
earlier.
'
y had apparently become
to be sounded,
e
ai,
"'> "'
first syllable
ceased by the second century
from
History of
oTos "'
and
Troielv
a close
grammarian
scanned as long'.
V is still
the
as
as well as
vl6s is written
B.C.
in ancient times with
ni
irAc'oi/
scanned with a short
fourth century
though
well
as
by
cited
is
we have
101
of writing
these diphthongs begins with manuscripts of the twelfth
century of our era^
Latin alphabet and pronunciation.
X.
To
123.
represent the
development of the
Italic
Indo-Germanic sounds Latin had
original
*''
ph'lj^|t^'^*'
the following symbols.

1.
2.
3.
Stops:
(a)
Breathed,
(b)
Voiced, b;
;,
c, h, q.
t ;
d;
g.
Spirants
{a)
Breathed,/; s;
{h)
Voiced, v (=m),
Liquids,
I,
r.
4.
Nasals, m,
n.
5.
Vowels,
y and
y
a, e,
i,
h.
i,
now
written j (=).
o, ii.
z were introduced from Greek in Cicero's time,
to represent v
had existed
1
= u, z
to represent
in the original
Blass'l 14.
Roman
The symbol
alphabet, which
2
Blass3 13.
for z
was

A SHORT MANUAL OF
102
123
borrowed from the Western Greek alphabet, but it had

been dropped when the old Latin sound it represented
x is merely the combination ks.
disappeared ( 125).
Diphthongs ai, ei, oi; au, eu, ou.

6.
These forms are the forms of the earliest inscriptions.
In the Augustan period ai was represented mostly by ae,
ei by I, oi by R and oe; an remained except in the vulgar
where
dialect,
it
appeared as o
original eu appears only
once in a doubtful fragment, becoming elsewhere always

oil
Before the Augustan
even in the earliest records.
period ou had become
179).
The Indo-Germanic diphthongs with long sonant

have
all
Of
passed into other sounds
later origin are the
( 181).
diphthongs eu and ui in seu,
neuter, cui.
Pronunciation.
124.
Stops.
1.
p and
h were pronounced as in English,
not alveolar like English d
modem pronun- nouncing
d w'as dental,
( 68).
In pro-
the blade of the tongue touched
both teeth and gums.
Hence
at all periods
had a tendency to change into cl,

there being an almost inappreciable diiference between
them, when t was pronounced a little farther back and c
of the language
farther forward in approximating to the position
little
for
/.
tl
and k were pronounced
alike, c
having except in
a few words taken the place of k (see Appendix),
and
ci
ti
never became a sibilant as in the English sedition,
patrician but were pronounced separately,
pronounced as
s,
exceptions q occurred only along with
was never
With very
as in English circle.
..
rare
g was always
a genuine stop, never the affricate j as in gibe, etc.
In
126]
103
some of the other dialects of Italy these voiced sounds

seem to have been pronounced almost as breathed
sounds.
125.
2.
was pronounced
as in English.
was
/*
not so strong probably as the corresponding
pronunciation
English sound but rather, like the Greek
Latin'^'IpSits!
',
Later
represented a breath.
Hence the
disappeared.
earlier
s
entirely
it
late forms
/'*'">'(''>
anser,
arena
for
*hanser (not found in the literature), harena.
was always breathed. It never had the value of z.

combined with a voiced consonant, the consonant
When
Thus a Roman
when he wrote ahf. In old Latin
became breathed.
s
(=
:;),
which between 450 and 350
whence laharem
Fusius,
(ace.)
for
older
said apstineo even
there was a voiced

B.C.
changed into
labosem,
Furius
r,
for
etc.
which was the only symbol the Romans had for

both the vowel u and the consonant v, was, when consonant, pronounced probably not so strongly as the
1),
English w, but more as the French ou in ouL
same way
In the
had both the vowel and the consonant value

in ancient Rome
J is a modern improvement on the
Roman alphabet. The consonant value of i was that of
i
the English
y.
The Romans objected to the combinations mm and ii.

Hence they kept senos not seruus, for the nominative
cum, qiurni or even qum not quum ; the genitive
sing.
;
singular of nouns in -ius in the best period was always
contracted Jluvl
:
is
etc.
the nominative plural of such words
found on inscriptions
written,
126.
in -iei.
Sometimes where
was pronounced, as in abicit = abyicit.
3.
/ was pronounced by placing
r^^g
was
i/i
the tongue against the teeth and
gums
âtin
i'<i"><is-

A SHORT MANUAL OF
104
was alveolar and strongly
trilled in
126
any position in the
word.
127.
4.
at the beginning of a
nounced as
ip
Pronunciation
and histoiy
of
in English
hit
at the end 01 a .syllable
the Latin nasals.
word was pro-
n was dental,
iir
beiore
and
n
7
/c,
c,
i
ti
g was guttural 11 and pronounced like

English ng thus incipit was pronounced ingkipit and
so on.
m and n in all other cases at the end of a
q,
syllable or a
word became a very weak sound, and con-
sequently in the inscriptions
by
either
711
In
or n.
represented indifferently
is
modem
books the nasal
ally assimilated to the following
consonant
is
is
gener-
written
n before the dental d and so on.

But the Romans themselves wrote Canpani as well as
Campani, tuemdam as well as tuendam. Before k, i, u
and vowels, m disappeared entirely. Hence the form co
of the preposition com (mm) in coMbere, coicere, coven-
before the labial p,
coactum, coerceo, coire,
tio,
disappeared before
to megalensia, etc.
s.
etc.,
cp.
also circu-eo.
Thus Cicero preferred
viegalesia
very frequent on
was also left unpronounced
before gn, i-gnotus, co-gnomen\
128.
5.
Seelmann^ considers that old Latin reseminscriptions.
Latin ^^l^d
The
Trti';
The
0,
P;
u.
"
cosol for consul is
nasal
English in a tendency to
make
its
simple vowels into diphthongs and in the
manner
in
which
it
produced
its
vowel
sounds generally.
In the earlier period a was apparently a more open
1
Seelmann, Amsprache des Latein, p. 268 ff. How far e and
were nasalised (as in Frenoli en, on) when n was not written is
uncertain.
Some
consider the pronunciation of ignotm to have
been ingnotus.
^
Aussprache des Latein,
p.
158
ff.
129]
sound than
105
but in the Augustan period of Latin the
d,
two sounds seem to have been quite
similar,
and pro-
nounced like the vowel sounds in English dkd /' Later

the sound approached more closely to e.
In Latin e was
an open, e a close sound, Latin in this respect showing
the exact reverse of Greek.
was also an open
t
sound resembling the sound in English
miss, thick',
and
hence in the Romance languages has been extensively
hence too
confused with ^;
changes to
was a
e.
final
close
being unaccented
sound
as
in
English
and u were open, u and u close sounds.

and u were very similar in sound and there is a constant change of o to u in the later Empire.
The sound
u appeared in those words where / or u is written indifmachine,
ferently, as in optimus, optumus, etc.
i2g.
6.
though even
ai had
become ae in writing by 100
in Cicero's
of the second component of the

p
dipntnong was that oi a very open i. ae
ciation
1
,-t
B.C.,
time the pronun
gradually approached nearer and nearer to
e,
diphthongs, ai,
ei,oi, au, eu, ou.
but did not
become identical with it till the fifth century a.d.^ ei

became a monophthong very early and is found represented by e, ei and i i finally prevailed,
oi became oe
about the same time as ai became ae. Later it passed
into u through the intermediate stage of oe.
au had a
;
tendency towards a long o sound, as in the Clodius of the

popular speech for the Claudius of the upper classes.
eu, as already mentioned, has almost disappeared in the
earliest
'
remnants of Latin
it
exists
by contraction in a
Pronunciation of Latin in the Augustan Period (a small pam-
phlet published by the Cambridge Philological Society), p.

^
Seelmann,
p. 198.
Seelmann,
p. 224.
2.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
106
129
and was undoubtedly pronounced

till after 100 B.C., was pronounced u. ui was never commonly recognised by the
Romans as a diphthong". It occurs only by contraction
few words, as neu,
etc.,
which
ou,
eli-oo\
written
is
in a few forms, cui, etc.
History of the original Indo-Germanic sounds in

Greek and Latin.
xi.
130.
Stops.
I.
Labial Stops.
A.
p = Skt.
Indo-G.
h)
when
consonant,
it
becomes a
Lat. pa-ter
irav-pos
Lat. pau-cus
Lat. sep-tem
w-Ta
7r
= original q
In English
EnKlish/=ori-
ginaiiandf.
Lat. p, Eng. /, v (= earlier
Eng. father
Eng. few
Eng. seven (Goth,
see under
/ sometimes
spirant.
^^* ^^^ ^
sibun).
( 139).
represents not only original
^^^
(?)
^'
^^ ^^
fidwur, Lat. quattuor ; flee,
^^^''^'
^*^-
German îW/ew,
supposed to come from a root *tleuk-.

131.
Indo-G. b = Skt.
Letto-Slav.
There
b.
(Brugm. Grimd):
This sound
(
ir,
Tra-TTJp
For
is
p, Gk.
medially under certain conditions, Letto-Slavonic p.

In Keltic "p disappears entirely except before another
100
is
i.
is
519
Gk.
b,
/3,
Lat.
b,
Eng. p,
no certain example in Keltic

n.).
very rare in
all
the Indo-G. languages
7iote).
j3ap-j3ap-o-s
Lat. bal-bn-s
Lat. lub-ricus
Pronunciation of Latin (C. P.
Seelmann,
p. 222.
Eug. slippery
S.), p. 3.
100
Seelmann,
iii).
p. 228.
'
133]
For
= original
g see under D ( 140).

Indo-G. hh = Skt. bh, Gk. 4>, Lat.
/8
132.
h medially, Kelt,
Eng.
b,
Letto-Slav.
b,
ipepu
Lat. fero
(ppd-Tiip
Lat. fra-ter
y6i/i-(po-s
0(a(/ii
For
107
<^
Lat. amb-itu-s
Indo-G.
= Skt.
if
'
141).
Dental Stops.
B.
133.
Eng. 6ea?'
Eng. brother
Eng. coi6, Germ. 4amm
0. Eng. j/mft round.
under
original qh see
/ initially,
b.
Gk.
t,
t,
Lat.
t,
Kelt,
Eng.
if,
(d medially under certain conditions), Letto-Slav.
</
Lat. tenv-is
rkp-e-rpo-v
Lat. ter-e-bra
(ppd-rrip
Lat. frater
avrl
Lat. atc
/cXu-To-s
Tai'v-y\w<r<ro!
Skt. (1) 6A(ira(i)
Lat. in-clu-tu-s
t
=Lat.
4.
(2)6/.^,i
^ ^
(2)/m
/oi
,11
-ra
:
t.
Eng. thin
Eng. thrill^
Eng. bro-ther
Eng. and
Eng. ZouiJ (0. E. hlud)^
Eng.
6.aft.
(1)
For Greek t = original q see under D ( 139). Greek

t sometimes remains, sometimes beTreatment of
mi
f 11
,1
comes 0-.
ine lollowmg are the prmcipal original u in
r before
cases.
remains in
(a) after
cr,
irto-ns,
before accented
(c)
(6)
t,
an unaccented
becomes
apn.
The word
preserved in
2
o-,
Attic
o-
in
all
in
dialects, Oia-ii, ttoo-is
Ionic, Attic, Cyprian,
tiOyj-o-i, tl>ipov<TL,
originally
t in the middle of words before
Aeolic dialects changed r before final
words into
rto-ts,
uktis, PeXriiav, (d) before final
ert,
The
dialects
at the beginning of words,
paroxyton words,
(Latin potis).
Greek
all
meant
nos-tril.
Cp. 167 and note 3 there.
in
Doric
'to pierce;' the
Arcadian and
proparoxyton
Tidrj-ri, (f>epovTi.
noun =
'
hole' is

A SHORT MANUAL OF
108
133
But a considerable number of words are left which transand have to be explained as owing their
gress the rule
form to the analogy of other cases or of compound forms

In Latin
(
tl
very early became
periclum,
cl,
'.
etc.
124).
Indo-G. d = Skt.
134-
Eng.
Gk.
d,
S,
Lat. d, Kelt, d,
Letto-Slav. d.
t,
Gk.
Eng.
Lat.
6uw
duo
ddK-fv-fu
dico (older deico)
6-5ovs
(weak stem =
dcTis
Kapd-ia
*rfgj-)
cor{d)
two
teach (0. E. tcecean), token
tooth (0. E.
t6]>
from
*tan)>)
heart.
For Greek S = original q see under D ( 140).

In a few Latin words initial d before a vowel and
Latin
gmai
ori-
d.
medial d between vowels become

SaKpv
odor, but oleo
sedeo,
I,
lacruma,
but solium,
This happens also to a certain extent in Sanskrit.
etc.
The change is an easy one, the only difference between

d and I being that in pronouncing I the breath escapes
at one or both sides of the tongue, while in pronouncing
d the mouth
is
Indo-G.
135.
h
passage
is
entirely closed,
though the tongue
otherwise in the same position as for

(?A
and d (medially),
6vpa
Jj&t.
l-8ri-K-a
foras
= Skt.
dh, Gk.
= *dhuorans)
Lat. fe-c-i
Lat. ruber (stem rub-ro-)
od$-ap
Lat. ub-er
/letro-os (
-qWeos
^.
/ (initially),
Kelt, d, Eng. d, Letto-Slav. d.
e-pvd-p6-s
Homeric
Homeric
Lat.
6,
= '/ieS-io-s)
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
li&t. vied-ius
Lat. viduos
door (0. E. drw, dyre)
do
ruddy, red
udder (0. E. uder)
:
'Eng. middle
Eng. widow
etc. ( 21).
Kretschmer, KZ. 30, p. 589.

variation between I and d seems to mark a dialectic
ference (Conway, Indogermanische Forschungen, vol. 11. p. 157
1
P.
The
difff.).
136]
For Gk. 6 = original qh see under
109
141).
In Latin b appears for Indo-G. dh before and after

original r, before
all
and possibly
after
m;
in
other cases Indo-G. dh probably changed
medially to
ong. dh=hat.
* '''"^''
d.
/ sometimes appears to represent original

dh in the middle of words, as in rufus, which Q^jg ^^^ ^^^
is akin to ruber.
But rufus is borrowed Lat./mediaUy.
from some one of the other Italic dialects in which dh
was regularly represented by/
In Latin
Palatal Stops.
C.
Indo-G. k =
136.
s), Gk. -, Lat. c, Kelt.

medially under certain con-
Skt. g (Zend
Eng. /* (but see 100 i.),

*
ditions g, Letto-Slav. ss in Lithuanian (pronounced sh),
c,
and Slavonic.
in Lettic
It will
be observed that while Greek, Latin and
Keltic keep the hard A-sound (which
is re-
presented in English by h according to the

regular change under Grimm's Law), the
The two kinds

thfb*represent*''""
Iranian and Letto-Slavonic languages change it to some

form of s. In consequence, these languages throw valuable
light
upon the nature of the ^-sound
in other
languages where k, g, gk and q, g, qh have been fused

together and are represented by the same symbol, as is
the case occasionally in Greek, frequently in Latin, and
always in
Irish.
The
Italic dialects
however and those
branches of the Keltic languages which represent original velars by labials ( 15) also help us to ascertain
It is customary to
the nature of the original gutturals.
(owing to the
which
of
represent a guttural, the nature
lack of cognates in other dialects) it has been found impossible to determine, by the ordinary guttural symbol,s
k, g,
gh without any distinguishing mark.
110
Skt.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
136-
138]
Indo-G. gh = Skt. h (Zend z)

h and perhaps /, medially h and
138.
ally
Gk. x
cj
n) or lost altogether; Kelt,

g; Eng. g,
Slav. I (in Lith.), z (in Lettic
and
Ill
;
Lat. initi-
(when following
(later); Letto-
Slavonic).
From this it will be seen that in Zend, Keltic, Germanic; and Letto-Slavonic there is no longer any distinction kept up between the original aspirated and
unaspirated voiced sounds.
Skt.
liimd-
Gk.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
112
138
Exception.
Apparently
x^'"
(x^'^-<")
must be connected
grow^ =' sluice in
where / represents gh, and
'X''^")
with La^tin /undo, 0. E. geotan,

Lincolnshire (Goth, giutan),
as yet
dial,
'
no satisfactory explanation has been given of
this irregularity'.
Other words with
ing with h, as foliis or holus
'
initial
/ interchang-
vegetable,' fariolus
or
by the hypothesis that the forms

135), are not Latin but Sabine.
kariolus, axe explained
with/, as rufus
h for original gh when between vowels or before
nemo = *ne-hemo, nil = nihil.

So also major from *maMor ; aio from *ahid or *ahid ;
meio from *7?mho\
often disappears in Latin
D.
Velar Stops.
Indo-G. q = Skt. k, c
139.
Gk. k, tt, t Lat. qu, c
(Oscan and Umbrian/) Kelt. Irish etc. c, Welsh etc. js
;
15
vi.)
Eng.
hw
(written wli), h and, medially under
certain conditions g
Letto-Slav. k, retained in Lith.,
but passing into other sounds in Slavonic.
;
Here and in velar sounds generally Greek, Latin,

Keltic and Germanic follow one line of development,
iBdo-G.
Ian-
Sanskrit and Letto-Slavonic another.
In
many words show
that
mi^^two ôupl the first class

menfof''thfve:
'""
very
* Slight M- sound was developed after the
That it was not a strong sound is

shown by the fact that it does not make strong position
when combined with the guttural.
Cp. 'ttttos = *eic1
velar.
Buck
215 f.) holds that / in fundo is due to

common a word, he says, to be Sabine.
more common and yet is Danish ( 10).
(A. J. P. XI. p.
the u following.
It is
too
But English take is even

" Brugmann, Gruiidr.
i.
510.
Stolz^ 52.
139]
uos with
7ro/iat
in Latin
by
qu.
113
Both are
*seq'io-mai.
The reason
represented
for the parting of the
Indo-G. languages into two groups in this matter
mains
re-
Even languages which

follow the same line of development, do not all show
this M-sound in the same words.
Even different dialects
of the same language disagree.
Thus the common Gk.
form is iroVepos, the Ionic Korepos; to Attic tU the equistill
to be discovered'.
valent form in Thessalian
Osthoff argues that
kis.
is
there were originally three series of guttural

consonants, making the velars which are
pojjjy
tj,ree
original series of
not followed by u the third intermediate or

'
palato-velar' series".
With
i.
(a)
labialisation
by
u.
Before o-vowels, nasals and liquids whether
sonant or consonant'
Gk.
tt
Lat. qu
(c).
quod
Eng.
what
?7r-o-,aai
sequ-o-r
see* (Goth, sailnoan, in-
Xe(7r-w
linqu-o
Gk.
Lat.
TToS-aTTo'-s
{snf&x = -nqo-s)
finitive)
0. E. |K/ian* (Goth,
lei-
hwan)
h-vew-e
i)i-sec-c ('say,'
= *en-seq -e)
oniM = oir-fia)
imperat.)
say (0. E. secgan for
eye (O.E
*sagyan)
oc-ulu-s
Bragm. Grundr.
i.
Gr^
417, 424, 466, Gr.
35.
More
Morphologische Vntersuchungen, Vol. v. p. 63 note.
fuUy Bezzenberger, B.B. xvi. p. 284 ft., and Bechtel, Die Hauptprobleme der indogermaniscJien Lautlehre, p. 338 ff. Subdivision ii
2
in 139
3
141 corresponds to the new
series.
Brngm. Grundr. i. 427, Gr. Gr.^ 35.

=' follow with the eye.' Wiedemann
I.
F.
i.
p. 257, denies
the identity of see with sequor.

^ Hence are derived loan and lend.
G. P.
'
A SHORT MANUAL OF
114
j-qirap
(rfTTciTos
= *ieqrt)
= *ieqH-tos)
{
jecur
jecin-or-is]
Gk.
(Osoan pis)
Ti-s
qui-s
Terrapes
quattuor
quinque
wli- as in
/ou)' (0.
Gk.
vulpes
vvKTOs (gen.)
':
noctis (gen.)
Without
:
carpu (verb)
collis
"VVitliin
= *col-ni-s)
>
night (0. E. neaht).
Gk.
liarvest
hill
Lat.
c.
(and 0. E. heall 'rock')
angle
'
hook
for angling.
the same word the consonant changes ac-
cording to the following vowel.
above
form *ulqo-s
wolf, original
(uncus)
probably
Eng.
Kapmi
.,
itself
is
k.
labialisation
Lat.
Ko\av6$
oyKos
what above
Eng.
Lat.
Xu/co-s
Gk.
Lat. qu.
E. in compounds /(/ge)--)
which
v,
occasioned by the labialisation
ii.
five {doth. Jimf).
In Greek, before
(c)
Gk.
Eng.
Lat.
Tre^-Te
139
Before dental (palatal) vowels
(b)
noi-mj,
Ti-jxri
irdAos,
TeXXco
IviavTQv with TTepmXofjLeviav iv.)
Hence
(cp.
iroS-aTro's,
rts
ireptreAAo/ieVajv
from the same root as
Lat. colo, inquilinus.
Exceptions.
(1)
The
Influence of
analogy.
force of analogy ( 48) has
forms in Greek
t^^^^
^^^
j^^
\ei7r-oj
Xeiir-Q-fiev
XciT-ei!
\elT-e-T(
\elT-eL
Xelir-o-vrL,
In the numerals this
is
specially marked.
corresponding to Attic Terrape? Doric

1
for q.
changed many
thus from XetVo) we should

^^^ ^XQB&ut
;
reropi';
Thus
and Ionic
feminine form borrowed from a Sabine dialect, hence n
140]
we
Teaa-epes,
find in
Homer n-Ca-vpe's,
in Lesbian
Boeotian iriTTapK, the forms with
in
115
7re'o-(o-)vps,
initial
t being
levelled out.
In Latin original *penqe becomes by assimilation
(2)
quinque
original *peqd (cp.
iritTa-ui
*peq-i())
becomes
coquo through *quequo.

In English *penqe should be represented by
(3)
*finh,
but we find by assimilation, as in Latin, 0. E. fif.

it will be observed
In Latin and English the assimilation
has worked in opposite directions in Latin the first, in

In the same
English the last consonant has changed.
;
way the word for 4 should have begun with h not/; in

hoth numerals the change must have been very early as
So also Eng.
it is shared by all the Germanic dialects.
ivolf corresponds
to
closely to the Sabine 'eulpes than
more
XlJKOS.
Indo-G. g
140.
= Skt.
after n, lost before u;
g,
Gr. y,l3,S; Lat. g,
gu
Eng. qu, k; Letto-
Kelt, g, b;
Slav. g, with later changes in Slavonic.

i.
With
(a)
labialisation.
Before 0- vowels and nasals and liquids whether
sonant or consonant
Gk.
(3,
Latin
-y.
Eng.
cow
Lat.
Gk.
(an Osoan
ôus
ftos'
jSaba
venio
word)
Bceotian âya^
'woman'
156)
qiman)
corne (Goth,
queen {quean
ginally the
is ori-
same
word)
a-ixel^-a
iariû
as
= *<rn7-iu)
mlg-ra-re
instigare
The Latin form should be
From the
*d(3-j'os
stick
(verb=ywrcc).
''vos.
weakest form of this word *^va. assimilated to *iJ.vi,

to d/x-voj, comes the verb ij.vaoiJ.ai. 'woo.'
*ag-nos
for
82
A SHORT MANUAL OF
116
(6)
Gk.
140
Before palatal vowels g appears in Greek as S.

i,
in nearly
Examples are not numerous, and before

every case,
(B
appears.
141]
Indo-G. gA = Skt. gh, h\ Gr.
141f,
initially, b, gu,
117
x, ^> ^
Lat. h,
n medially, according to the character
of the neighbouring sound ; Kelt,
h,
Eng. w,
g, or lost
Letto-Slav. g, with later changes in Slavonic.
With
i.
labialisation.
Before 0- vowels and nasals and liquids whether
{a)
sonant or consonant, in Greek

i'e<pp6s
<^
Lat. (dialectic) nebrundines,
(Praenestine) nefrones
,,
'snow')
^((pa (ace.
pi.
Mid.E. 7iere^ (borrowed

from Scandinavian)
,,
Lat. \nivem
Eng.
snoio^.
\mnguit
Before e-vowels, in Greek 6
(b)
Skt. gliarmdSkt.
^han
dep/Ms
Sdva
= *$(v-t.u>}
Lat. formus
ha.t.
Eng. warm
fendo.
For a similar change within the same word compare

êtVo)
with ôvos and âros = *qhntos.
Analogy some-
times causes irregularities as 'i-6avov-*e-qhnn- where
might be expected.
So also
In combination with
(c)
for
^^'(êt
v,
qli
<^
the regular
appears in Greek
asx:
fXaxi's
The
Lat. levis
quitli 'the belly.'
The English
is
nere goes back to

snoio
light (adj.).
same word, being a

word
a primitive form *neShrun.
u.
B. Beitrdge,
which a primitive Germanic 7

Verner's law) disappeared before
u, as in Goth,
= 'son,'
magus
'
a corruption of an old
and Gothic snaiws
exemplify Sievers' law (P.
il/ac
Eng.
latter part of kid-ney represents the
corruption of nere or neer; kid-
servant,'
in proper names).
= Idg.
= Idg.
v. p.
gh,
*snoishud-s)
149) according to
or k according to
when w was followed by

but fem. mawi (Idg. *maq-, Celtic
except
A SHORT MANUAL OF
118
Without
ii.
Xa-vSavui
labialisation
x,
Lat. (pre-hendo
Ipraeda
Lat.
h.
Eng.
get
141
= *prae-heda)
o/xlx^v
'
Eng. mist
Lith. viigla
(
138)-
In Latin g appears before r as in gradior.
II.
Indo-G.
142.
before sonants or
= Skt.
u or
and by assimilation)
(by assimilation)
s
and
7-
Spirants.
s,
(=
Lat.
s,
s/i)
6k.
'
(initially
r (between vowels) and nil
Kelt, s or, in certain positions nil
according- to Verner's law ( 104)
appearing sometimes as sz in Lith. and

s initially
cr, s,
(medially between vowels
i) or nil
Eng.
Letto-Slav.
in Slavonic.
c/i
and medially in combination with breathed
stops or s remains
Gk.
Eng.
Lat.
lyiraipoi
sper-no
o-Wfw
in-stig-are
sjyur-n^
spur
So also
es-sem, est
Final
jSa-CTKOi,
-s
remains
Horn.
s*('cJ;
cTrecr-o-t,
'pierce' ( 140).
icTTi
Lat. Jja-SCO,
142]
The Greek
Gk.
(1)
S-,
spiritits
asper
'
stands for
119
A SHORT MANUAL OF
120
The reason
for the
appearance in Latin of
words between two vowels, miser, nasus,
142
s in
etc., is
a few
not yet
absolutely certain'.
much
Indo-G. z does not require
143.
discussion.
I* apparently occurred originally only be-
Treatment of
indo-G. s.
fore
voiced stops.
It
is
represented
in
Greek by o- before (i and y as o-/3cvvu/it, TrpeV-yus (a

dialectic form = irpe(7;8ws) ^ as already mentioned ( 118)
;
In Latin z disappeared before
represents original zd.
d and probably became r before g {mei-go). In English

the voiced stops have become breathed and consequently
z has become
s in
combination with them.
In the classical languages the voiced aspirates be-
came breathed aspirates and ultimately, in Latin, spirants

hence we expect z, in all cases, to become s. In Germanic,
as the voiced aspirates lost their aspiration, z remained
and ultimately in some cases became
r,
in others dis-
appeared.
i'fu^
sido
nidus)
(
oj'os
Zend mizda
fucrdos
Lat.
? miles'''
IV
144.
Eng. nest
= îii-zd-os)
and
Goth, asts
Eng. meed (0. E. med).
u.
These sounds seem to have been indistinguishRecently an attempt has been
able from an early period.

^
For the best discussion of the point see B.
Verner's
2
Law
"si-zd-O a reduplicated verb like
weakest form of the root

^
With the Latin change

as Latin d here
change
is
Conway,
doubtful.
iar-qixL,
sisto;
zd
is
the
'sed-.
be exactly that of 'soldier'
But
S.
in Italy, ^887.
of
d to
one
{ 134).
who
The meaning would

money (solidi).
serves for
would represent Indo-G. dh, the phonetic
145]
made to show
that a difference of treatment
in
Armenian, but the point
is
121
is
discernible
not finally decided'-
It is
and m (and between y and i) was not that the one was a stronger
spirant than the other, but that w and y were breathed
while M and i were voiced.
As no certain distinction can be drawn between w
and u, the consideration of both sounds may be postponed
possible that the difference between
till
we reach the diphthongs
173).
y-
Greek
is
is
the only language where a clear distinction
made between
.
and that of
is
the treatment of original
original
represented by
ii
Difference be-
In Greek original
i.
tween origj and
There are but a few
examples, and these only at the beginning of
certain
words.
Eng. yeast
fû
(
= *tjes-6)
I'vyov
j;tfi.ri
III.
145.
is
r,
jugum
Lat.
Lat. JUS ('broth').
The number
of liquids in the original language

:
two sounds,
certainly existed, but there
been more.
The
Eng. yoke
Liquids as Consonants.
(a)
not absolutely certain
by the
and
may have
difficulty of the question is increased
fact that the
Aryan languages sometimes have r
where the other languages have uniformly

1
original liquids
""'^''*'-
I.
See H. D. Darbishire, Notes on the Spiritus Asper in Greek
etymologically considered (Xransaotions of the Cambridge Philological Society), Cambridge, 1888.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
122
146.
r, in all
Skt.
Indo-G. 1= Skt.
146-
and r\ Zend and Old Persian
the other languages
I.
149]
Gk.
12S
A SHORT MANUAL OF
124
n appeared
Indo-6.
150.
150
only before palatals,
be-
fore velars.
Gk.
Eng.
Lat.
a7xu
Ji
ango
agnail=0.^. ang
ag- in
ncegl 'a sore
by the
nail'
appeared originally in ludo-G. *pei3qe = irkvTe, quinque,
139, exc.
Sonants.
B.
III.
Liquids as Sonants.
(b)
As sonant
151.
weakest forms of
and nasals appear in the

have also stronger
different forms of the same root
liquids
many
forms actually existent,
roots which
both sonant and consonant nasals
will often illustrate
and
five.
2).
liquids, as 8epK-o/Aai, Si-SopK-a, t-SpaK-ov,
Lat. pe^fo,
where i-hpaK-ov and pulsus represent respectively

original e-drk-om and pl-tu-s.
2')ulsus,
Indo-G. / = Skt.
152.
Keltic
li,
Germ,
6k. aX, \a, Lat.
r,
Letto-Slav.
ul, lu,
Before sonants Indo-G.
is
(ul),
ol.
Keltic al,
{id),
followed by the corre-
sponding consonant, hence Indo-G.

ak, Lat.
ol,
il.
II
Skt. ur,
ir,
Gk.
Germanic and Letto-Slav.
as above.
KoXvTTu
(
Lat. oc-cultus
= (cXA-)
ToXas
{c{.
:
TraX-Tos
^
(Lat. tollo
Ij&t.
Lat.
hole (Goth, hulundi
'hiding-place')
= *tlnu)
Goth.
= *'pl-nos)
pulsus" = *pl't6s),
pullus
Scotch thole (0. E. Jpolian
t-iiZaii,
Eng. /oaZ (Goth.
'suffer')
/iiJa)
shown by the difference of meaning in Latin,

been used for any young animal.
The Greek form
Tire word, as is
had originally
shows the root
-
{O.'La.i.tulo
(-til-)
[twXos]!
Eng.
celare)
vors-us
= ''vrt-tus
( 191).
from that of the other languages.

appears on the analogy of forms like
in a different grade
In such words,
after
where
is
according to a Latin phonetic rule
154]
Indo-G. -=Skt.
153-
125
Gk. ap, pa, Lat. or
r,
(ur),
Germanic tir {ru 158), Letto-Slav. w.

Indo-G. rr = Skt. ur, ir, Gk. ap, Lat. ol (til), Keltic
ar, Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above.
Keltic
ri,
Gk.
Skt.
bhrti-s
Eng.
Lat.
[<t>epa]
fors
= *bhrti-s)
birth {O.'E. ge-lnjrd)
Goth. ga-haur\>s
ddp-a-t-s
(from
Se/j(j)
porca 'balk beTrpacro-j'^
*leek'
ovO-ap shows final rr
the same
way as
As
154.
it
0. E. furh
er of Tiber probably arises in
regards the long sonant liquids
According to Brag-
certain that Indo-G.
is
furrow, fur-long
in ager, from *agrs, agros.
remains to be done.
mann^
tween furrows'
po^Tum{ = ''pi'-so-m).
represented in Skt. by ur,
r are
I,
much
^^ng
still
sonant
'"i""^*'-
by
and at the end of words wp, in Lat. by al, ar and Id, rd
in Keltic Id is found and apparently ar (in ard = Latin
But see 158).
arduus), and in Germanic al and ar.
ir, in Gk.
oX, op, Aw, pw,

;
oOXos 'curly'
Skt.
j;M)7i(J-s
iroWot
tXi7-tiSs
= *uIo-s
Lat. lana ulna.
= *pl-n6-s)
(Doric rXci-ri-s)
Lat. latus
= *ii-tos)
(TTpOl-TO-S
Lat. strd-tus
tre-Trpuj-rai
'hat.
pars
= ''pfti-s cp.
partim old accusative).
The reason
for the
double representation of the sonant
liquids in Greek is a vexed question.
K. Z.
31, p.
the syllable,
390
pa.
ff.)
if
ap appears
Grundriss,
i.
According to Kretsohmer
the later Greek accent falls on
the syllable remains unaccented.
158.
^
if
306.
But
cp.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
126
IV.
155-
Nasals as Sonants.
(b)
The Indo-Germanic sonant
155.
Aryan
nasals in
and Greek, when not standing
^ immediately
Various representation of so- before i and probably u, or a sonant, are
"
*
nant nasals in
1
xi
Greek and Latin represented by and a respectively
the
.
-^
and
sition
ac-
'
according to po-
,,
.,,
,.
other languages, With Scarcely any exception,
they are represented by the same sounds

in
all positions,
these sounds being
and n respectively
with a vowel which in Sanskrit and Greek
Latin
e,
is
, in Letto-Slav.
i.
Indo-G.
156.
m = Skt.
sonant), Latin em, Keltic
Germanic
am, Gk.
a,
am
e?n,
(cf.
a,
(before a
a/j.-
K. Z.
27,
450
n.),
u?n, Letto-Slav. im.
Similarly for the m-sounds Skt. a, an, Gk.
(=
a, a, in
Germanic
in Keltic originally e (for nn, an), in
From the stem sem- seen

*smia) we find
a in d[-7r\6os = ''sm-
Ace. suffix -m: 7r65-a
-.
in
6/j.o';,
ev
a, av, etc.
(= *sem),
/j-ia
Lat. sim-plex
hat. ped-em
Gofh. fot-u
= *fot-um).
Before sonants
= *smm-
afj.a
Before
Lat. sem-el
m becomes
i,
/Safcu (for
157.
*/3a>'icj
Lat. ranio
Lido-G. M = Skt. a, an, Gk.
Letto-Slav.
K. Z.
I.
a,
c),
Eng. come.
av (before a
Germanic
tin,
in.
Negative prefix Indo-G.

iin.
Goth. siim- = '*smm-o-s.
av in Gk. en in Latin
= *8)j.7o)
sonant), Lat. en, Keltic (see
Eng.
'^n
Gk. a
Lat. en {in)
158]
Skt. sat-
Dialectic âiro-a (fem.)

(
hat. prae-sens
= î-txiiTia)
127
.
[Eng. sooth^,
from the stronger

form]
di/6-/w.T-a.
{
Lat. cog-no-ment-a
Lat. densus.
Germanic
= -miit-)
SaatJs
in
-mund
suffix
Genaan leu-mund
Before sonants
Tav6-y\ua-aos
Before
fj-aii/erai
= *tnnu-)
Lat. tenu-i-s
Eng. thin{ = *i>unnus)
(=miiietai)
of.
"
Lat. genius
Eng. kin (stem
*knio-)-.
158.
The history of the long sonant nasals is even
more obscure than that of the long sonant Lop. sonant
In Greek d (Ionic and Attic v) "*'''

seems to represent m and n between consonants, while
liquids.
vd appears for
initial
/3r]Te
= e-q^te,
vrj--rrvTio^.
In Latin nd appears for n in the middle of words, as in

gndtus, an
initially,
anas, 'duck,' cp. Gk.
vya-cra
(= *^tia).
Quite recently Osthoff has propounded a new treat-
ment
two
of the sonant nasals, recognising
different forms in each of the Indo-Ger1
The meaning
is
'truth' as in 'sooth to
vative satija in Skt. has the
ostuofrs
The
The forms
tell,' etc.
same meaning.
new
tîeory.
deri-
cited
above are the present participle of the substantive verb *es-.

2 An accented sonant nasal or liquid, except as the result of
analogy, is a contradiction in terms, these sounds being by definition the result of the absence of expiratory accent on
syllable.
factorily
any given
The forms supposed to be accented are now satiscleared up by Streitberg (I. F. i. p. 83).
The sonant
nasals, according to him, have only one representation in Gk.
and
where Skt. am, an, Gk. av
occur to represent these sounds, the form is a mixture between
the genuine sonant a, a and the stronger grades with original
Thus ida-i. is a mixture of *i.a(n ( = i-iV-ti) and *(.ovn, ep.
e and 0.
Skt. just as in the other languages
Lat. eunt.
'
A SHORT MANUAL OF
128
158
manic languages for each of these sounds'. Thus in

Greek m, n are represented not only by a and av^, but
also by /xa- and va-, in Latin by ma, na as well as by
em, en, in Germanic by
mu and nu
by
as well as
um
and
It has always
been recognised that I and r in Greek

had each two representatiYes aX, ka ap, pa. OsthofF finds
un.
in Latin besides ol
and
or, la
besides id and ur, bo and ru.
and
ra,
and
in
Germanic
Similarly the long sonant
nasals and liquids are represented in the
manner given
above.
Examples of the second set of representative sounds

same root as fxeTaWdw.
magnus=*r^gnos from root of /aeyas.
are jxanvia from the
vaim
*nsi6 (from the weakest form of the root in
vocr-TO-s).
nac-tus, Indo-G. root nefc^.
Vowels.
V.
159.
Indo-G. a = Skt.
cases given below

0,
e,
i,
a,
Gk.
u), Kelt, a.
Germ,
but at a later period a in the Lettic
ay-pb-s
Lat. ager from agros
through
ap-bu
Lat.
a,
(in certain
a, Letto-Slav.
dialects.
Eng. acre (Goth, akrs)
''ag^s
Lat. ar-o
Goth,
aj-j/a
'
plough
Bibl. E. earing 'ploughing season'

avTl
Lat. ante
165)
Eng. and,
Morphologische Untersuchungen, Vol.

This is discounted by Streitberg's
ansu-er.
v. p. iv
ff.
theory given
in
the
previous note.
^ Sonant z is found by Thurneysen, K.
Z. 30, 351 ff. in such
words as xtXioi { = *ghzl-iio-), 4,piiyw, La.t. frigo, KpW-fi {=ghrzdhu)
akin to Germ, gerste, Eng. grist.
some
philologists
It may be mentioned here" that

deny the existence of sonant liquids and nasals,
161]
129
In Latin a when unaccented became
open syllables u, the intermediate sound

and . This is represented some- Unaccented
times by i, sometimes by u thus quatio, '" ^^*'''in
(1)
between
concutio; salio, insulio; but pater, lup-piUr ; ago, adigo;

in close syllables,
(2)
with rare exceptions, e; cam,
concentus; cajno, acceptus (cp. accipio) ; facio, artifex,

but artificis according to (1). Before I followed by
another consonant a appears as u
conculco but calm
(cp. 273).
i6o.
Indo-Gr. a = Skt. a, Gk. d (t?), Lat. a, Kelt, a
and a (when unaccented). Germ, o ( 106. ii), Letto-Slav.
originally a, which now appears as u in Lith., a, in Lett,
and Old Prussian, and a in Slavonic.
In Ionic Gk. d became t] everywhere, in Attic d
appears at the end of words after another vowel and
after p ( 62)
Doric Ma-T^p
Attic
nr)-Trip
Doric
elsewhere Attic has
^^t
^(-^.(^^
"Lat.
fagus
?.
rm-tlier ( 104)
Eng.
buck-ivheat''-
0(x-76-s
Attic <pri-y6-s
0. E. buc-treoio (beech-tree),
book.
Doric
a.dvs
Lat. suavis
Attic 7}56t
i6i.
i
and
o),
Indo-G.
Kelt,
e.
= Skt.
Germ,
Gk.
Eng.
c,
siceet (0.
Lat. e (in
many
but in
E. swote).
some cases
positions (in
holding that a reduced vowel sound always aocompaniea the liquid

For a full discussion of the question from this point of
or nasal.
view see Bechtel's Hauptprobleme
The theory
facts
d. indog.
Lautlehre, pp. 114
and nasals seems
which can be explained better otherwise
ample,
-'
of long sonant liquids
may =''msgnds
The form
143.
to be based
on
magnus, for ex-
while ix4yas = megns.
beeoh comes from a by-form of this word, bece.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
130
161-
Gothic everywhere) i\ Letto-Slav. e (in the same case

as in Latin
Gk..
o,
whence
Lith. a).
A SHORT MANUAL OF
132
163
u sometimes appears even in accented syllables as in

huvc = hone, uncus = oyKos.
i appears for o in ilUco = *in sloco (old form of locus)
and possibly in agi-mus as compared with
however, possible that agi-mus by analogy follows agitis in its vowels.
The genitive ending
-is is not an example of this weakening ; -is in this case
stands for -es, a grade of the suffix different from the
Greek -os.
Except as a final sound {sequere^'iTno), e appears in
'
on the
spot,'
ayo-jxev.
It
is,
Latin for o probably only in unaccented close syllables,

a case in which a also changes to e
compound
on the other hand, compos,
cp.
after the
(Lith.
159);
e.g. kosjyes,
j90^/.5
'lord';
formations
imjjos, later
word had become an adjective.
164.
in final
oi host is 'guest, stranger,'^ and
Indo-Gr. o
and
= Skt.
Germ,
syllables.
Gk.
Lat.
w,
(originally),
0,
Keltic a, u
Letto-Slav.
Slavonic.
Lett.),
vipLu
iiSLop
Lat. emo
Goth, nima^
Goth. wat-O (an

n-stem)
ci'a
'border of a garment'
eiSiis
Lido-G.
165.
Germ,
^
i,
This
and before
Letto-Slav.
is
the original
'
shore'
Osc. sipus"
syllables
is its
Lat. ora
Skt.
r,
e),
i,
Gk.
Kelt.
/,
t,
0. E. dra
Goth. i0eit-uods.
Latin
(in
(before a
final
and
0),
i.
meaning
of the
word;
guest,
Goth, gasts,
philological equivalent.
In Goth, final
always shortened and becomes a. In 0. E.

and e.
3 So Johannes Schmidt (K.Z. 26, 373), who explains it as the
weak form of the participle of *sepl the old perfect of sapio, cp.
-
final 6
o is
appears as ,
eid-ma, *f:ei5-vcr-ia.
0,
Others regard the suifix as original *uos.
167]
Gk.
?
Doric
Ip-^v 'iuvenis'
133
A SHORT MANUAL OF
134
167
i or u (the intermediate sound between i

and u, cp. optimus and optumus), we have
an example in libet, by-form of lubet
from a root *lubh-. Compare also Ihnpa or lumpa, later
by reason of false derivation from Greek, lympha. This
For Latin
variation
is
very frequent in the dative and ablative
plural of f-stems, as in geni-bus as well as c/cnu-bus
from gen-u.
i68.
Indo-G. u = u in the
separate languages.
jUUS
first
stages of all the
171]
the syllable succeeding a root, when

original
9, is
and
o represent
not known'.
170.
135
and
u.
and m remain in many positions

though in some they have
in all the
Indo-Gr. languages,
been strengthened to spirants, or have be- ment

.
come
r
jer
111.-
1x1
-r-i
of i
and
according to poiu
the
voiceless and labio-dental, as ni Irisli sition

word.
"
T X
man > = **mros,
Lat. Tir.
These sounds are most important in two positions

preceding a sonant in the same syllable as
(a)
no-vo-s, (b) following
ve-Fo-i,
a sonant in the same syllable as
ai,
also
and u are naturally often

preceded by sonants as in the example given,
but
consonants
In the former position
ou.
also
Attic feVos, <jTiX\o>
and u may
precede,
frequently
= *crTA.(OD.
as
êVfos,
In the latter position
similarly be followed
by
either sonants or
consonants.
171.
Preceding a sonant in the same
syllable.
Initially
1.
()
is
represented in Greek by the spirltus asper
regularly disappears in Attic, though sometimes by a
cockney
pronunciation, which in the fourth

was very frequent, the spiritus asper occurs.
In many other dialects it was retained as f.
kind of
century
For
'
'
B.C.
dti-e-//.o-s,
iix-i-w
and other forms
of the
same kind, Pick's
theory of disyllabic roots supplies a better explanation. There

nothing to prevent -e- and -0- grades having a weak grade in d.
is
A SHORT MANUAL OF
136
Lat.
Gk.
vaK-ivBos
(Aeolic
i;/j,is
ajj-fie
juvencus
171-
Bng.
young
104)
Goth, yus
= *iu-sme)
A-ria
:
^^"^
'
rt. iietih-
(o'xos
172.
vi-ti-s
veho
loith-y ( 166)
loain.
Medially
2.
in
i between vowels disappeared early everywhere
Greek except when preceded by v. In this case some
dialects, as Cyprian and Lesbian (cp. 122), retained it
down to the historic period. In Latin also, j between
For
vowels has disappeared before the historical time.
i
with sonant nasals see
156.
Lat.
Gk.
(ani-o
,,..,,
originally
had
Ttad-oj
(hi\4-o}
all
-loj'-
"
so also
J,,
'
''
or
In
opt. in
<pviri
Theocritus
many words
it
(Homeric) =
<
..
= mone-jo
]fim-o
=fini-io
\statU--o
= statu-w
fu-at = *bhri-i-.
in which
i is
consonantal in other
appears as a vowel in Latin,
*(ae6'-to-s (
u between vowels
though not in Attic.
al-(f)iiii
\motie-o
languages,
o(/)is
=amd-id
"
Lat. ovis
fnia-a-o^
many
is
preserved as F in
It
remains also in Latin.
dialects
Eng. ewe
Lat. ae-vo-m
cp.
135) with Lat. medius.
am,
Goth,
0. E.
fi
(from *d!oa), aiw

'law'
The combination
mil be discussed
1
This
is
Latin verbs
the
may
of these sounds with consonants
later (
common
197
ff.).
view, but
some of both the Gk. and the
be later modifications of stems in -mi.
175]
137
Diphthongs.
VI.
i and u following a sonant in the same

These combinations are called .
173.
(b)
syllable.
Diphthongs.
There were, as already men-
diphthongs.
tioned
original diphthongs, but those
115), twelve
with a long
element were always rare and have
first
been much mutilated in their
development in the
later
separate languages.
Hence the diphthongs with a
short
element will
first
be given here and the remaining fragments
Diphthongs
^'^'"'^
of the others after them.
Indo-G. a2 = Skt.
174.
/, 7 (final).
Germ,
a'l
Ô"
^^^^
e,
Gk.
Lat. ae,
ai,
t,
Kelt.
(0. E. a), Letto-Slav. ai, e (Lith.),
& (Slav.).
This
is
preserved in Greek and in the early period of
Latin, later
it
becomes ae and, in
dld-o-s
Xai-rt-s
{
t (
272
f.).
jO. E. ad (funeral pyre)
0. Lat. aidi-lis\
aedes
unaccented in
syllables
the early Latin system of accentuation,
[Eng. idlel^
Eng.
Lat. lae-vo-s
sloiD
=*slai-uo-s
= *slai-uo-s)
For the change to
in Latin, op. aestimo
with ex-
istumo, laedo with collldo.
175.
Indo-G.
<?
= Skt.
e,
(with later changes). Germ,
ii
becoming
in Lith.
e,
in Slav,
Gk.
Lat.
I),
i (ei),
Kelt, e
Letto-Slav.
ei,
(always long).
Perhaps the original meaning of
sumed.'
t,
(0. E.
idle
was 'empty' or 'con-

A SHORT MANUAL OF
138
175
Preserved intact in Greek and in early Latin,

in later Latin appears as
TreWw
Lat. feido {fido)
crreixw
It&i. in-ve-stig-are
The hysterogenous
Eng. bid
Indo-G.
176.
i,
oi
of (^tXcrre
Skt.
Gk.
e,
163 n. 2)
O.'E. stigan^ {ini.).
122) must not be
confused with the original Greek diphthong
oi,
ei
*.
Lat.
01,
ei.
oe, u,
1,
Kelt.
Germ, and Letto-Slav. have the same forms as
for aj.
Preserved in Greek,
in accented,
oi
becomes in Latin oe and u
in unaccented syllables.
ir^-TToiS-a
Lat. foed-us
Goth,
oTd-e
Lat. vid-it^
Goth, wait (Eng.
liat.
Goth, ains (Eng. one, an, a)
fcaijj
loot)
(=/oid-e)
oi-i'o-s
('ace')
oenus, unus
Examples of the change of

0. Lat.
in
loidos
later
btdus
oi in
;
Latin to u are seen
0. Lat.
moiros
murus, hut 2M-7neri 1(711 (= 'the place behind the
With
this are connected sty (in the sense of enclosure
swelling on the eye), and stair = 0. E.
later
vcalls') for
and
of
stcegr.
by a species of dissimilation apparently

In some Scotch dialects the
same thing takes place; u after w is unpronounceable and is
changed to
or v) is dropped.
In Aberdeenshire, wool is pronounced '00', wound 'oon' (00 = n). In the Board schools, loood,
loonld are commonly pronounced 'ood; the popular pronunciation
varies from zoid to wild {u as in but). As the sound of o in Greek
tended towards u and in the Aeolic dialect is frequently represented by it, this form of dissimilation may explain why in Homer
such words as ipaoi show no trace of the Digamma which they
undoubtedly once possessed (Monro, H. G.-, % 393).
2
After V in Latin,
becomes
1,
oi
cp. oIkos with Lat. vicus.
(',
178]
*2}os-moiriom\
o-stems
also
nom.
pi.
u,
0,
Germ, an (0. E.
u (always
Gk.
au
Lat.
Greek and in accented
pronunciation of the
common
been pronounced as
cp.
(patrician),
av,
ea), Letto-Slav.
in unaccented syllables it
abl. plural of
to *uoikdis.
(0),
So
u,
au, later
long).
Preserved in
Latin
seen in the dative and
Indo-G. aM = Skt.
177.
Kelt, au,
Slav,
< is
= oiKots, both going back

ts-ti = rot (Doric).
v'tc'ts
139
0,
syllables
becomes
in
In the
u.
people au seems to have
Clodius (plebeian) and Glaudhts
plostrum and plaustrum.
period (m veered towards an
a,
sound
In the Imperial
;
hence such forms
as Agustus, Cladius and the like.

ai^-avia
Lat. aug-ere
TraO-pos
Lat. pau-cu-s
u appears
Eng.
Eng.
elce
(Goth, aukan)
fe%o (Goth,
faws)
Latin in compounds, as claudo,
for aic in
includo and in some simple words as frustra, connected
with fraudo.
But frustra may represent a
different
root grade.
Indo-G. eu = &kt.
178.
u,
Gk.
eu,
Lat. ou, u, Kelt.
ou (with later changes). Germ, hi (Goth.), Letto-Slav. au

(Lith.),
eu
II
is
in Latin,
(from ou) Slav.
preserved in Greek but has entirely disappeared
having passed
original ou, into u.
contraction
first
into ou
eu in neu, seu,
and next, along with

etc. is
the result of
( 129).
Possibly foedus owes its archaic form to the fact that it was
a technical word in the jus fetiale ; po-merium, obedio seem to have
Cp. von Planta,
e in syllables originally without accent ( 272).
'
Grammatik der osMsch-umbrischen
Bialehte, 75, p. 154.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
140
yeij-w{
= *geus-o)
Lat. [gustare^]
Goth, kiusan
Eng. choose
0. E. cedsan,
i!w
?
{
= 'êuso)
Lat.
Sai-dvaaeaSat-
tiro
0. Lat. douco {diico)
= *Sai-5vKLea0a.L)
(with later changes), Germ,
au
Goth, tiuhan
bom*deuco
Indo-G. OM = Skt.
179.
178
Gk.
0,
au
cp.
Eng.
ov,
Lat. u,
oji)
(verb).
o,
Kelt, ou
(0. Eng. ea), Letto-Slav.
(Lith.), u Slav.
and
This diphthong, which should appear in the Perfect

in certain noun-forms from verbs with a present in
has almost disappeared in Greek.
-ev-,
iXevaofJLai for eXev^-cro/iat,
only certain instances,
and
elXijXovBa, cp. fut.
tf^vyw
form their nouns in a different
and irevOofxai (TrvvBavojj.aL)

manner and in (pevyui the
perfect has followed the analogy of the present
we
are the
o-ttovS??, cp. (nrevSd),
hence
find iri(^cuya for the regular *7r<ôuya.
In Latin, as mentioned above, ou becomes u and
sometimes
in the Classical period.
*Ke-xor-a
Lat. ftidi-t
Goth, gdut
Lat. robits
Goth, rduds
(hypothetical perfect
of x^^w)
Under what circumstances

IS
o appears in
{red).
Latin for ou
not certain ^
1
From
the weak form of the root
gus
a frequentative.
=H\Ki!8ai, Hesychius.
3 Kretschmer contends (A'. Z. 31, p. 451 &.) that in most cases

where o appears, it represents the long diphthong h.
There
would thus be a difference of grade between rubus 'red berry' and
robux, robigo, and u-pilio and n-pilio represent respectively Ovi-
and
I'ji'i-.
181]
141
1 80.
In Latin u seems to have a peculiar influence
on adjacent vowels. Medially it combines
with a following e into as in so7-or = *suesfjr, Latin owing to
socer
= *suehros.
a preceding
{tuus)
Medially
e into
*te-uo-s (red?).
stances ou both initial
caveo
161) as in
noms =
is
**'
*ne-uo-s, tovos
In a considerable number of inand medial seems to become av
KoFew, faveo causative oifu-i,
reason for this
^"^
also changes
it
uncertain
lamre
The
\6Fe.
attributed by some to
it is
becoming au and there are

some exceptions the explanation of which is by no
means easy, as ovis\
accent, pre-accentual ou
Diphthongs with a long
181.
(1)
A diphthong of this
di.
original language
= <j)vydi,
*bhuga +
Lat.
ai, cp.
sing.
element.
kind which arose in the
by contraction
found in the dative

<î;ya,
first
is
to be
of-stems; Doric
fugae =
earlier *fugdi
Goth, gibai
'
with
long
so-
to a gift.'
would occur by contraction of the augment

with ei of the verb form. Thus e + ei would appear as
ei, as in â from dfju.
It is also found in Latin res,
(2)
ei
Skt. rdi-,
(3)
plural;
= *rei-.
di
oik(o,
Skt. mgdis''.
word the
earliest
^
ovis
both singular and
The example shows that
final
Latin the
avillus
is
in the dative of o-stems
Lat. 'clcd='*uoikdi, olkok: Lat. vJcls=*uoikdis

at the end of a
of di disappears in Latin.
full
form
-oi is still
'new-born Iamb' which
is
obviously a diminutive from the
and therefore = *'aS-iHus.

^ There can be no doubt,
found.
In the
On
the
cited as connected with
same root
I think, that these
as agnus,
a/j.i'os
forms though
ordinarily called instrumentals are really the original dative.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
142
known
oldest
Numasioi
inscription
is
181
found = the later
JVumerio.
du
(4)
in vaC;,
Lat. ndvis, wliicli has

'
become an
the general rule in Greek, a
According to
-/-stem.
medial long diphthong passes into a short diphthong
(
227).
eu in Zcus = *Z?;us {=*Dieus) from which dies

(5)
(= * dijus) also comes (cp. medlus from *medh-io-s).
du.
(6)
povi, Skt. gdus, Latin bos (a
= Indo-G. *gdus
It
borrowed word)
140).
seems that, before a following consonant,
and u
in these diphthongs were lost in the original language'.
Oil
xii.
182.
It will
some Combinations of Consonants.

be observed from the tables which follow
many combinations
that
of original sounds remain un-
changed in Greek and Latin
in all positions
whether at
the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word.
But,
on the other hand, a large number of sounds show a change

in one at least of their elements
On
and others present a
been recently written, but

all difficulties have not yet been solved.
Meringer contends (K. Z.
28, 217 ff., B. B. XVI. 221 ff. and elsewhere) that in combinations
consisting of a long vowel followed by
a, r, I, n, m, the second
element is dropped before a following consonant whether within
1
this question a great deal has
)',
the word
itself,
to others this
or at the beginning of the next word.
the whole seems

p.
319
ft.)
According
phonetic change depends upon accent and this on
more probable.
According to Streitberg
(I.
F.
iii.
the long diphthong in *diej-, *Sous, 'nays, etc. depends
on an accentual change in the primitive language whereby disyllabic

forms of the type *dieuos, *joi(o.<, ^tvlijox were reduced to monosyllables.
For further important conclusions that
arise
from this
theory cp. note following 265 and the sections on Stem formation in Nouns.
183]
new sound,
altogether unlike the primitive elements, as
in the case of
ciently
k,
t,
6,
The cause
197).
143
In
obvious.
Greek when combined with
in
of most of these changes
pronunciation,
dis-
more nearly
similar elements approach
is
q^^^^ ^j
simiiation.
to
suffi-
^_
one another or become identical, because during the production of the first, the organs of speech are already
getting into position to pronounce the second, or on
the other hand, the organs linger over the
when they ought
Here, as in
second.
be an-eady in
to
many
first
position
the
literary
pronounce
dialect always carries this farther than
language
Gimme, Lemme
the
In English we write
cupboard but pronounce hubsd, limb but
The popular
for
other instances, the written
lags behind the spoken language.
Urn.
element
compare the
costermonger's
with the literary Give me, Let me.
In the majority of instances in Latin and Greek,

the second sound which has assimilated the
it is
many
In
cases,
first.
however, the two languages follow a

Here, as in so many
much less variety than
Latin is much smaller than
different course of development.
other respects, Latin presents
The vocabulary of
number of combinations found in
words is very much less. One reason for this is that,
Greek.
that of Greek and the

its
in the
tical
middle of words, the old aspirates become iden-
with the original voiced stops.
The chronology
183.
ful
study.
of assimilation requires care-
assumed by all modern

same period of a language, the
It is reasonably
philologists that, at the
same sound under exactly similar conditions

change in the same way ( 45). But a law.
which
and,
is
active at one period,
may
die out
in consequence, a combination
may
will
always
Different pho-
vau'k/'diffe?e'^^t
''^^'

A SHORT MANUAL OF
144
appear
later,
only in this
183
which was non-existent heretofore. It is

that the difference in Latin between
way
and volnus can be explained.

If
same age as collis, no doubt the form
But probably
of the word would have been vollus.
volnus was originally formed like facinus and it is by
collis
(= *col-m-s)
volnus were of the
the loss of
i,
at a period later
ni-s to collis, that volnus
than the change of
has arisen^
It
*col-
must be
for
some such reason that we find sessus (= *sed-tos), castus

(= *cad-tiis) and cette (= *<ifdite) in the same language.
sessus follows the oldest rule of Latin for the
tion of two dentals
castus
with this sallo for *sald-o
and
(like
cette
English
salt),
later calda 'hot water' for calida remains.
better
while the
where g has been
lost, as arising
from *agiinen^, than
with Brugmann to hold that g disappears before

when a long vowel precedes.
Again, there
184.
Formal ana^^^'
falsus
^^
seems
It
agmen, as compared with exdmen
explain
to
combina-
Compare
do not.
only
no breach of phonetic law in
is
appearance of
mulsi alongside
falsiis,
of the assimilation in collum (= *col-su-m).

is
formed, at a later period, on the analogy of
other participles such as vorsus *vrt-to-s where phonetic causes
changed
-tos
into
-sus ( 192).
At the
comparatively late time when this analogical participial
form originated,
the old law had ceased
Loss of a consonant in a com- to act.

bmation.
ni'ulsi,
on the Other hand, does not
...
represent the original combination
g has been
lost
between
Stolz, Lat.
Gr?
and
s,
-Is-,
65, 1.
Stolz, Lat. Gr.- 65, 2.
for
the root being *'mulg-.
Brug. Gnindr.
i.
506.
185]
But why should

ia-ij.v
to be
represent original *esmi while
dfi-i
is
elfjiiv,
of another type
represent
the analogy of
in
eviju,a, e/x,iva
some
precisely
often
ana-
restored by the
which
ea-irupa, co-Tt\a,
to be formed on
(=*cvf/A-<ra, *e/xv-o-a)
because
aKcpo-cKo/aTjs, aX-o-os, reKa-ov etc.,
aorists iKcpo-a, cKika-a.
In other cases where there seem to be
185.
is
is
-a--
Logical
'^y-
confined to the aorist, while the original
is
ferent changes
cause
ought
*e(TTX<Ta, are said
forms remain correctly in
and even
ia-fiiv
So
icrre (cp. 48).
*(r?rjDo-a,
the change
as in Ionic, but the
influence of
in
Here the
retains the original -sm-1
analogy
145
of the
same combination
the
circumstances,
similar
some peculiarity of root end-
ing or of suffix which, in some instances,
Thus
be easily traceable.
in
dif-
influence
of
flnaf "ûJJd ''of

^^''
*-
may no
longer
Greek many roots end some-
times in voiced stops, sometimes in
The
aspirates.
depended on the following

sound, but one form has often been carried over to other
Hence
positions, in which it did not originally occur.
difference no doubt originally
varieties of form like

arfiji-u>, a-crTe/j.(^-7;s.
Trijy-vv-fjii,
as
c'-A.a/3-ov, ei-Xri<j>-a\
Baixjiui, e-racji-ov,
The difference
compared with
in the form of the root
7rr;/<-ro-s, is
one caused purely
by the fact that in the former case a voiced, in the latter
Compare also ypaxj)-ui with

a breathed sound follows.
and ypaTT-To-g. In pe-2ng-i as compared with
ypd/S-Srjv
pdc-is, the difference
had the same
origin (cp. 2Mngo).
In the same way Spa^-M and Spdy-fâ

derivatives from the same root, for the
handful of six copper

primitive
1
medium
nails,
'
handful
SpaxM'?'
are
the
or obols, which were the
of exchange '.
Eidgeway, Origin of Currency and Weight Standards,

G. P.
'
is
p. 310.
10
A SHORT MANUAL OF
146
186
In some cases the final sound of a root or
i86.
New
suffix
preceding suffix becomes attached to the
which foUows and the
lasTsoundofthl P^rt
wtiianoTd'"ut
wiî'ds
used iu this form
suffix is after-
286).
appears very often in front of
fl^-
Hence the
difference
-lo-
between nuc-leus and
Thus -.and -no-.
vil-la,
the
Compare
with this te-la {=*tex-ld), u-la {=*ax-la), which is
lu-na stands
connected with a^-wv, ax-is and the rest,
not for *hK-iia which, as is shown by dlgnus {=*dec-no-s
from the same root as dec-us), would become *lugna,
but for *louc-sna (cp. illustris = *il-luc-stris).
So also
latter
representing not *vic-la but *vic-sla.
is no exception to the rule for the

n to a preceding I, since it represents
alnus 'alder tree'

assimilation of
'âls-no-s.
In both languages the doubling of a consonant
187.
Double conso- '^Gry rarely represents

nants.
li<j-<ja.
an original doubling,
from the root *yes-
144) and Latin us-si are cases where the double s
original,
Thus
*dX-i'v-;ai
When
in Latin pello
an original
is
probably
*al-io-s, o\'*pel-nv.
assimilation takes place in a combination of
Simplification
double conso-
mutes in Greek and Latin, there is a tendency to reduce the double to the single
,
consonant.
This seems to indicate that
the double consonants were
manner
is
but generally doubling indicates assimilation.
in Greek, aXXos represents
Xv-iJ.1 is
of
Homeric
,pj^g
as they are in English
pronounced in the same

and without that distinct
members which is found in Italian

compare the English with the Italian pronunciation of
separation of the two
ditto.
Hence
ultimately
*6-qT-(n, *7roS-crt, *fid-tus, *vid-tus,
drja-l.,
iroa-i,fisus, v'lsus.
the vowel of the
first syllable is
become
In Latin, however,
if
short the double con-
188]
sonant remains: fissm, passus

also misi (*m'lt-si) with missum.
190)
147
Compare
etc.
i88.
Although the great majority of combinations
are formed of two sounds, not a few consist
and some of four consonants.
of three
,
But
in tne classical languages, cases where the
three or more
consonants.
vowel element forms such a small proportion as in the

German strumpfs or the English strength or tioelftlis are
The
rare.
Greek and Latin and their
full inflexion of
phonetic laws, which reduce the number of final consonants in words, permit of large combinations of consonants only at the beginning, or more frequently in the
middle of words.
in
...
bination
...
bmation
T
Thus
in Greek
When
Latin tonstrix.
Simplification
of medial
,.p
cnier solvent
when
Under the
it
m
'
the
is
consonant
tends to be simplified,
larly
find a-wXayxvov,
consonants occurs, the com- by
ot
-I
we
a great com-
such cases, more particu-
groups,
(i)
Gontaining liquids and
precedes a nasal or liquid.
inflvience of
s,
many
large groups of con-
sonants in Latin lose one or more members.
This
happens most frequently when nasals and liquids form
Thus pllum, prelum,
part of the combination.

cullna,
seni,
subtemen, cernuus,
tostits,
scdla,
turdus, posco
represent *pin-slom (cp. pinsio), *prem-slom, *scant-sld

(for *scand-sla), *coc-sl'md,
nuus
(cp.
Ko'po-Tj
*sex-m, *sub-tex-men, *cers-
and cerebrum =
*turzdus (English
the root of prec-or and thus
= *prk-skd).
dla, tela, iFina, illustris, etc.
tioned
KcWos,
186).
In Greek,
8ecriroT)7s,
eaiTiuTfJiai, eKfirivo?,
present
*/<eVcrTOS
*ceres-ro-m), *torstiis,
throst-le), *porc-sco (an inceptive
s is
SiKacrTTo'Aos,
Treiajxa,
(cp.
Other
from
cases,
have been already men-
hardly
Thus
less effective.
TrTKjdia,
via-troixaL,
aafnevo';,
ecnruaa, TraXro, irpeirovaa re-
KVTw),
Scvcr-irOTr^s
(for
*S^s-
102

A SHORT MANUAL OF
148
188
iroTj;?, where Se/^s is a genitive, the word being a compound = house-lord '), *StKai/5-7rdA.o? (where SiKav; is an
ace. pi. governed by tto'Xos, the whole forming an 'improper' compound ( 284) = judgments- wielder' 'deem'
'
ster'),
*7rTtvcrt<i)
(cp.
Lat. 2}insio),
plicated present from the

*o-faT-o--/xEi'os
vo'o-Tos),
the root of
*cnreva-iJLai,
î^fxrjvos,
*c-a-jrVT-cra (-S0--T0
(an
and
iJSiJS
root
*i'i-vo--io-;u.at
veer-
becoming
-t- before
-a--),
(root of English hind),
*ir(.v6-(Tfi.a
of cnriv^w
veoi>.ai,
form from *suad-,
(a participial
sudvis, -8-
redu-
(a
found in
becoming -t- before -U-), *7raXwhence *7rpeirovcrcra, irpe-
S-Aorist), *7rpiroi'Tia
TTOvcra, TrpeTTOTJcra.
Even with
(ii) containing
only stops.
up the combination
stops, s breaks
pare
^
(=
8iSa(TK(o
comdisco
*di-tc-sco for *di-dc-sco, a reduplicated
inceptive with the weakest form of the root).
Homeric aorist
peared and so
with
*8(SaK-a-K(o)
Xck-to (= *XeK-o--To),
also in eVros
'
-o--
sixth,'
itself
as
we
In the
has disap-
see by com-
parison with the Latin sextus.
At the beginning
189.
Initial combi-
Consonants,
nations
-.j.
j^
jjf
To'?,
in
of initial combinations of
generally remains in Greek,
followed by a stop,
crirXriv,
element
is
r remain, spi-etus, stratus, screare,
but in other cases the third member of the
combination
responds
alone retained.
is
lien,
and the old Latin
Thus
and
stlls
to
o-ttXi^v
stlocus
Us and locus through the intermediate stage oi

or
crrpw-
In Latin, combinations where the third
(TKXripoi.
simplified
^'^^-
s-
cor-
become
slls
(once
on inscriptions) and *slocus; cp. the

on the spot,' which is really an adverbial
twice found
adverb
tlico
phrase *in
Greek
'
Brugmann
sloco.
kAtjco, kXijl';,
1
'
key
'
Ch-iindr.
thinks' that cldvis, claws,
represent an original sH- which

1.
425,
528 note.
is
simplified to
191]
si-
Old Saxon
sen,
(Gennan schlies-
in the English, sluice
slutil
'key'
149
etc.).
190.
Sometimes the change which a combination of
two sounds undergoes, when they stand
between two vowels, is different from that i?es in a conso.
wriicn riappens
combma-
Thus
in Latin,
are
tion with other consonants.

original -tt-
m
.
,,
when they
nant according
as
followed
it is
"'* ^ ^''^^'
became -ss- *urt-to-s Lat. vorsus ; '^p9t-t6-s

But in the combination -ttr- the change
:
Lat. passiis etc.

is
not to
-ssr-
*pedet-tris.
but to
-nttr- thus
= * defent-trix from
de-fend-oY.
Of the combinations of two elements, those
which consist entirely

,.
little
pedestris represents an original
true of the original combination
is
tonstr'ma (= *tont-trma from the root of
tondeo), defenstrix
191.
-str-
The same
remark.
mi
of
stops
call
for
Combinations
Their numbers are not very
of
two
conso-
large and, of those which can be cited, a
considerable proportion are
compounds with
prepositions.
These, by themselves, are unsafe guides, because such
combinations are so
rule
may have
late,
comparatively, that the original
been quite
different.
From
the root
*keudh- found in nîd-w, a derivative by means of the

root determinative -dh- was
made apparently in the

From the beginning
primitive Indo-Germanic period.
the combination -dh + dh- was simplified to -d + dh-, which

is
represented in Greek by xuVSo?, in Latin by custos, in
Gothic by huzd'.
But
do not change in
this way.
later combinations of
represented initially by/, medially by d or

1
It is possible
d with dh
In Latin, original dh
b,
but
that in these combinations the change was
and that -t- was then inserted between s and

English stream from rt. "srew- and sister ( = ''suesr-).
^ Brugm. Grundr, 1. 469, 5.
to
-sr-,
is
af-ficio
first
r as in
A SHORT MANUAL OF
150
{
= ad-dh-) and ad-do' (where dh- has one
forms) would be
191
of its medial
altogether misleading guides for the
history of the earlier combination.
192.
tions *ô
Combinations of stops unless assimilated are

so difficult to pronounce that frequent
The combina'"wo changes may be expected.
'*''^'
pt remains in Greek, but initially loses

In 2}ro-{p)tervus,
hence TrreA. but tilia.
in Latin
2:1
word is a comthe
because
apparently
dropped,
is
p
pound, for ajitus, saeptus and other forms show that
tion
is
-2)t-
a quite possible combination in the middle of a
an interesting example of
and the form of the reduplicated present should be *ti-tk-w (cp. Tri-TTT-M from TrtT-).
In tUtw there
Latin word.
The
transposition.
It
may be
that, as
root
is
like TTiKTw, xaXeTTTU)
is
is tk-
generally held, the analogy of verbs
brought about the change
it is
at
and its
not, how-
least as likely that the rareness of the combination

Difficulty
ot
pronu.iciation.
difficulty
Greek
is
were the causes.
It is
^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^g

found a difficult combination. Dialects of the same
language vary from one another. Thus the ordinary
^('(/jos
cusan as
^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^jj
t/'e.
in Lesbian o-kicôs
The English
ask,
atî
appears in S}rra-
ivasp appear in
English both as dscian, ivcesp, and as cicdan,

in the Scotch dialects the combination -rs-
is
Old
ivwps
much em-
ployed, cp. English grass, Northern Scotch girs (0. Eng.
gwrs). Christian (as female projêr
mon
name) with the com-
Scotch form represented in Mrs Oliphant's Kirsteen.
In
all
combinations of two dentals
-it-,
-dd-, -ddh-
there seems to have been a very early change towards a

1
ad-do, con-do
aud some other compounds
the origmal root *du- in

8(jj-fi6-s
etc.
Si-Sw-yUt etc.
of do represent
but *dhe-, the root oi
not
ri-O-q-ixi,
194]
151
spirant sound, so that, in time, one or both elements
reduced to -sGreek
Latin v'lsus, custos etc.
;
kv(t6o%
io-to's,
Hence Brugmann
writes these combinations -ft-,
Much more change
193.
etc.,
of stops with spirants, nasals
is
combinations
f 'J'*'^.
-d^dh-.
-dj'd-,
occurs in the combinations
and
liquids,
combinations
The combinations with s- have already been

described.
The initial combinations ji + s,
a'fouSwSg'spi"*'
^+
s in
{l/rj\a<l>a<o,
îtôi (
192) are doubtfully assigned
The only
to the early period.
serious difficulty here
as to the original sounds represented by kt-,
is
x&- in
Greek, where an equivalent to Greek words with these
initial
<j>6-,
sounds appears in Sanskrit with ks-;
ktcivco
is
by the Sanskrit ksan-, x^"" by ksd{m), c^î-vw

by kfi-na-ti, tcktov- by taksan-. This has led to the
suggestion that there was an sk (s) sound ( 113, 2) in
No
the original language distinct from the ordinary s.
paralleled
certain conclusion can as yet be arrived
In Latin,
at.
according to Osthoff, super as compared with vrcp and

Sanskrit upaiH has
as the
In both languages a
present more variety.
The com-
weak form of ex.
binations of stops with nasals and liquids
labial is assimilated to a following
jb.
(jji)
a following
"''^'^''
Latin avoids the
combination of a dental with m in any position, while it

changes -cm- into -gm- (segmentiim but secure). Combinations of a stop with n present no difficulty in Greek
;
velar gutturals follow the changes of the sounds into
which they have passed whether labials or dentals.

Initial ^v- (=*g-) becomes fj-v-; iJ.va.ofj.aL 'I woo' is the
verb to /3ava
'
woman
'
140,
i).
tpe/A-vos is
from the
root of tpt/3-os (=*req-, root of English reek).
194.
In Latin, the development of dentals followed
by a nasal presents great
difficulties.
The
history of

A SHORT MANUAL OF
152
-tn-, in particular, lias
given rise to
much
194
discussion in
recent years not only do different philolo.t.

i
t/./.
gists hold diiierent theories, but even the
;
in Latin.
-?^n-
same philologist has more than once held different theotimes on this question, which is of especial
interest as concerning the history of the Latin gerund
ries at different
and gerundive participle. After all that has been written

on the subject, it seems most probable that -tn- becomes
hence -nd-.
metathesis takes place
-dii- and then
;
Thurneysen, who originated the discussion \ regarded

tendo as a reduplicated verb, from the root of ten-eo,
*te-tn-o
may
became
*te-dn-o, *tendno, tendo.
The example
be disputed, but there can hardly be any doubt
that pando
from the same root as pat-eo and there-
is
an original *pat-no.
represents
fore
As
regards the
treatment of original -dn- in Latin, there

is
much
also
of the second part of

sible
if
How
metathesis
correct,
The
doubt.
'AA.ocr-w8-i'77
old identification
with unda seems plau-
has
also occurred
here.
then are mercennarius {= *merced-ndrius) and the
Plautine dispennite (= dispendite) to be explained?

the former,
it is
possible to
not -nd- but -sndlation of
to
.s,
mercennarius
assume that the
the
if so,
first
suffix
For
was
stage was by assimi-
*mercet-sndrius whence *mercesnd}-hts,
penna comes from
as
*pet-snd.
The
Plautine form can be easily explained as a vulgar assimilation
195.
182).
The treatment
of original
kn in Latin
is
curious. Initially the guttural disappears {mdoi-=*cmdor,

1
In K. Z.
26,
theory, including
after accepting
p.
441
ft.),
it
Most of the supporters of this

now given it up. Brugmann,
explain the origin of the gerund {A. J. P. viii.
its
to
p. 301
ft.
author, have
has now discarded
it
(Grundriss, Verb-flexion, 1103).
197]
153
probably through the intermediate stage *gmdor), medially the
breathed sound becomes voiced

and the vowel also is affected.
Thus
from *dec-no-s (cp. dec-et, dec-us) comes dignus (pronounced diranus 127 n.); tignum may represent *tecno-m (from root of rexTov- etc.), but it is equally
Romans themselves were
probable that the
connecting
with tego directly.
it
the definition of the jurist Gaius, tignum

building,' while
from
is
'wood
Of the combinations of
Greek
presents
seems probable that
came
in yXu/cv's
yA.-
Latin
great
'wood
for
stops with a following
variety.
Latin changed medial
didcis.
It
Medial
respectively.
combinations
Greek beas compared with the
initial dl- in
-tl-
-dhl- into -bl- in the suffixes -do- {-cido-)
-/-
is
for gathering,' 'firewood'
lego.
196.
/,
lignum
right in
Thus, according to
without leaving
-g- disappeared
any
trace,
'"imti-
into
and
in
the
{'/v)'aToiiowi^g
-cl-
and
-hlo- (-bulo-)
Latin before
preceding vowel
not even being lengthened, stilus without doubt is

from the root of <TTiy-fi.a etc. Initial t- is dropped in
Latin before -1-; rXrjTos (rXaTo's) and Idtus (participle to
tollo,
O.Lat. tulo, and tuli) are the same word,
becomes
-br- in Latin,
-dhr-
rubro- (=ipvOpo-); fla-bru-m has
the same suffix as K\y-6po-v.

197.
The combinations
of stops with a following
are in Greek fertile in changes.
except
. ,
In Latin,
,
the initial combination at- where
of
"
Combinations
stops with
''
sound expels the d altogether (Jovis,

Old Latin Biovis), the -i- becomes vocalised or disappears
In Greek t, k, 6,
(cp. medius vi'iih. spuo =*spiu-io).
the
-i-
-f^
by -cro-- (Attic -tt- which

seems to have been pronounced as ->]?-) compare A.to--
followed by
are represented

A SHORT MANUAL OF
154
with A.m;',
(TOfiai
with OCulus,
ocra-e
with meditis, iXaa-awv with tXax^s.

Zeus
TTToXis,
and
181, 5)
ctti'^m (
ciation of car as cyar.
(later /xecros)
[j-icrcro^
and yt become f
-tt: hence
became
pi
have arisen from a
8t
compare the American pronunetc.), -tt- for
In verbs (xaXeVTO)
regular throughout
is
i).
whlch sBBm to
TrToA./j,os,
dialectic pronunciation;
-joi-
140,
197
Greek.
It
a question
is
what was the original form of the Latin suffix -bus in

In Sanskrit the corthe dative and ablative plural.
responding form is -hhyas which may represent an
original *-bhios or *-bhioms.
It
seems therefore pro-
bable that Latin -bus should represent the same original

form.
But the Gaulish
fiarpeô {=matribus), the suffix
closely with the Latin, is against the
of which goes
identification.
198.
One
or
-II-
most
initial
two of the combinations of stops with

That which is still
present difficulties.
in
doubt
is
the treatment in Greek of
Medially -tu- becomes
tu-.
(-tt-)
-a-cr-
thus
Teaa-apK = *qetu-.
It
Initial
seems probable that

u-
hence Tî
in
^''''''^-
txi-
acc. of
noun becomes
o-e
initially also
and from
similar case form, the nominative
Some
<tv
o-aipco
o--;
some
was formed.
possibly show
this or
for tv
other words which have initial
the same origin; thus
became
the second personal pro-
o--
'sweep,' trwpos 'heap'
may
be *turiu and *Twa)pos and connected with the Lithua1
The Megarian's
does not stand for

is
the plural
explained by
{
= ''Ti-a),
fxav
in Aristophanes, Acharnians 757,
as explained
<t(t-
Brugmann
= *TpoTi) were
consonants,
trd
tI ix-qv
by Liddell and Scott
not being written
initially,
as from a root *ties-.
irporl
ai^-a
and
<jd
is
Trp6s
originally parallel forms, irpoTi appearing before
'irpoTL
before vowels
hence came
7rpos(s).
200]
nian
155
pack together.' In the suffix -a-wowhich seems identical in origin with the
tveriii 'enclose,
fj.vrjjj.6-avvoi etc.
Skt. -tvana- (cp. 401) we find the influence of -tu- in

the weak form, precisely as (tv owes its origin to uc.
The
history of the loss of k (q) before u in Lat. vap-
or as compared with Greek KUTr-vd?, Lith.
kvdp-as,
to be identified,
voiced
(cp.
199-
the
words are
we must suppose that h (q)
first
is
first
that in which a spirant
As has been already
element.
mentioned, original z occurred only in combination with voiced sounds;
The
considered together.
with stops
s
Latin a
is
is
became
for
calls
combinations
e'iement*'il
wâ
''P"'^"'-
and z must be
history of the combinations
One combination
sufficiently obvious.
is
with a stop
hence
lost
'^'^f"''''?.'-
mdor 195) and then g was lost.

The next group of sounds which
special notice
is
If the
doubtful.
is still
of interest.
I(o
and
of
sldo both represent a
reduplicated present of the root *sed- {*si-zd-o).
iii-dus
{=*ni-zd-us the 'sitting down' place).
is
Bug. nest
the
sd represents the weak form of

the root exactly as -ySS- in Iwi-^S-aL represents the weak
form of the root found in ped- ttoS-.
same word
In Latin,
143).
preceding original bh
is
said to disappear
and medially hence fuciis = a-<f>r]$, sedibug

= *sedes-bh-. But other explanations of the forms are
possible
sedes etc. are influenced by -i- stems.
both
initially
200.
In combination with a following
i,
the s
Greek word became weakened

or assimilated.
Hence from -osio the old
sound
in a
genitive of
-o-
stems we obtain
next, by dropping
in 'l\iov
lastly
-ov in
i,
first
-oio as in
Homer,
which has to be restored, e.g.

XV. 66) which will not scan, and
-oo,
irpoTra.poi.de {II.
by ordinary contraction, -m in the severer Doric,

the milder Doric, Attic and Ionic dialects.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
156
201.
The treatment
201
of cru whetlier initial or medial
same kind of
presents the
su in Greek.
What
above.
difficulties as tmv
between us
the relation
is
and trijs? We must suppose that both words are of the

same origin. How then can we explain the existence of
two different forms under the same circumstances? It
conjectured that, while
is
tative of original *ss
-Js
the legitimate represen-
is
168), the
form
veloped from a genitive form *a-F-o% where
But
retained.
why
if so,
o-
criJs
has de-
was regularly
does cKupos Lat. socer represent
an original su- merely by the rough breathing? Here

there is a difficulty which has not as yet been satisfactorily solved.
It is supposed that medial -<tu- became
Kovt-crcraXos and from this compound form
-crcr- as in
initial
o--
was restored to the simple word
we expect
su in Latin.
to
t
ii
Latin changes ue into
which
the manner
hence
o,
o-aXos,
*aA.os, after
In these forms, as
of eKwpos.
u,
become
j-i,
-j-i
others with
socer, soror (= *svesdr)
etc.
202.
In both languages
when
Loss ot s before nasals and
"*"'
s,
whether
initial or medial,
followed by a nasal or liquid, disap.
pears or
IS
changed into some other sound
^'
without being fully assimilated to the sucThe only exception to this is in one
ceeding sound.
or two Greek words beginning with

fXLKpo-i), afjLfpSvo^
English smart,
etc.
a-fj.-;
a-fiLKpos
(but
These forms have
probably an explanation similar to that of the variation

between o-rcyos and rcyo? (see below, 237).
203.
The combination
sr
becomes
assimilation of the
7-
tain.
(p)
^^^
Greek pp by the
the second
Initially this appears as the
ment.
sr in Latin.
in
first to
pew represents an original *sreu-u.
history of sr in Latin
The common
ele-
breathed
belief at present
is
is
more uncer-
that initial sr
is
204]
represented in Latin by fr.
became
Of
-br-.
initial sr-
Undoubtedly medial
-sr-
however, which
157
(a)
initially.
was a rare combination, only two examples

are cited; frigus (=ptyos) and frdgum {=pd^).
,
On
the
other hand some good authorities contend that in Latin
Greek s disappears. But on this side, as on the

argument turns upon a few uncertain ex-
as in
other, the
The name Roma has
amples.
often been connected with
the root *sreu- found in pew and the English stream,
but the etymology of this as of many other proper names

is
very doubtful.
There
nothing to decide between
is
the claims of rigor and oi fr'igus to represent
analogy from the treatment of medial
-sr- is
ptyo?, for
an unsatis-
factory argument and a change in the quantity of a
more
vowel,
where
particularly of an 2-vowel,
(cp. Lat. vir
The
with Skt. mras).
is
found
else-
last discussion
by H. Osthofi' -although citing more

supposed cases of initial r in Latin for original sr- is Ijy
of the subject
no means conclusive
204.
for
-ppj_
ment
as
(cp. 237).
The history of medial -sr- in Greek is

in compounds and after the aug
i-pptov
trom
_L
rt.
sreu-
may
less clear,
medially.
(^'
11
lollow
which first by assimilation

and other examples as rprjpwv
(= *Tpacr-pmv, *trs- from rt. of Tpe(cr)u>y are rare and
In Latin medial -sr- always becomes -br-.
uncertain.
the analog}^ of initial
became
Of
pp-
and
many examples
this there are
child' 'cousin'
sr-,
finally p,
tenebrae
change of
1
M.
connected with
{=*temsrae)
m to n in
U. V. p. 62 e.
tenebrae
"
is
'
sister's
is'*ceres-ro-m
The adverb temere
(see 188); fimebris is *ftmes-ri-s.

literally 'in the dark' has
stantive
^svesrhios
hecomes sobrhius ; cerebrum
it
the sub-
but the cause of the

not
clear.
Solmsen,
A'.
Z. 29, p. 348.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
158
In the^ Greek medial-combinations
205.
(ii)^^
nasal or liquid,
sonant
^j^g
Thus, from the original aorist forms
come
*i-veiJ.-cra, 'ijxtv-a-a
ei'ei/ia,
-u-
previous vowel and used only one con-
219).
-vo--,
-yu-o--,
was assimilated to -/X-, -V-. Aeolic Greek

remained at this stage, but Attic lengthened
Combinations
elements
205
where
(.jxtiva,
in Aeolic evefifxa,
history of the final combinations
in Attic
(.jxivva^
not a diphthong
-i- is
Here
different.
is
The
( 122).
-5
remains and the nasal disappears, with or without compensatory lengthening of the vowel
218), oLKovs,
Tifj-avs
remained
-pp-
is (es)
184) but
-per-
apcrrjv (apprjv) etc.
248)
nâs
Medial
for eV-s etc.
was changed in pure Attic to

In both Latin and Greek, m
whether sonant or consonant becomes u before

/Jai'vo),
Latin
venio
cum
206.
ticiple
= * qmid ;
'with'
(cp.
connected with
quom jam).
for
In Greek initial mr- becomes
fip-
cp. PpoTo'i
from the same root as mortuus and the

Corcyraean jBapva-jx^vo's (= *l3pava-) the parto p.dpvaiM.1.
Medially in Greek -mr- remains,
inserting however
mr
koivo's for *Ko/x-ps'
and quoniam
(for
-per- -Acr-
/3
between
The history
in Latin.
IS
p;
a-p./3poTo-9 etc.
a matter 01 dispute.
tends^ that initial mr(=^pc'/mo), /return
and
.-,.
still
p,
of this combination in Latin
is
/>
Osthoft con-
represented by fr- in fremo
akin to
/Bpaa-aay,
j'rutex
to
/^pvu>,
fragor to ^Ppaxe; medial -mr- he finds in lubernos =

*X'Ai.-p'.i'os which could stand to the ordinary x^'-p-epn'os
as
fXo-rifx/3pLv6s
does to
yjjj.epLv6<;.
The
first
stage
of
change would be from *hrimrinos to *Kibrinus which
becomes hibernus exactly as
*.se-crino
becomes
se-cerno.
tuber Osthoff considers akin to tu-meo etc. and to Skt.

'
For the epenthesis see below
M.
U. V. p. 85
ff.
( 207).
208]
This theory, which
tu-m-ras.
may
return to an old view,
is,
159
some
in
respects,
be regarded as
sub
still
judice.
207.
The treatment
when followed by i is
deserving of
Except with
produces epenthesis, by which is meant
notice
A.,
of nasals and liquids in Greek

also
another
in
that the
quids
followed
'
following the nasal or liquid disappears but
an j-sound
The
respect.
introduced into the preceding syllable.
is
by which
two stages
weakened through the
influence of the following i and (2) in turn acts upon the
vowel before it. The sonant and consonant forms of the
nasals and liquids are treated exactly alike
compare
process
this takes place is in
(1) the nasal or liquid sound
is
a-jrdpw l*sper-id)
with
(nraipu)
KOLVO^ ( 205), KTiivOi {*KTeV-l(l))
If there is a
Secr-TToiva
(=
208.
KXau),
-A.X-;
cp.
On
jiaivia
with
wlth TeKTOtva (*TKT|Zm).
group of consonants,
*8ccr-7roTvt-a).
-\+i- becomes
number
(= *sprid)
simplified
it is
hence
the other hand, medial
o-tcXXco {*a-Tk-iM)
with /SaXkw
Combinations of u with i occur in a small

KXyw 'shut' =K\dF-tM whence KAdi-fw,
of words;
kXtju).
In Latin cap-tivus
may
possibly have a
suffix representing original -teuio-s Skt. -tavya-.

'
The attempt
of Johannes Schmidt {Pluralbildungen der
neutra, p. 198) to connect
Eng.
liver
and
its
Iclg.
cognates in other
Germanic languages with Skt. ijdkrt, Gk. rjirap, Jjat. jecur, by postuan original initial combination U- ia extremely doubtful.
lating
OÔ
ia t
1^
at,
ss
o S'
Si
ti
3^
o 2
"=
t,
;i
3-S'e
< a
r.r
te
9-
'
o o o
f;S.2i
^ (p n_
0.-3-
a-i
- p,
wg
b =
TS
i
-S
M<
A SHORT MANUAL OF
166
Oii
xiii.
The
certain contractions which go back to the
Indo-Germanic language are few
Contractions
manic
period.
not easy to
are those
suffix
Contraction
the Dative
in
,
stems ending
of
j.-
1.
in
vowel
beginning ^îth a vowel, because the
original
in
number and, in some cases, tlie nature 01 the

,1
component elements m the contraction is
ascertain.
The best authenticated original
contractions
with a case
Contraction of vowels.
original
intheindo-Ger-
209
some other Sound Changes.
1.
209.
vowel of the suffix can be
steins.
covered wliere
dis-
appears with consonant
it
Thus from *ekua + ai came
the
dative form *ekudi of the feminine *ekud 'mare,' whence
the Latin equae
181, 1)
from the stem *ekuo+ai
came the dative form *e/cudi of the masculine *ek-iw-s.

That the original dative ending was -/ is sho^M-i by
such survivals as the old Greek infinitives
8o'/ivai and
which represent the dative of original -men- and
-uen- stems, *do-men-ai and *do-uen-ai.
Similarly
*elcud + es and êlcuo+es of the nominative plural were
Sovvat,
contracted into *ekuds and *ekuds originally.

These
forms have no representatives in Greek and Latin, but
the Sanskrit and the forms of the Oscau and Umbrian,
Gothic and (for the feminine) the Lithuanian show that

these were the original forms replaced in Greek and
Latin by the endings
ai, ot
ae,
nature of the original ending
is
(oe) respectively.
The
shown by the ending of
the masculine and feminine consonant stems
7rot-/icV-f5,
etc."
'
The long
e of
homines
is
a later development
( 223).
211]
The combination
of o with another o
by the genitive plural of o-stems ekuo+dm =

ekmm, tTTTrajv dimmi\ The locatives oIku,
otKOi,
Lat. vici, represent the old combination
of the e
stems with the locative sufSx
Lat. ped-e
with a and
eg-, Attic rjyov

v\fx-6iov
went' from
contraction
p}u^fand"ioc
*'-
seen in
ttoS-i,
illustrates the
combi-
ed-, Attic with
e+ei- became
(cp.
ei-,
the
aug-
Lat.
whence Gk. â
'I
cT/u.t'.
The
210.
illustrated
e-âg- becomes
e+ed- becomes
contractions in Greek and Latin need not
The ordinary contractions
detain us long.
,
Those which
vowels are given
ot
e.
from the root of Latin ed-o
for *ed-ty.
es-t
is
165) etc.
The augment with verb forms

nation of
-i
167
arise
,1
! 11
,11
the lollowing table,
by the
Contractions
in
Greek
and
an original
loss of
consonantal sound between the vowels deserve somewhat
more
The number
attention.
of such contractions seems
to be greater in Greek than in Latin, because in Greek
the number of important consonantal elements certainly

lost
between vowels
Latin
is
many
so
is
so imperfectly
But as the history of
greater.
known
to us in this matter, as in
others, it is impossible to give the
same
details
as for Greek.
211.
In both languages the most frequent source of
such contractions
is
the loss of
rpcZs, tres
both go back to an original *treies; compare also

^
TT-oXiK, oves
equorum has a
= *iro\-ei-es,
*ov-ei-es.
So
also, in
different origin ( 319).
more probably formed like cepi,

than examples of augmented types 4 + ag-, e + ed-.
3 For further and more doubtful examples of these early combinations see Brugm. Grundr. i. 111 fl.
^
sedi
The Latin
perfects egi, edi are

A SHORT MANUAL OF
168
the verb, (jn^m, moneo represent
and
represent
a7}id
*rijj.a.-id
211
mone-io, tijmw
*<^tXe-w>,
According to
and *amd-id.
the most recent authority the 1st person sing, in such

cases
formed with the
is
made
directly
classical
Greek
-io- suffix,
but other persons' are
from the noun stem plantd-s

this
tendency
is still
scansion of toioBtos, irow3 with the
The second part

not as TOL-ovTo%
many
The
etc.,
word seems
but as to-iovtos
not
is
lost
to be divided,
etc. ( 245).
In Homeric Greek the loss of the u- sound
212.
Loss of
syllable short.
first
of the diphthong, however,
here, but in pronunciation the
In
etc.'
going on; hence the
F was so recent that hiatus

represented
by
^
^
,
1
generally marks its ongmal position and
w.
dialects it survived
throughout the
classical period.
and contraction
augment and the
preceded by the
F was altogether lost in Attic Greek,
takes place, in the verb, between the
sound which was originally

digamma. This contraction could not have been early,
otherwise we should have found not d-, which is
vowel
the contraction
KoiXos
yjcr-Biov.
e.g. in eIX-kov
is
= *e-u6lqom), but
>?-,
as in
possibly for KoT-t-Xo?, cp. Latin cav-uni.
In Latin the absolute loss of u
is
rare,
but latrina-
*ki,vatrina'^.
213.
Loss
of
-tr-
In Greek SavXo's 'shaggy'

in
'''<'''
214.
cited as
lo^s of
li
becomes
between similar vowels

nil(cTp.
English not^
kemo becomes nemo, *bi-himus 'two winters

'
an ex-o--,
cp.
In Latin not a few contractions arise from the
Loss of -h- in
Latin.
is
ample of contraction after loss of

SatroJs.
But this is doubtful.
hence nihil
ne-ichit), *ne-
old'
blmus
Brugmann, Grundr. 11. 487 {but cp. above, 172 n.).

Sohweizer-Sidler, Gramm. d. Lat. Sprache (1888) 31.
etc.
216]
169
Anaptyxis.
2.
215.
By this term is meant the development of a
vowel between two consonants. The first of the two
consonants is generally a stop, the second a nasal or
Anaptyxis occurs in both Latin and Greek, in

Latin being especially frequent between c Anaptyxis in
liquid.
due the vowel between c ^**'" '"''''

I in such words as saeculum, periculum, poculum.
But it has been recently proved' that in this case a confusion has arisen between -do- the Latin development of
-tlo- ( 196) and the double suffix -co-lo-, and that this
and
and
To
I.
this is
confusion belongs to the classical period, for in Plautus
which represents
Apart from
-do-
-tlo- is
syllable.
,
pJes,
J.
anaptyxis
always scanned as a mono-
exam-
this series of
X-
Anaptyxis in
words
Latin appears most com-
foreign
monly in foreign words; drachuma (8paAlcmnena {'AXKfiTjvrj), techina {r^x^r]), mina
)(P-v),
Patricoles
r,
Aesculapius
(JiaTpoKX-rji),
(t^vS),
With
('Aa-KXrjTrm^).
anaptyxis occurs in several genuine Latin words, ager,
cerno, sacerdos, the er being developed

out
^
147)'
with
I,
the suffix -do- above, the most

stances
etc.),
and extempulo.
colup
is
216.
certain,
common
in-
-bio- which appears as -buloand occasional variants like discipulina

The history of smn, sumtis, humus and
not clear ^.
Many
it
of the Greek
being possible in
instances
many
are
cases
that the vowel was developed before the
also
un-
Anaptyxis
in
*^'^<^''-
By W. M.
Lindsay, Classical Review vi. p. 87.

For further examples see Schweizer-Sidler, Qravun.
*s-o-m
Sprache 47. sum has probably a thematic vowel
^
native words in
Latin.
the suffix
are
{sta-bulum
apart
from
'^
Anaptyxis
of an earlier r
d.
Lat.
453).
A SHOHT MAXUAL OF
170
separate
With
cited.
beside
a.\yeiv6<s
As examples the
of Greek began'.
life
may be
ing
aA.ycii/05,
A.;
[|
216
follow-
ydXa beside yXaKToâyos,
rjXvBov beside yjXOov
with
p,
/idpayxos (cited from Hipponax) beside j3pa.yx^> "pajSv'kai
The examples
(quoted by Hesychius) beside dpfivXai.
with nasals are
some
has
less certain.
to represent
an original
e/3So/x-o-;
is
'"^septm-o-s;
supposed by
o.<^(.vo<i
'riches'
for its adjective a<î'io9^
Compensatory lengthening of vowels.
3.
217.
The
loss of
consonants discussed in chapter
often accompanied
xii. is
of the preceding syllable.
by a leng"thening of the vowel

The -ei- and -ov- which appear
Greek under these circumstances represent not a

e and u sound respectively ( 122).
in
diphthong but an
Lengthening of vowels in Greek.
(a)
218.
Tracra for ndvaa. (still
a.
Lengthening ^1^ earlier *iravTia,

*
"
'
for
Tip.o.v-'i.
found in Cretan) from
raXas for
TaA.av-s,
ri/ici?
In the last instance, although
the vowel of the nominative
is
->?
original -a), the
vowel of the accusative plural must have been -a-, as

otherwise we must have had *rnx.y]% not TL/j.di". a-njXrj, in
other dialects a-TaXXd and o-raAd, shows compensatory
leng-thening for the loss of the second consonant, which
itself
came probably from an
KdXo's in
1
Homer has
Brugmann
earlier -vd suffix *o-raA-T'd.
the lengthening, because
it
repre-
Gr. Gi:- 29.
'
For further examples see G. Meyer Gr. Gr.^ 94 97.

' The Greek rule on this point was that a vowel before
a nasal
or a liquid or j or n followed by an explosive or
became short
.?
227).
222]
an
sents
earlier *Ka\-io-<;.
to-5),
has
In this case Attic has no
Compare with
lengthening, kHXo^.
171
aXXos (=*aX-
this
the -XX- of which was apparently later since Cyprian

atXos.
219.
t/xeiva
îvefjio-a,
Seyu-s-TTOTiys 188),
lengthening in
compensation
220.
ek for
246).
i/-s (
is
Lengthening
^''
for the loss of F in
/jLovaa
for
iTTTrovs
exovTi
for
*yovf-os,
for *iJiovTLa
Kovpo^
*Sopf-os,
pi.
'
jSovXofiai
and
Lengthening
"
represent
Sovpo's
= *KopFo-'s, but
boundary = Corc3rrean opf 05

presents * PoX-vo-fiat (cp. 140
-vF-.
of present)
/xwo-a),
yowo'?,
'
Some
Attic
the combination
(3
(Doric
Homeric
iVttovs.
of the
not certain.
*iXOVT-(TL (dat. pi. of participle), ^xovo-a for

*;;(OVT(,a,
for
Sco-TTOTi;?
The cause
used in Attic poetry) shows no
is
exova-L
o.
*e/xevo-a',
Kpuaaav
/jlcl^wv,
^civos
as u.
B.C.
for
eh for *sem-S (but
Ta6eiai for *Ta6i/Ta-L,
feVos (Ionic
arising from the loss of
written after 403
is
for
iViLfia
The lengthening
f.
consonants
in Attic
opos
apparently
re-
J).
lengthenings, dOdvaro^, i-mjôXos,
ovvofxa.,
seem
to be used for metrical reasons only.
{b)
221.
Lengthening of vowels in Latin.
Cicero
tells
us that -ns and -nf always
preceding vowel long.
Priscian adds that
had the same
but his statement
-gnis
effect,
not borne out by the history of the
Romance
222.
sld-re
made
Latin
vowels
'^f'ZLÂ
combinations.
languages.
a.
hdlare
is
said to represent an older *an-
from the root of an-imu-s, qudlimi
'work basket'
is for
For
*quas-lo-m, scala for
i<TTu\a, lipffcipa see 184.
Lengthening
ofi^^fna.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
172
*scant-sla
major
188),
for *mah-ior,
222
equds for earlier
*equans.
223.
Lengthening
of Latin
pedes
vesica
e.
e.
beside totiens etc.
sced-snd\
for
tela for *teai-ki; toties
{=*aies-n-).
The long e of homines,

way but simply
does not originate in this
etc.
follows the analogy of the
pomerium
/-
stems, aces (= *av-ei-es) etc.
pono
for *po-
Lengthening sno {c^. jM-siii, oldev po-s tin), cyso/
frequent
224.
0.
of Latino,
for *pos-7neriuin,
inscriptions for consul
j^^
cere,
127
n. 1),
coi-
equds for *equons.
225.
of
cena
vensica,
for
nmeus
Latin
dlduco, d'dahor, d'unitto etc. with loss of s
2.
dir-imo
(cp.
i,
= *dis-emo
'take
asunder'),
idem, side.
and
226.
of Latin M.
4.
227.
i,
u,
j amentum \mt jugum.
Shortening of vowels.
In both Greek and Latin a long vowel before
a liquid or a nasal followed by a stop-consonant
shortened.
Zcu'5,
u.
is
oIkok, Lat. vlcls for Indo-G. *uoikois ( 181,

3),
Lat. dies, etc. ( 181, 4
in stem of participle of Gk.
amdnt- docentTLfxavi ( 218),
etc.
Lat.
Ace.
pi.
'^'eqiidns,
6)
\v6e-vT-
from
Xvdrj-
1st Aorist Passive,
Lat.
of -a stems originally
whence
Li Greek, (êpurrat of the Subjunctive
later
is
rt/xa's,
eqiias.
an exception to
this rule, no
doubt through the influence of the other

forms which are long.
Both languages tend to shorten a long vowel before

a following vowel which is of different quality", vc-wv
(gen. pi.
of vaCs) for *viqF-w,
Ionic and Attic Greek,
Lat.
pile-o,
fvri etc.
when a long vowel was
Stolz, Lat. Gr." p. 302.
Vowels of the same quality contract.
In
followed
228]
173
by a short vowel, a curious metathesis of quantity took

place /3acrL\em<; for Homeric ftacnXijo^ etc.
The stress
:
many
accent of Latin led to
other shortenings, as in
final -0 of verbs etc. (cp. 274).
Loss of a
5.
syllable.
228. (i) Syncope which is the loss of a vowel between

two consonants does not occur in Greek,
p
ii
/-I
/)
tne nature 01 the (ireek accent
Syncope ap-
266) not
only
pears
affecting the length of the syllables in the
same manner as the
stress accent of
Latin did.
stress
accent tends always to weaken those syllables of the
word on which
it
does not
fall
consequently there are
many examples of the loss of a syllable in Latin. The

most common are purgo beside pur-i-go, pergo for *p)ersurgo for *suh-rego,
cp. per-rexi,
rego,
surpui for surripui,

re-tetuli,
etc.,
reppitli, rettuli,
caldus,
many
similar loss of a syllable
others ^
is
When
languages by another cause.
another which
follow one
syllables
sur-rexi,
cp.
for re-pepuli,
wndere beside veimindare, quin-
decim, vir for *mros, ager, and

(ii)
etc.
produced in both
two
have
two similar
is
a ten-
dency in most languages to drop one of them.
we
find in
KviTiXKov),
Greek
a/xcôpev? for
T^fj.eSijj.vov
KtAaivo-vcc^v's
ill
for
syi-
lables.
exactly the same consonants, there
*a;u,i^t</)opeus
7jju,t-jU,e'St/ivov,
(cp.
Hence
ayu^t-
KcXcrtvc07;s
for
Latin stipendium for *stipi-pend{o-m,
voluntarins for *mhmtat-arius.
nutria: for
nutri-trix
voluntarms and nutrix are obviously derivatives

from the stems found in voluntas and nutri-o respectively, not of a non-existent volunt- and mi-.
etc.
For a long
list,
Sohweizer-Sidler, Gr.
not, however, all of the

d.
Lat. Sprache 45
ff.
same nature, see

MANUAL OF
A SHORT
174
This
is
a purely Greek peculiarity
known
instances are
ocin
Prothesis
curs
only
229
Prothesis.
6.
229.
the appearance or a vowel
no certain
Prothesis
in Latin.
which we know, from comparison
sound
with other languages, to have been originally the

and only before
certam sounds,
is
ii
iront 01 the
initial
sound of the word. The consonants gener^jjy preceded by such vowels are p, X, /u, f
;
the vowels which precede these
and
Some groups
o.
preceded by
230.
of consonants kt-, x^-
lectic
Prothesis of a
a'-yneXy-u
form of
231.
b.
and
a,
a-O-,
e,
are
i.
d-pda-au); a-Xet(^ci) (cp. XiVa);
a-/xaXo's, a-/x/SXiJS (cp. /naXaKOS,
mig-rd-re),
consonants are
/SXaf =;/-),
Lat.
(cp.
mulg-e-o)
a-/Aet'/J-(D
(Lat.
depcra
(dia-
Fipa-rj).
Prothesis of
e-pe<^-a), c-pcvy-o-îai (cp.
Lat.
ruc-ta-re), i-pv9p6-^ (Lat. ruber), eXaûs (Lat. levis), i-Xev6ipo-i
(Lat.
before
/x-;
no certain example of prothetic
liber);
c-vp-u-s;
ivX-qpa
'reins'); e-cSi/a (root
(Homeric =
(Doric fiKan),
c-cikoo-i
/^8-),
*e-fX7;pa, Lat. lura

i-ipcr-q
'dew.'
232.
o-s,
Prothesis of o
c.
o-Xio--6ai/o)
<êXos ( 239);
XtTos,
(cp.
(root pvK-); d-Xiy-
d-pvcro-co
Xto-(rds)
6-ixi)(iii>
no example of prothetic
before
138);
f,
d-
unless
perhaps the name of the Cretan to^vn "Oaôs.

233.
certain
KTiSei;
d.
Prothesis of
i:
l-x^v's
(original
form un-
-x^ alongside of x^) ; l-ktl's (alongside of

'weasel-skin helmet' in Homer); t-o-^t 'be.'
;
cp.
234.
The causes
Possible causes certain,

of prothesis;
of
but
are by no means
seems probable that more
prothesis
it
than One cause has been at Work,
senting original r
is
p repre-
never found at the beginning of
235]
a word in Greek
where
p begins a
original sr- or uv- as in plyo?
Original initial r
ptfa.
is
word
203) and
always preceded
175
it
represents
difficulty of pro-
lunciatlon;
Greek by one or other of these prothetic vowels.

This seems to indicate a difficulty which the Greeks
felt in pronouncing r; cp. French esjjrit for Latin spirit us ( 249 n.).
But why should the vowel vary ? Why
should we not have uniformly a, or e, or o instead of all
in
?
G. Meyer suggests that the nature of this vowel
was generally determined by the character of the vowel
three
in the next sjdlable, thus introducing a principle
some-
what of the same sort as the law of vowel harmony in

the Turanian languages ( 34), a principle which has
been more prominently brought forward recently'. But
we must search for further causes, for we can hardly
suppose that the Greek found a difficulty in pronouncing
X and
as well as p
/A
able that
p,
\ and
/^
and
It is notice- nasals
F.
are sounds which ap-
pear as both sonants and consonants; consequently
pronounced as
rr-,
II-,
mm-
whence would come ap-, aX-, and a/j.-.

There are other possibilities
the wrong
division of words
238),
the
particles ( 239) as in a-Xiyoi

as
''n.-lego',
and
7.
235.
li-
'="*"'''';
possible that after a preceding consonant
it is
they were
and
^d'1^ToS+'
respectively,
^^g^g
division
"f"'''**-
existence
of prefixed
which has been explained
disyllabic roots.
The phonetics
of the sentence.
In the making of a sentence the individual
words pronounced during a breath are not
Difference be-
kept carefully separate, as they appear in an^" ^tten

writing, but are run into one another, the ^'i'^^'^By Johannes Schmidt, KZ. 32, p. 321 ff.
^ By E. K. Wharton {Some Greek Etymologies, p. 4).
1

A SHORT MANUAL OF
176
235
consonant of the preceding word being assimilated

to the first of the following word, and vowels contracting
or disappearing, precisely as in the case of the individual
final
Hence
word.
language of the most
in Sanskrit, the
we some-
acute grammarians the world has ever seen,
times
find
series
of
words
run into
one
whole
which ends only with the end of the sentence or with

ôme other natural break. The form in
of
Examples
we write the words of our own lanand Greek is that which the words
would have when no other sound followed. Thus we
write Tov \6yov, but what the Greek said, and what he
not unfrequently wrote, was roXAdyov the variations in
this difference.
y,Yîc\i
guage or of Latin
Latin kaud,
hant, liau, point to assimilations of the
same nature, and, though in English we write at all, we

actually combine the sounds of these two words exactly
as we do in a tall man.
236. Among the consequences we may deduce from
Consequences these facts are
the
foUomng
(a)
words are
words *'in" he likely to be wrongly divided, thus giving

sentence,
j.jgg ^q ^^t^j forms
{h) final and initial con;
may
sonants will be assimilated and one or other

appear, thus again giving rise to
vowels
may
either
new forms
disappear or become
dis-
(c) final
consonantal
before the initial vowel of a following word, and,
if
the
consonantal form of the vowel affects the previous consonant,
may
give rise to
new forms
{d) if
the forms
originated in these three ways continue to subsist side

side, they may be specialised in different usages, and
may no longer be felt as at all connected, or one dialect
may keep one of the forms and another another.
by
237.
{a)
This generally arises from the similarity
of the case ending of the article or some
such word
239]
177
to the initial sound of the word which
is affected.
Thus
Greek ras-o-Teyas is divided ras Tfyas and words wrong'iiv"'ed.
hence a byeform arises rcyos, reyif and the
verb Tcyo) by the side of the older uTf.yo'i, o-reyT/, o-reyo)'.
So also Toijs jjiiKpov^, Tovi /xEp8aA.ovs, etc. lead to Toy's
in
'''
(TfxiKpov's,
Toy's o-/xp8aXe'ovs
set of forms with initial
and ultimately
which had been
to a complete
by
The pronoun 6 Sdva a
certain one is supposed to be a wrong division of o&e
+ another pronominal element''. If any further change
a general Greek law
s,
lost earlier
202).
'
'
takes place in the form of an initial combination of

consonants, the byeform
its parent.
a good
in piyos
and
If
may
we could be
be widely separated from
certain of the identification,
example of such difference would be found

iu Latin both frlgus ( 203)
= *srlgos, whence
rigor^.
238.
This wrong division of words
of the origins of prothesis.
Thus
is
probably one
6fj.6py-
by the side of ixopywfii probably arises

from a wrong division of d.wo-p.6pywp.i, and the same may
be true of o-puo-o-to and 6-ki.a-Odvw.
The cognate words w-4>eXi(a and 6cf>uX<ii, o<f>eXo's
239.
seem to owe their initial o and its two
^^1^4^ and
vy/xi
forms to a somewhat different cause.
In
*"'^"-
the prehistoric period of Greek there seems to have been

a preposition *(u (=Skt.
This
still
survives in
a)
lOKtavo';,
meaning 'round
about.'
originally a participle
from
1 This interchange goes back to Indo-G. times, the Germanic

languages (Eng. thatch) showing a form without s-, for initial stwould remain unchanged ( 103 i).
- Baunack Studien i. p. 46, Solmsen KZ.

compare Persson I. F. 11. p. 228 ff.
3 So Pedersen I.F. u. p. 325 n.
G. P.
31, p.
475 S.
12
But

A SHORT MANUAL OF
178
the same root as
K6t-/iai
and indicating the river
The stem
round' the world'.
of w<f>ekiw etc.
parently the same as that in Skt. phal-a-m

If *oj could
as
Trepi
239
'
'
lying
is
ap-
fruit, gain.'
be used with the same meaning of greatness
in TTfpUXvTo^ etc. it is not hard to arrive at the
meaning of wi^cXe'co. "When the old preposition died out,

a confusion arose with the augmented w forms of the
Hence in o'^ctAo) the present was
imperfect and aorist.
o
for co, and oeêXo? followed its
mistake
by
written with
It
verb'''.
is to
may
be seen in
opo(/)os, opo<f>rj,
be conjectured that a still further stage

cpe'i^co as compared with its substantives
the verb changing
its initial o
to
parallel
to the regular change of its root vowel.
240.
The number
English
of such wrongly divided
is
words in
considerable; as examples
may
be cited npron akin to napery originating
vided words in
in the wrong division an apron instead of

a napron, an orange for a norange, a nickname for an
eke name, a newt with the byeform an eft 'the water
beast from the root of Lat. aqua, the n in the last two
'
added to the original word, whereas in the

two cases the n which originally began the word has
cases being
first
been
lost'.
241.
(h)
The
consonants
loss of final
To
mostly due to assimilation.
KZ.
27 p. 477
is
probably
this majr be attributed
See V. Fierlinger,
Moulton, A.
In the Keltic languages this has resulted rather in the change
of the initial
fl.
J. P. VIII. p. 209.
consonant of the second than
of the first word.
The speakers
of the final
consonant
of the old Gaulish language,
when
they adopted Latin as their speech, kept the old manner of pronunciation, a pronunciation
still
phonetics' of French, cp.
a with a-t-iU and the pronunciation
of ave:-vous
i}
traceable in the curious 'sentence
with that of the same words in vous avez.
243]
the total loss of
final
179
Double conso-
stops in Greek.
nants arising by assimilation at the end of a
Assimilation
end of the clause i" tê sentence,

or sentence to a simple sound; hence vco-tijs, novi-ias
with final -s, -s for -o-s, -ss by assimilation from -t?, -ts
the original stem being *neuo-tdt-.
The
word were reduced
V ecficAKva-TiKov,
form as
at the
whether at the end
of
a verb
noun form like nrTroio-i-v, was not

originally merely an arbitrary means of avoiding hiatus,
but was extended from cases where it had originally a
meaning and syntactical value to other cases where it
had not. Parallel to this is the confusion of of and on
in Shakspearian English' and in modern dialects.
The
unaccented form of both prepositions became simply a
neutral vowel sound written o (cp. a-bed where a is the
unaccented form of the older an = on, and a, an the
articles, really unaccented forms of ane, one).
Hence on
came to be used for of and vice versa. In the modern
Northumberland dialect on has, in consequence, developed
<f>ep-v,
or of a
largely at the expense of
The frequent
242.
of.
loss
of
final
after
and popular Latin was

owing to a weak pronunciation of the s and
syllable
in
early
a short
j^^^^ f
'^''''"
^^^ ^
But to the Roman

was merely a metrical device and the elision
partly, perhaps, also to assimilation.
\witers
it
occurs before
243-
(c)
all
consonants with equal impartiality.
The
contraction of a final vowel with the
vowel of the following word has

The loss of a final
already been discussed.
initial
vowel before a succeeding
initial
^^^.^
vowel leads in Greek
to various dialectic forms of the prepositions dv, aV, kut

etc.,
which were then used before consonants and some' Abbott, Shakspearian Grammar 182.
122
A SHORT MANUAL OF
180
times assimilated, as
Kair ireSwv
and so
the case with war before
is
(Homer), before
/3
to
243
ir
to
tt
Ka^/SaXe (Homer),
/J
on'.
In Latin
244.
Latin
ac,
et,
atque.
represents the
et
*^^^
'^'-
Latin to
^1
^^^^
e (
same
original as
regular change of final
in
165) became *ete and the final
was dropped before a following vowel as in animal,

So also ac is
etc. which are neuter z'-stems.
merely a byeform of at-qiie (itself only ad+que 'and
e
calca/r
sound being lost by a kind of syncope

( 228 i) before a following consonant and t being assimiIn the
lated to c {qu) exactly as in siccus from *slt-co-s.
besides
'),
the
e-
popular pronunciation which we find in Plautus this
dropping of
final
was carried much further,
as
we
learn from the scansion, than the representation of the
language in writing shows.
The
245.
Scansion
tore^'voweis
Homer.
of
*'in
Homer is also in a
measure due to the change of the
peculiar scansion of
large
second part of a diphthong into a conso-
beginning the next syllable, the so-
Txwii
nant part of the diphthong being then treated as short

in other
words
-ai
is
dpumvuv
aXkv
oXKwv, the latter part

'iftfUiva
83)
a- (see
Hence, in the line
is
now scanned
be scanned
to
In caSCS of erases like
laXKuiv.
as
-a.
w.-.
koI virupo-ôv e/x/xevai

ko.
nj-n-eipo^ôv
Kairi,
Kara the
grammars lay down the rule that a is to be written only

when is part of the second element in the combination.
I
This rule finds an explanation in this principle

I
disappears as
o-Toid,
it
does in
while in Kara the
Gr?
-n-oui
for ttoku
of Ara
G. Meyer Gr.
Skutsoh, Forscliungen
still
and oroa
survives.
309.
z.
Lat.
Gramm.
p. 52.
in
xa-Trt
for older
248]
246.
(d)
produced when a
sonantal
which
is
good example of the double forms

vowel becomes con^^^^
final
seen in
irpoTL
181
This
rrpo';.
is
"'"''
the form
Thus the
but
takes before a following vowel.
primitive Greek forms would have been
*-!rpoTt-8iScoTt
whence *'n-pocro--Sa)Ke. This when isolated

Trpos and remained the only form in Attic
Greek, although irpoTi survived and Trpo'; disappeared in
*7rpoTie8(oK
was written
other dialects.
The
247.
X<P'-s etc. is
in forms like i^ {=iK-';), ek (=*iv-s),
of uncertain origin.
(gen.) Trapa (instr.)
Tr^.pi
As
Trapos
(loc), Trapat (dat.),
seem to belong to one noun paradigm,
it is
the weak form of the genitive
possible that
-s
in ^K-s
ev
have been specialised in Attic in different
some
is
dialects,
however,
Iv is
ablative
and accusative just

and accusative.
248.
The forms once ending
in.
-vs
which show comare
only one of two sets of forms which existed
one.
At
survival
of
forms,
^'^^'^'^
word upon the previous
the end of the sentence or before a following
vowel the forms with long vowel were developed

6is i^'kv-i),
In
as Lat. in governs the
the vowel
as the effect of the following
(h and
senses.
the only form, governing
alike dative
pensatory lengthening of
suffix,
n/xas,
ôvs; before a following consonant the vowel
showed no lengthening although the -v- was dropped as

rt/xas, ?, 6'eos.
So too Secr-7roTr;s 'house lord'
before
for *S6/xs-5roTijs, where *S/xs is a genitive of an old stem
from the same root as Soyu-0-5 and Se/i-w. This accounts
for the variants cts and 5 and for the short forms of the
accusative plural which are sometimes found in poetry

cp.
Hesiod, Works
cmd days 675
Noroio T6 Seivas ajfras
koi )(ip.wv
Shield 302 TOt
S'
l-n-iovTa,
WKUTToSas Xayos

A SHORT MANUAL OF
182
248
These short forms, however, have generally been

overpowered by those which show the compensatory
TJptvv.
lengtheninff.
xiv.
249.
It
Accent.
has already been pointed out that in the
Indo-Germanic language there

^^q kinds of Accont pitch accent
and stress accent ( 92 3). It was also observed that
the effects produced by these accents were of different
The effect of pitch accent would be to influence
kinds.
the nature of a sound, a high-pitched sound naturally
Pitcii
and
stress accent.
Original
^ygj,g
going with the high pitch accent and conversely.
main
effect of stress
accent
is
that
it
The
emphasizes one
syllable at the expense of its neighbours; the syllables
before
and
after are likely either to lose their separate
existence altogether or to have their vowel reduced to a
neutral sound.
in
This happened extensively in Latin, and
the development of the
Latin.
Romance languages from
In Latin compounds, in instances where there
was no counteracting cause, the a, e, or

simple word was reduced to the neutral
sound of the
or u sound
desilio,
compare
insulto
with
salio;
adimo,
iwo( 272);
tiniis with emo and tenus ; ilico ( = *in sloco), sedidus
(formed from se dolo 'without guile') with locus and
dolus.
In the late Latin, from which the Romance
/
languages sprang, the stress accent was stronger apparently than

cases
it
had been at an
earlier period
where no other law crossed
its effect,
hence, in
the loss of
unaccented syllables preceding or following the syllable

which had the main stress. Thus the Italian Bimini,
storia are the representatives of the Latin
Ariminum,
183
COMPARATIVE PIHLOLOGY.
251]
historiam
the French Gilles, frere, aimahle, esprit^ of
De
the Latin Egilius (a byeform of Egidius, Cic.

11.
(>^),fratrem.
93),
It is necessary to discuss (1) the
250.
the original
Indo-Germanic accent which
^
^
are
found in the history of the
still
(2)
the changes
original system of accentuation
remains of
Two
systems
ot accentuation
to be discussea,
indivi.
dual languages and
Orat.
amabilem, spiritum.
the
which took place in the
separate history of Greek and Latin.
The Indo-Germanic Accent.
1.
The most important
251.
relic of
Ablaut.
the original ac-
centuation and the only one which requires

consideration here
is
the vowel gradation or
ablaut, which the majority of philologists

to the influence of pitch accents
It is
vowei grada*'""
still
attribute
contended that
there was a change of vowel according to the position of
the highest pitch, for example
with
0,
interchanges
as a higher pitched vowel appear-
ing in the syllable with the chief accent,
interchange
' "
'*
"'
in the syllable
which had not the chief accent. Thus we have rightly

<êp<o but </)o/3a.
Analogy of all kinds has, however, obliterated a large part of the system, if this
affected
by
Thus ycVos is right but Analogy.

wrong, and so also is dSo's which ought to be
theory be correct.
yoVos is
This confusion no doubt can be explained as the
*oSs.
change of position in the accent of the

oblique cases and a consequent change of vowel, this
result of a
The
initial e is prothetio, originating in the difBoulty
which
the speakers of late Latin found in pronouncing initial s- followed

by another consonant; hence late Latin Upiritus (cp. 234).
2
See 92.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
184
new vowel being
251
at a later period introduced into the
nominative from the oblique cases, or on the other hand

being expelled from
its
by the vowel of
rightful position
the nominative.
There are according to the generally accepted
252.
\
owe!
theories of ablaut, six series of vowel changes
series,
corresponding to the six vowels a,
ri, e, e,
0, 0.
There seem to be traces of similar variations between
and
i,
u and
u,
changes below,
although, as will be seen by the tables of

i
and u
in the other series figure only as
the consonant part of diphthongs, except in the weakest
grade of
all
where they appear exactly in the same way
as sonant nasals
and =
iracr-xw
(fr.
and
liquids;
*7rei/6-a-o/iai,
weWw
cp.
inO-wv
188):
TreiVo/iat
::
{=irn6-
7ra5-aii/
But when we examine the earliest relics of the

Indo-Germanic languages we find that in some of them,
<uV).
such as Latin, the system of vowel gradation has been

not equally conspicuous in all
nearly obliterated,' while in others, such as

'
''
Greek,
lanfûages.
it
is
to
a large
extent preserved.
^
^
Even
in Greek, however, only
one series is
found to any very large extent, viz. that which is named
from its vowels the e o series.
Of this series there are
very many examples in Greek, and even in Latin a few
have been preserved.
:
253.
The
Typical form
e-grade of such roots
is
generally taken in
recent books as the typical form
older
"f"**^-
books followed the fashion of the Indian

grammarians and gave the forms in their weak grade in
most
cases.
now be given
*tri'p-
as
TTiO-,
*hMdh-.
Thus the root
of TpeV-co,
rpoV-o-s,
as rptTr- representing exactly
the root of irdQ-w,
iri-ivoid-a,
i-wiO-ov as
representing an original *bheidh- (cp.
The form
would
an original
*7rei6'-,
not
102) not
in o is generally called the ablaut or
254]
variant' form, while the forms in
out a sonant at
But
it is
all,
i,
u,
I,
r,
185
m, n, or with-
weak grade.
and irovd-
are described as the
really inaccurate to say that
-n-oiO-
(in Tri-TTovO-a) are the deflected forms respectively of ttei^-
and
and
and of
this there is no proof.
Accent changes accompany
vowel changes from the earliest period that we can reach
in the history of Indo-Germanic sounds
as already
mentioned the principal pitch accent on a syllable was
for such a statement implies that
Trv6-,
7rev6-
were in existence before
ttoiO-
and
-n-etO-
ttovO-,
accompanied,
it
seems, by an e- vowel; the absence of
such accent by an o-vowel.

,
On the other
...
hand, the absence of the principal
stres.s
Weak
the
forms
result
accent was marked by the appearance of

the syllable in
was
or, if it
its
lowest pronounceable form mO-
possible,
by the
Trnd-,
total absence of the sonant
cp. Tra-TCp-a, Tra-rpa-ai {='*p9-tr-si)^, Tra-rp-o's.
The levelling which has taken place

noun forms has been already men-
254.
in the
tioned
(later
( 48).
-is),
Instead of
*da-ter-i
we
^
'"'da-tor,
in Latin
Levelling
in
find dator, datoris,
datore the strong form being carried through

cases;
of
*da-tr-es vowel grades
all
the
on the other hand pater has weak forms in
every case except the nominative singular,

represent the normal declension but
caro, carnis
we have no
cari-
term deflected used to translate flechi in

Mr Elliott of Victor Henry's excellent
Pricis de la Grammaire comparee du Grec et du Latin, because I
wish to avoid suggesting that the
forms are in any way less
original than the e forms.
1
I prefer this to the
the English translation by
^ The accent here, whatever its original position, could not

have been on the -tr- syllable, for an accented sonant liquid or
nasal, as was pointed out in 157 note 2, is a contradiction
in terms.

186
A SHORT MANUAL OF
nem
{= *cdronem), no carine (= *careni)
these have beeu
replaced by carnem and came.

and Greek,
there
/-i
no
is
*KvacrL for
week
although
So even in
'
kd-v-os
kv-wv,
254
is
regular,
the accusative singular and no

The weakest form
*Kijova for
the dative (locative) plural.
has taken their places.
This
255-
analogical
extent in
Special cause
of levelling in
reason
all
its
is
to
some
a further
ii
Latin tor the disappearance
the original ablaut,
change
appears
levelling
laneriages; there
viz.
i-
oi
the tendency to
diphthongs to simple sounds and to reduce
to the neutral vowel all vowels unaccented under its

later
system of accentuation
272).
In the short vowel series a number of forms
256.
The
are found with a long vowel.

in
the
short
these forms to the others
relation of
not yet
is
satis-
vowgI spriGs
and indeed, notwithstanding the work of the last twenty years on this whole
problem, much still remains to be done, and scarcely a
single statement made on the subject can be said to
have met with universal acceptance (cp. note after 265).
factorily cleared up,
257.
Vowel
In the following six series

series
pilte''intnyTanguage.
^^^'^ ^^
it is
retained representatives of
grades
to be observed
most cascs uo single language has

sometimes
one
all
the vowel
language
forms which have been lost in others, but in
shews
many
instances a complete set of forms cannot be obtained
even from the whole of the Indo-Germanic languages.

258.
A.
The
series.
This, by far the most important series,

Forms
of the
c ;o series.
merely in the simple form
is
:
found not
with the
corresponding weak grades, but also in cases
259]
187
where the vowel is combined with i, u, sonant nasals

and sonant liquids. The relation of long forms like
Tva-TTjp,
iv-Trd-Tiop, ev-t^pwv, liomo,
<j>pr]v,
the shorter forms
haminem, W8-a, ped-em,

note after
-ttov's,
pes, etc., tO
tra-Tep-a, <f)pev-a, ev-Trd-Top-a, ev-^pov-a,
etc. is
not clear
(see,
The weak grade appears
265).
in
however,
two forms
according as some slight vowel-sound remains (3-grade)

or
the
vowel entirely disappears (the M^7-grade).
The remaining
or
consonant
followed them.
i,
u,
nasals
and liquids might be sonant
according as
a consonant or
Hence the complete
a vowel
table of this series
(excluding the long forms) in the original language must
have been as
follows'.
Strong Grade
188
A SHORT MANUAL OF
[259
259]
Strong Grade
liAv-oi
189
Weak Grade
ixalvofxai.
ij.i-iji.ov-a
= inn,-io-mai
26, 83)
avTo-fxa-TO-s
Min-er-va
foom-men-tu-s
me-min-i
{mens ( 25)
ge-mynd
0. E.
er
(yi)
r(r).
or
jra-T^p-a^
[Tra-rp-os
cppd-rop-a
[wa-rpa-ffL
pa-tr-is
O.E.
fas-der
Gothic Jfa-dr-s (gen.)

|fa-dru-m (-*y-') dat.
bro-dor
pi.
fîp-oj
fer-o
(pop-6-s
5t-0p-o-s
(pop-f/.6-t
(a vehicle to carry two)
Jfor-s (=*hhi-ti-s)
|for-te
O.E.
ber-an
b^r (pft.)
bearm 'bosom'
beam
(vii)
el
T\-a-fJ.WV
'belt to
ge-boren
(bairn)
ol
1(1)-
T^X-jua
ri-rXa-ii^v
hold some-
rdX-a.^ [~tll-)
thing up'
:
tollo
te-tul-i
O.E.
= *tl-nu)
>oliau 'thole'
106, iv)
iraX-TO-s
pel-lo
= *pel-nu)
:pe-pul-i
pul-su-s
formations in which the vowel of the root

the influence of the later stress accent
^
The Latin nominatives pater,
*dator.
= *fTft6-s%
*[ien- is
152)
suppressed by
272) cp. oleaginus etc.
dator, represent
an older *pater,
A SHORT MANUAL OF
190
260.
The
B.
e
6
ee-To-5
6u-fw-s
260-
d series.
ri-Bij-fii.
nil
= *dhs-td-s)
con-di-tu-s
fa-ci-o
fe-ei
died 'deed'
0. E.
dom 'doom'
do
^-â( 142,1)
'I do.'
6-t6-S
dip-i-oi-Ka
Be-men
0. E.
sa-tu-s
BSB-d
261.
The a
C.
(i)
a,
(ii)
ai
(iii)
au
ay-w
(i)
(See note after
series.
3
265.)
nil
?ai
ag-o
?au
o-y-fxo-s
'Xox-ciy-d-s
amb-ag-es
ay-6-s
ak-a
Icel.
W-apd-s
cde-01
(ii)
aes-tas
ad
0. E.
0. E.
idel (idle)
174)
auoi
(iii)
= *smis-o)
sear 'sere.'
262.
The a
D.
series.
nil
t-STa-iu (Doric)
(7Td-(7l-S
Bta-men
169)
|sta-ti-o
sto-1 (stool)
<pa,-ij.i
= (7Td-ri-S
jsta-ti-m
(TTa-fJ.O}!'
O. E.
stfed
(Doric)
f'V^
fa-ma
fat-eor
)
fa-bula|
^
The
initial
of
07,1105 is
said to be prothetic.
however, holds that this series like
an o-vowel.
If this
view
o-grade, {BB. xvii. 105
ff.)
is
all
Bartholomae,
the others has a grade with
correct, oyfj.os
would represent the
265]
263.
E.
The forms
The
191
series.
of this series are rare and uncertain.

nil
A SHORT MANUAL OF
192
265
In the account given, there are undoubted

than provisional.
defects.
For example (i) the a a series ( 261) can hardly be
taken as parallel to the e o series, for a change of quantity cannot
be equated with a change in the quality of the vowel, (ii) Another
:
undecided was that of the relation between
point which was
left
the long forms
Tra-T-qp,
<ppr)i'
etc.
The long forms,
ira-ripa, (ppiv-a.
it is
and the short forms
258)
to be observed, occur in the
nominative only.
impossible here to summarize the whole of the immense
It is
recent literature on the subject of ablaut, but plausible attempts

at solving the
two problems indicated above
may
be briefly men-
tioned.
(i)
Bartholomae (BB. xvii. p. 91 ff.), starting from Armenian
which gives sometimes a and sometimes o as equivalent to the
sound represented uniformly in Greek by o, concludes that Greek
and all other languages except Armenian have confused together
at least two separate original sounds, which he indicates as
Indo-G.
(in Armenian o) and Indo-G. u (in Ai-menian a).
The
former is represented in yi-yov-a and Lat. proc-us (variant form to
prec-or), the latter in Saa-e, Lat. oc-ii-lu-s
Lat. pot-i-s
irbir-L-s,
Bartholomae accordingly recasts the ablaut series

according to the following principles {BB. xvii. p. 105)
All series had four grades
two high grades and two low
(1)
(
163 note
2).
grades.
The vowels
(2)
of the
high grades were distinguished in
all
by quality, not by quantity.

According to the vowel quantity of the high grades the
(3)
six series fall into two groups, three series having a short, three a
series
long vowel.
One
(4)
series in
each group has the same vowel-quality as a
series in the other group.
One
(5)
is
or
<
of the
two vowels of the high grade in every
the other a clearer (higher-pitched) vowel
f,
series
a", a"
or
c,
a", a".
The low grades
(6)
vowel
(7)
is
are the
same in
all
series
entirely absent, in the other replaced by
At a
later period, other
already mentioned.
The vowels
circumstances lengthened.
in one the
3.
two grades were added to the four

of the high grades were in certain
In this way the long vowels,
the three series with short vowels originated
e etc. in
in the three series
265]
193
which had already long vowels, extra-long {iiierlange) vowels,

etc. arose.
For example the contraction of two short vowels
gives a long vowel of the first kind
*domo + es becomes *donins
(nom. pi. ep. 317). On the other hand a contraction of a long
with a short vowel produced an extra long vowel. Thus from
Indo-G. *g?i woman the nom. pi. is *Snas ( = *gnd + as); the
'
'
conjunctive sthdti represents *sthd + a+ti.
Bartholomae's six series
are, therefore, as follows.
Low
High grades
Lengthened
grades
grades
2
nil
a"
e
This scheme, though in some respects an improvement, by no

Bartholomae is unable to
gets rid of all difficulties.
explain satisfactorily the presence, in the high grade of his
dy-uy-ds, by the
a''-series, of the forms 'Kox-dy6-s, Lat. amh-ages
meims
side of a7w, Lat. ago

(ii)
Lat.
6yiJ.os
in the
same high grade.
The "lengthened grades," the long vowels of ra-Trip, of

have been placed in a new light by recent investigaTo this investigation a number of scholars have contributed
2'es etc.,
tion.
important elements, which have been coordinated and completed

in
an important
article
The following summary

(1)
if
An
by Streitberg
is
{I.
taken from this
F.
iii.
pp. 306416).
article.
accented short vowel in an open syllable
a following syllable
is
lengthened
is lost.
Compare 0ttt/j and (popbs, 7rapa-/3XLj^ and Karui-jSXe^,

and (retaining the accent of their nominatives) eipioTra
Hence Doric iriis, Lat. pes represent
and KvvSnra.
*irbdos, 'pedos and similarly with other monosyllabic
Thus Indo-G. *iious
root nouns Lat. vox, rix, lex etc.
:
{ôm)
= 'S6uos;
Indo-G.
''dieus
= *dieuos.
pounds, where the accent went on to the

G. P.
But
first
in com-
element
13

A SHORT MANUAL OF
194
compared with
Si-TTTV^ Lat. semi-fer
(veiS-fuJ,
fi/761', -TTTiixo^
265
*fu765,
Lat. ferus), the vowel remains un-
S'li'i
changed.
So the long suffixes -en-, -vn-, men-, -mon-,

have parallels with -0- ; -eno-, -ono-,
-meno-, -mono-, -ero-, -tero-, though the last two differ
in meaning from the long forms.
Similarly -nt- has a
-er-, -or-, -ter, -tor
bye-form in
noun,
-nto-
The
etc.
(cp.
yevcri,
vowel
however, by
Lat. generdre) seems to vouch
No
such original forms.
for
form with
The Homeric
ending beside them.

the side of yevos
forms, alone in the
-s-
have no
Streitberg thinks
Indo-G. accusatives are
lengthened except *srm and diem, because these are the

only accusatives which became monosyllables
vbSa,
;
peclem etc. remain disyllabic.
An
(2)
accented long vowel changes
circimiflex if a following syllable is lost.
its accent from acute to

Eartholomae's extra-long
vowels are such oircumfiexed forms.

short
is
In other words, while a

one beat or mora, an ordinary long is two, a ciroumflexed
long three.
Compare 7Xa5J with

vrith
The
(3)
y\avK6s,
adj.
Indo-G. *ndus
priyvv/j-i.
loss of
i,
u,
m, n,
r,
{vav!)
I
stop-consonants takes place only
(4)
Unaccented vowels are
u,
when they stand
The accent
bears the
this loss is
changed
m, n are lost not merely after
before
which have been length-
s.
Accent of Greek and Latin in the

266.
and before
syllable
both before and after the
lost
j,
original long vowels but also after those
2.
the
181).
principal accent of the word,
ened, except
ptiyes
after long vowels
when
The accent by
principal accent of the word.

into the circumflex (cp.
Homeric
= *nuuos.
historical period.
and Latin in the hiswas very different from the
Indo-Germaiiic accent and the two

of Greek
torical period
Differencf
in
... %
nature between
ori2'inai
and
languages also differ ver}'
Latin
ac-
spect
from one another.
much
in this re-
In Greek the
267]
accent marks indicate pitch
main accent
was a
in Latin
195
on the other hand the
stress accent, less strong
perhaps in the later period of the language than it had

been in the earlier, and perhaps at no time so emphatic
as the stress accent in English. The accounts of the
Latin accent which we receive from gramt gram.

o
ijatin
marians are of comparatively little value,
Suntûntrurtbecause it is evident that they applied to worthy,
the stress accent of Latin the terminology of Greek
grammarians dealing with the pitch accent of their own

language.
Thus, not recognising the difference between
the two languages in this respect, they attributed to
Latin
many phenomena,
which
it
such as the circumflex accent,
almost certainly never possessed.
267.
The changes in the Greek accent seem to
have been brought about by the develop^^^^^ ^^j^j^jj
ment
of a secondary accent which, in words speâr'* Greek
was long, never receded accent.

further from the end of the word than the penultimate,
and in no case farther than the third syllable. Words like
whose
last syllable
no exception to this
TToXeajs are
quantity
labic law
is
'
later
as
rule, for in
such words
and the metathesis of

than the development of this 'trisyl-
an older
represents
-(05
it is called.
-t/os,
If this
new accent chanced
to
agree in position with the old accent inherited from the
Indo-Germanic period, no change took place,
changes
If the old accent, which, being absolutely Pcent"
in the
der
"^ system,
any syllable, was
nearer the end of the word than this new secondary accent,
the old accent might remain or the new accent might
could
free,
take
stand
Thus
its place.
Germanic accent
the
new accent
on
t'^'^
iranjp preserves the original Indo-
mttjp, on the other hand, has taken

104).
In words of more than three
132
A SHORT MANUAL OF
196
syllables
and
in trisyllabic words
whose
267
last syllable
was
long, tlie accent could no longer be on the first syllable.
Thus the verb of the
principal sentence, which
was
origin-
and the verb of the subordinate

Accentuation
n
the
Greek sentence, which was accented on its nrst
of
syllable, were now both reduced to the same
form, and all genuine parts of the verb (the infinitive and
participle are noun forms) were treated in the same
ally enclitic,
manner, and accented as far from the end as the
Thus
law would permit.
trisyllabic
-^lyvoixida of the principal
sentence, where the accent was thrown forward

syllable preceding the verb
augment
on to the
whether that syllable was the
98) or a different word, was
same way
precisely in the
j_
i_
now accented
as yLyvo/xeOa of the subordi-
nate sentence, the trisyllabic law forcing the accent
back to the
268.
both cases
o in
ytyvoixida.
further peculiarity of Greek accent
is
the
law by which words that form a dactyl or

Accentuation
dactylic
of
end
m
.
words.
ultimate
p^wpiov,
v'fjpi.ov,
X09, yeyvi]iJLvos, reXccr-ôpos.
originally oxyton,
a dactyl,
are accented upon the pen','
Most
an accentuation
cases, especially in proper
names
A.
'
'i
Akti^dAos,
Ka/jarv-
of these words were
still
retained in some
-n-axTjAo's, Tcto-a/êi/ds,
etc'
This law, however, was not shared by Lesbian Aeolic,
which in all cases threw the accent as far from the end
of the word as the trisyllabic law would permit.
269.
Analogy
In accent, as in other things, analogy affects

in
accentuation.
the
working
jjgj^^g^
of
the
general
principles.
although enclitics are practicaUy
part of the word they follow, because by definition they

'
tive
Analogy also
affects this law.
meaning
Lat. castellmn)
syDable.
(cp.
^poipiov has lost its diminu-
and
is
accented on the
first
271]
come under
but aXyea tivmv on the analogy of a\ya
tLvihv,
So
find not dXyea tLvwv or aXyta
we
accent,
its
197
we
also
TLvo<;.
find tvvov for tvvov the legitimate contraction
of vvoov, because the oblique cases follow the nominative in their accentuation.
Conversely
cumflexed in the nominative because
is
xp*"'""''?
xpô'^'o" etc.
cir-
regu-
Since a large number of
larly contract into xP'"'^ etc.
perfect participles passive ended in a dactyl, those which
did not, as
were analogically accented
of the Greek accents has
The nature
270.
been
Tcra.ft.ivo'i, XfXvixivo's,
same manner'.
in the
briefly indicated
was a
rising,
The acute
97).
abeady
Nature of the
Greek accents,
the circumflex a rising-fall-
The nature of the grave accent is not

determine.
As the Greek accent was musical,
ing accent.
easy to
the relations of the acute and the grave accents may

be best illustrated by comparing the acute accent
a higher note rising from a monotone chant, the
grave accent indicating only that the pitch it marks is
lower than that which the syllable has when it ends
to
In the same way, the circumflex
the piece.
is
of the
natuie of a slur in music combining two notes of
dif-
ferent pitch.
Why
should some
be marked with an acute,

TI71
n ,
Why Zeus
while others have a circumflex?
t-r-rt
/I
o
m
but Itv ? Why nixy] but Tt/xr^s ? To this
Interchange of
acute and circumflex.
271.
lone;
There
is
one further point.
syllables
an
.N
question
there
is
at
the former case the
present
no
difi'erence
is
final
answer.
In
regarded by some
authorities as one exi.sting from the beginning, in the

1
For
further
details
see
B.
I.
Wheeler's
Nominalaccent (1885) and Bragmann's Orundr.

Brugmann, Grundr. i. 671.
'^
i.
Der
676
griechische
ff.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
198
latter
been
has
it
contraction of the stem vowel with
flex indicates the
of the genitive suffix
the
is still
circum-
that the
held'
recently
271
But
-es.
whole question
this
in the region of hypothesis.
272.
In the changes which Latin accent has under-
gone since abandoning the original IndoTwo changes ^

the special Germanic system of accentuation, two stages
'
in
accent of Latin;
observable.
are
The
(a)
change,
first
which seems to have been shared by the other Italic

(a)
stress ac- dialects was to a system in which the first
sySabiVSf ^the Syllable of the
^''''^'
way
word bore in
all
cases a stress
In Latin this system had given
accent.
before the historical era to (6) the system which
Continued to prevail throughout the
the
later
tnsyiiabio law.
(V)
gj^^g^]^
According to
period.
fell
penult
if
upon the penult
accent
if it
the penult was short
was
long,
on the ante-
amamus but
clas-
the stress
it
amahitur,
This accent sometimes came to
legebam but legerem.
stand on the last syllable by the loss of a final vowel,
when words
became
like illice, videsne, etc.,
illic,
viden,
etc.
Traces of the earlier accent,
273.
however,
still
continued to survive in the vocalism of
Traces in vocaiism of
the
Latin.
Under the
earlier accent.
later
j r-
system
of
1
ac-
centuation ad-jacio could never have be-
come
afficio
the a-sound.
1
late
Hirt, hidoger. Forsclmngen
plausible explanation
of the genitive
The
compounds
loss
like cale-fac'io, indeed,
de-hdbeo, prae-habeo,
was
of the
(I.
-so (as
final
i.
p.
F. in. p. 349
pro facto,
11
fi.) is
fi.
if
keep
such had
Streitberg's
more
that the original suffix
had been
syllable
earlier conjectured by MoUer).

produced the circumflex of the
accented long vowel in the preceding syllable (see note after 265,
ii.
2).
274]
199
been their accent, could not have changed to deheo,
The forms of these words must date

from the time when the older system of accentuation
praebeo, profecto.
prevailed.
That
recent period
it
reached down to a comparatively
shown by the
fact that foreign names

some cases were accented according to it Tapavra,
'AKpayavm became Tarentum, Agrigentum, according to
is
in
this principle'.
To
274.
its
strong stress accent Latin owes
its fre-
quent and sometimes surprising changes of quantity.

These changes are best exemplified in the scansion of the
comic poets, who represent better than the writers of the
Augustan age the Latin language as
it
was spoken.
In
Plautus we find a constant tendency to change
iambic disyllables into pyrrhics
all
all
words of the type
of vide tend to be scanned as vide, the stress emphasizing the short syllable
and the unaccented long
syl-
lable being shortened.
To
this accent also the reduction of all vowels in
unaccented syllables to the neutral vowel

tributed
hence
adigo,
colligo,
ilico,
is
to be at-
quidlibet
(root
*leubh-); hence too the total disappearance of vowels
as in benignus, malignus, etc.
The Bomans generally formed

Hence
from 'SlSXofivTa (ace.) 'Apple-town' the Bomans made Maleoentum and, in their popular etymology regarding it as a name of
Compare the similar change
ill omen, changed it to Bene-rentum.
of Epidamnus to Dyrrhachimn.
1
the
Brugmann, Grimdr.
name
of a
i.
680.
Greek town from the Greek accusative.
PART
III.
WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS,
General principles of word formation.
XV.
Up
275.
to this point
we have been concerned
en-
tirely
with the question of sounds, with the changes
which
befall the original
sounds as they pass from the
language into those descendants of
original
it
with
which we have more immediately to deal, and with the

further changes which arise from the contact of one
sound with another. We have next to treat of those
groups of sounds which are in themselves intelligible
wholes and, as
it
were, the
small coin of language,
make
a larger
more complex
relation-
capable of being added together so as to
whole expressing, in
many
cases,
This larger whole we
ships.
just as words vary in
length
Germanic group from the

or Greek
call
the sentence.
But
even within the Indo-
single letter of the Latin
to the mouthfilling inciircicervicus of the
17
early Latin poetry or the o-vyKadekKva-drjaeTai, of Aeschylus, so too
only
to
we have sentences
contrast the
often
of
One has
all lengths.
monosyllabic
phrases
of
ordinary conversation and the crisp brevity of Tacitus or
Macaulay with the long and rounded periods of Livy or

of Clarendon.
The
longest sentence
of details but
it
may
give the largest
number
does not necessarily express the great-
est fullness of meaning.
In brevity
is
pith; in
moments

A SHORT MANUAL OF
204
275
of great mental excitement an incoherent exclamation
express more to the listener than many sentences.

But properly speaking the province of the grammaTo express
rian is not bounded even by the sentence.
the full meaning more than one sentence often is required.
Thus beyond the sentence lies the paragraph,
and beyond the paragraph the composition as a whole.
This wider field the philologist leaves to the gramma-
may
and the teacher of rhetoric for philology proper

there is little to be gleaned beyond the area of the
rian
sentence.
The sentence however is a kingdom which

provinces, or to use what is perhaps a better
276.
many
has
metaphor,
it is
gTasp with
full
The
(1)
structure o
the word.
have here
part with which
again
ijgj.g
we have
we must
to deal
distinguish
already been pointed out
a root,
(b)
is
various
20
f.),
we
a formative suffix or suffixes,
instances special case suffixes in the noun
or person suffixes in the verb.
We
also find occasionally
one or more prefixes at the beginning of the word.
(d)
(2)
to
stories, all
structure of the individual word, and
*'^
(a)
many
(c) in
many
perception the finished whole.
first
As has
parts.
a building in which are
must be examined separately before we can
of which
The
distinction
a further point
The
between noun and verb brings us
the use of each word in the sentence.
chief distinction
no doubt
is
between noun and
verb, but this distinction is not necessarily one of form

(
30).
In
many languages words
structure of
the sentence.
^s verbs.
earlier history
seen
in all outward respects
identical are used indifferently as
was
24), it is
No doubt
different
in
many
nouns
or
cases their
but in English, as we have
a familiar process to turn a noun or
277]
205
even a combination of nouns into a verb.
but the type of formation
us,
To
memory
a transitive verb formed within the
boycott
of
many
i.s
of
of ancient growth.
is
Thus we see that there is a doubtful margin

between noun and verb as far as form is
277.
is
no doubtiul margin
of
As soon
noun
as a
so
It is
common
is
meaning
is
used to make the predicate of a sentence

a verb".
it
has become
unnecessary to multiply examples of
One
the phenomenon.
and
changes
verbs:
point 01 meaning.
Nouns
concerned; there
this,
or two words in
English seem to have the happy faculty of adapting
themselves to any surroundings and so becoming
Of
the parts of speech in turn.
in but,
It begins as
an
adverb and preposition, usages in which
it
perhaps the best example.

found.
'
There was but
modern English
its
one,'
all
this but is
'
may
still
none but me.
use as a conjunction
is
'
be
In
the ordinary
me no buts,' which occurs in

more than one author, it appears as a verb and also as a
substantive.
As an adjective also it is not unknown,
although its usage as such is more frequent in the Scottish dialect, for example the but end of a house in the
one, but in the phrase 'But
'
'
sense of the outer end.
pronoun and negative

felt
Finally but
in combination
is
used also as a
'
Not a man but
the terror' I
Cp. the vigorous language of Professor Whitney.
long been accustomed to maintain that any one

that a
asserts,
noun is a word that designates and a

and who is not able to hold on to this
who
"I have
does not see
verb a word that

distinction as
an
absolute and universal one (within the limits of our family of
languages) has no real bottom
to
his
grammatical science."
(A. J. P. XIII. p. 275.)

-
For further
details see the
New
English Dictionary,
s. v.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
206
It has
made the
277
sometimes been objected to Macaulay that he

iêrsonal
pronouns useless, by frequently
re-
peating the previous substantive instead of employing
To make a pronoun
them.
in pronouns,
i4>V
'
'There
is
tive
One
into a substan-
however,
IS,
above.'
name
reluctance of wives to refer to their husbands by

leads practically to the use of the
sense of mt/ husband.

reverse
true
is
much more common, auro;

In many rural districts the
pronoun he
in the
In some languages the exact
the word for husband, lord or master
comes to be used as an emphatic pronoun.
Thus
in
Lithuanian pats (older patis), which means husband or

lord and is identical with the Greek n-oa-is, Skt. patis
and Latin 2}otis (no longer a substantive), is often used
simply as the emphatic pronoun avrds, and its feminine
'.
2Xlfl as avTrj
The Latin form

from snbstantive to adjective,
of this
word
potts
gives
us an
example of a Substantive coming to be used

^g g^-^ adjective and actually forming a com-
parative as well as changing into an adverb.
In the
verb possum, a corruption of 2Mtis sum, the original

sense
'
able.'
am
master
Possideo 'I
'
meaning
retains the
has faded into the vaguer
sit as
'
master, hold the mastery
better,
am
of
although to the Romans
themselves the derivation was probably equally obscure.

It
is
this
change from substantive -in- apposition
adjective which according to Delbrtick
of the
numerous Greek adjectives in
is
to
the explanation
-o-
that have no
separate form for the feminine, at any rate in the early
period of the language '.

rjiJ.epo<;,
eKrjXos
and
TJa-vxo<;
He
thus explains forms
like
and compares with these words
Kurschat, Lit. Gr.
Syntaktische Forschungen,
906.
iv. p. 65.
278]
207
which have entirely passed into adjectives such phrases

as o-TucÂos 8e yij Koi x^po-o's (Soph. Antigone 250), where
X^pTo<; is in the transition stage.
The
278.
readiness with which adjectives in most
languages pass into adverbs
is
known
many
to
_
But
every one and requires no illustration.
Adverbs.
adverbs are (1) actual case forms of substantives,
(2) relics of lost cases, or (3) prepositional phrases
com-
pare Latin /orfe 'by chance,' an ablatival form from/ors',
with partim the old accusative of the stem represented
by pm-s, or again with ex-templo or

the spot
').
ilico
(= *in sloco
Other adverbs again are parts of verbs,
ml, or whole clauses such as forsitan just cited,
and the English may
'
on
licet^,
scilicet
Adverbs so formed are subject
be.
to the influence of analogy and occasionally take the

form of adverbs derived from other origins. For ex-
ample, Ka\(5s
explained as the old abla-
is
1-1
\
p
p
11
form of KaXo5, which would appear
1'
n
X c\
A
According to Ureek
originally as *KaAM8.
1
/-\
41
phonetic laws the final

-s is
Analogy
'
tival
8 is
dropped
added, the origin of which
and
X<3pi
lects.
x<^P'-'^>
On
'^"
^^^
is
241) and a final
not clearly known, cp.
avtv-s in different
the analogy of
KaXm
in
the formation of
adverbs.
Greek dia-
the Greeks invented
although properly the ablative of an -n stem

ought to be formed quite differently ( 309). It would
KpetTToVos,
not be surprising
and
Found
the
members of a phrase
declined in Fors Fortuna, the
name
licet
and
is
vel
also used as
like vovv
of the goddess,
in the nominative in various phrases as forsitan,
an, which itself

'
if
i.e.
fors sit
an adverb.
might be more properly described as conjuncand conjunction
tions, but the line of separation between adverb

is
not easy to draw.
subdivision of adverbs.
Conjunctions seem best regarded as a
"
A SHORT MANUAL OF
208
which occurs so frequently
exîv
in
278
Greek were to run
together into one word just as animuni advertere has
But the influence of

make
an adverb vowexovrius and Plato still more boldly e5 koI
ifôv-rwi vovv
In the later Greek we find also an adjective vowcx^'s and a new substantive derived from it
become animadnertere
analogy
in Latin.
so strong that Isocrates can venture to
is
'.
In no language can this principle be carried
279.
to a greater extent in the formation of ad-
.
^
Analogy
in
the formation of jectives
.
tives
and
ad-
as
we
in this
and adverbs than
way
to stand apart
the working of the principle
In a phrase like
first sight.
is
were, one
it
Analogy
and
use
not always obvious at
a penny wise and pound
'
words except the

huge adjective.
first
and
last
affects English exactly as it affected Greek.
One curious example may be

Universities
we
from one another,
foolish policy,' all the
form, as
in English, but
often allow the words which
it is
given.
In the English
customary to distinguish as
" Close
" Opeir " those Scholarships for
restricted
and
Scholarship
which competition is
The two words Open
free re,spectively.
'
make, as
it were, one substantive, and from

formed a new substantive Open
Scholar,' a combination in wliich, if treated as two words,
'
this again has been
'
open has no
intelligible meaning.
two other curious examples of word-making
may be cited from our own language because here we
'
'
One
or
Isocr.
83
e.
Plato, Lnjos 686 E.
In both eases
it
is
to be
noticed that another adverb is used at the
erroneous to say that the adverb
is
Isocrates, Blasa prints vovv exivrus as
the
new
same time. It
derived from vowexh^-
In
two separate words, but
in
edition of Kiihner's GriccMsche
is
Grammatik as one word.
279]
209
can trace the history of the development in a manner
which
is
In
impossible for any of the so-called dead lan-
The
guages.
an example of a borrowed
first is
many words which have come
suffix.
into English directly
or indirectly from Latin the suffix -able oc-
ITLatm
curs, representing the
,:-,.
suffix
found
such words as amahilis, irremeabilis.
Suffix -a6!.
This suffix was
confused with the word able which comes from the accu-
Hence
sative form of habilis through the French.
it
has come to be supposed that -able might be used as a

suffix to
make an
even phrase,
adjective from
any English word or
cp. understandable, get-at-able.
second example
may
be taken from Saxon English.
In the earliest English there was a feminine suffix -estre

corresponding in meaning to the masculine -er as a noun
of agency: thus 0. E. bwcestre, preserved
m X
the
.
name
proper
nine of baker.
But
-a
^
Baxter,
was Ix,
the cfemi-
Suffix -sier.
time these forms came

more emphatic varieties of the
and most of them became masculine. At
in process of
to be regarded as only
forms in
-er,
present spinster, properly the feminine of spinner,
only remaining feminine word of this form".
is
the
Indeed so
completely was the original meaning forgotten that a
new feminine was formed in some cases, e.g. songstress,

Further, when the forms mostly became
seamstress.
masculine a special meaning was attached to the suffix
and it is henceforth used contemptuously as in punster,
trickster', etc.
Changes of the nature of

-ster are
not
uncommon
in
this last specialisation of
many
languages.
Morris, Hist. Outlines of English Accidence, p. 89.
Possibly this special meaning
may
In Latin
have been iniiuenoed by
the Latin suffix -aster, which has a similar value.

G. P.
14
A SHORT MANUAL OF
210
279
and the Germanic languages, for instance, the suffix -vohas become identified specially with words of colour
English yellow, sallow,
fid-vu-s, gil-vu-s, fla-vu-s, etc.,
blue, grey, all originally -uo- stems'.
The
280.
history of such developments seems to he
that the original signification of the sufSx

opmeiit in such is
formations.
forgotten and,
if
the suffix happens to
m some special meanmg,

.
occur frequently
-,
it
comes to be regarded as connected with that meaning

and is accordingly further extended in that sense. This
is true not only of the noun but also of the verb sufiixes.
Legebamini has been already cited ( 49). It is now
commonly held that the
Aorist Passive in Greek
first
which has no exact parallel

Passive.
j^^ other languages, was formed by a mistaken extension of the ending -^r?s in the second person
Greek Aorist i-ô-B-^-v, etc.,
singular
in Greek,
474 b). The second aorist passive, i^Kxvrjv etc.,

which is an independent development in the
separate history of this language,
is
also supposed to be
formed on the pattern of intransitive forms

which belong to the active
some reason
really
voice.
for believing that
There
like ip-qv,
is
moreover
many verb forms
are
In Greek Xeyâ-Oai has recently been
compounds.
*A.cy;, an old locative form

and *-6aL a dative form from the
analysed into
(
root of
TLOrjfjLL^.
312),
In Latin
it is
possible to analyse
many
subjunctive forms in a similar fashion into locative stems

followed by some part of the substantive verb; for in1
Brugmann, Grundr.
According to the
11.
64.
Bloomfield, A. J. P.
xii. p. 25.
common grammatical arrangement
Xiyeadai
and other infinitives are ranked amongst verb forms. Strictly

speaking however all infinitives, whether simple or compound,
are cases of a substantive.
281]
stance legis-sem
by a
possibly such a locative *leges, followed
is
possible form (sem

.
/T)i
= *siem)
"
of the subi-
junctive stem (rlautus) or sim, which

reality the ancient optative.
only possibilities
presented graver
211
is
ha.t.
legis-sem.
These however are as yet
the forms of the verb have hitherto
difficulties to
the philologist than those
which occur in the analysis of noun forms.

As the noun and verb forms differ in most respects,
although at some points, as has already been shown ( 49),
they do overlap, it will be more convenient to discuss
the formation of substantives, adjectives and pronouns
and the development
of their forms
and uses separately
from those of the verb.
xvi.
]ôu7i Morphology.
All nouns are either simple or compound.
281.
In
other words they come from one stem or from two or
more
stems.
Adyos for example
Xoyos, o-TTcpjiioAdyos are
is
a simple noun, Sta-
compound nouns.
Every noun consists of a stem, and, in general, it has

added to indicate various case rela- partsinanoun
*^''"'
tions.
The stem again may in many instances be analysed into a root and a formative sufiix.
suffixes
But
this is not true in all cases.
stems which
it is
/Jov-s,
Lat. res, are
impossible to analyse further
that
is
and stem are indistinguishable'. Xdyo-s

consists of the stem A.oy-o- and the case-sufhx -s; Xoy-oto say, root
again of Aoy- a form of the root

verb
Acy-o))
as -o-
and a stem
suffix
and sometimes as
-e
(cp.
the form
A.ey-
in the
which appears sometimes

(vocative Ady-c)^.
Compare
Compare, however, the note following
On
181 note.
265.
142
the
A SHORT MANUAL OF
212
281
other hand, a word like rep-ixa or Lat. ter-7nen can be
analysed into a root *ter- and a suffix *-men, in
weak form
*-'mn
But here there
157).
is
its
no case
the nominative, accusative or vocative
suffix at all in
Singular, although such suffixes are to be found in other

cases.
When
the suffix
is
not added to a root but to an
ready existing stem which contains a

mary,
second-
the suffix added
Even
is
al-
suffix,
called a secondary suffix.
more than a second suffix is added,

although we ought properly to have a new name, tertiary,
etc., for each, additional suffix, it is found more convenient to distinguish only a primary and a secondary
series, the latter including all which are not primar}'.
In many books primary and secondary derivatives are
treated separately.
This however is not necessary. If
there are no secondary derivatives^ formed by means of
a
suffix, this fact
suffix to
if
generally indicates that the use of the
form new words has ceased in that particular
language.
282.
In words, however, like
Compound
stems.
but we also
mer
Sia'-Xo-yo-s
and
<nrepfi,6-
we Can not only distinguish those

parts which we have already seen in Xoy-o-s,
find a new set of parts belonging in the foran indeclinable word well known separately
Aoy-o-s
case to
and also as an adverb in combination

Such indeclinable words are mostly old case
as a preposition
with verbs.
forms
311) which
it
may
or
may
not be possible in the
present state of our knowledge to analyse in detail.

1
Derivatives
TpoKpeiov
and
293)
Tpo<p-6-s
rpetp-.
are
must be
is
carefully distinguished
a derivative from the stem of
cognates, Tpo(p- being
as
In
from cognates
rpotpr}
Tp^(j>-u)
primitive a form as
283]
213
(nrip-fj.o-\6y-o-^ we Seem to have as the first element a

stem connected with a-irep-fjia, itself a substantive like
Tep-fxa and connected with the verbal root found in uirupio
(= *(nv(.p-iw
the word
But
207).
have no form
in the
paradigm of
(nvip-jxa
we
Yet, as the original meaning of
o-n-ep-p-o-.
is
seedgatherer,' there can be no doubt that
the form must be somehow connected with a-irip-fx.a.
This brings us back once more to one of the great prin-
ciples of
'
language which have already been discussed.

its -o- by analogy from -o- stems,
has obtained
uTre.p-iJ.o-
these being the most numerous of
all.
The
Analogy
in
com-
impulse in this case was probably given by p"*! ^tems.

words like Ov-fxa-^, 7rpo-/xo-s, etc., which have a stem
suffix
As
-/U.0-.
6vfj.o-^6p-o-^ is
a regular form, cnnpixo-
from such regular
Xoy-o-s
irregularly obtained its
forms.
This change of vowel in compounds
-o-
is
very com-
From a stem like avep- man we should have all

compounds of the same form as avSpd-iroS-o-v. But, as
mon.
'
'
can be seen from any lexicon, the type of

etc., is far
cases
we
the most common.

find the
dvSp6-<j>ov-o-^,
In the formation of the
same influence at work.
already been pointed out
( 50).
This has
In English, book which
same declension as foot ought

The analogy of the majority of
originally belonged to the
to form its plural beek.
nouns has led to the formation of the plural books. In

Latin we have a constant interchange between forms of
the second and forms of the fourth declension, doini and
domus, senati (early) and senatus
and
irregularly
in
Greek ^wKparTj
'S,(DKpdTr}v ( 50).
Thus far examples have been taken where it

draw the line distinctly beSecond part of
tween simple noun stems and compound compound stem
becoming
suffix.
T,
noun stems. But it sometimes happens
283.
is
possible to
.
-,

A SHORT MANUAL OF
214
that one part of a
compound
becomes a formative
really
is
283
so mutilated that it
suffix.
good example of
this is the English suffix -ly in man-ly, trvAy, like-ly, etc.

English
This suffix was originally a substantive,

'
-?/.
,,
meaning
body
..
J sometimes
and
corpse,
the latter signification being preserved in such forms as
and lyke-ivake (the wake or watch

Thus man-ly originally meant man-like,
In Homeric
i.e. 'having the body or form of a man.'
Greek we find the first beginnings of a similar construclych-gate
Lich-field,
for the dead).
tion in the phrase, four times repeated, jxapvavTo Sefxa?
where
TTupos alOojxivoLo,
flaming
i.e.
From
fire.'
Se/ias is
exactly the English
this simple
form we
'
like
pass to tru:-ly
'having the form or semblance of truth.'
Finally
we
actually
the meaning
so entirely forgotten that
is
compound the word with

form
like-ly
itself
and make the strange
which, though far removed in meaning,
is
etymologically equivalent to 'body-body.'
In Latin, as Dr Autenrieth long ago pointed out',

the adverbial suffix -iter
Latin
-iter.
stantive iter
'
From
short-ways.'
its
whose neuter ended in

other stems.
Hence we
and
is
really the sub,
breviter is but breve iter
frequent use with adjectives
-e (earlier -i
165) -iter passed to
find forms like firmiter, audacter
and many others from
-o- stems and consonant stems,

although perhaps at every period the suffix was most
common
with
284.
1
In Eos,
latein.
-i-
ii.
Jahrgang (1866)
Lexicographie
independently in
Syntax
is
stems.
In most of the forms which have been cited,
v.
p. 514.
See a note in Archiv fur
Osthoff
had taken the same view
the Archiv p. 455. Delbrtlck {Grundr.

theory and holds that the entire series
vol. iv. of
264) rejects this
made on
276.
the analogy of inter.
285]
only the second
215
member of the compound has had a

member appearing mere- Case forms in
case suffix, the first

ly as a stem.
In
stem of
but
6v-fi6-'s
'"*''
Ov-ft-o-fiopo-'s, 6v/jlo- is
it is
the
not a case form of
many compounds, however, there
Ov-jj.o-'s.
between the parts of the compound and the

ber
is
Thus
a genuine .case form.
Aios Kovpoi
'
In
a syntactical relation
is
sons of Zeus,' SioVSotos
first
mem-
Aioo-Kovpoi is only
is
Aios Soros
'
given
of Zeus,' a form preserving a very old syntactical construction.
words
In Latin the most probable explanation of
iudex and mndew
is that they are compounds

an accusative, ius, vim. They
are therefore of the form represented by /xoyoo-To'Kos, an
the
like
first
part of which
is
epithet of the goddess Eileithyia
= /aoyovs-roVos
248).
In late Latin proper names were sometimes thus formed,

e.g.
Adeodatus
tine's son.
Barebones,
'
Given by God,' the name of St Augus-
own Puritanical names Praise-God

Sometimes the form might as well be
Cp. our
etc.
given as two words

Fates'
is
Kripea-a-Lcl>6prjTos
in the sense of agency.
So
urged on by the
also oVo/ia/cAwTos
equally well divided ovofm kAuto's

ovop-a
'
a verbal preceded by the old locative used here
being the accusative.
some cases it is hard to

and composition begins.
Three means of
285.
in
Thus
'
might be
famous of name,'
it will
be seen that
where juxtaposition ends
tell
distinction have been formu-
lated by Brugmann'.
,,\rni
(1)
T
The ending
f>
01
J.
one part
pound passes into words where
r
01
it
the com-
would not
appear in the simple form; êoVSoTos

lows the analogy of StoVSoros.
'
Orundr.
11.
Three
.1
p. 5.
fol-
to
criteria
distinguish
from'"juxteposi-

A SHORT MANUAL OF
216
The
(2)
first
member
285
compound no longer
of the
stands in the same syntactical relation to the second.

dprji-(îko%
'
dear to Ares,'
apr;t-<âTos, dpyjL-KTafji.evo's
slain
'
war have the proper sjmtactical meaning dpeiOvaavos, an epithet applied by Aeschylus to a doughty warrior,
in
'
has not.
The meaning
(3)
compound is changed from

when merely placed in
of the
that which the two words have

juxtaposition.
bird and there
blach bird
is
not necessarily a black-
no relation in meaning between

bread and sweetbread, between a hog's head and a
is
siveet
hogs-
In English the change from two words to one
head^.
marked by a change in accent.

286.
Sometimes the speakers of a language
is
often
Mistaken
di-
pounds a,ndits parts

resultsinGreek,
cease
to recognise the dividing line between the

of a
^^^^ ^^^^
Thus the Greeks

^^^^^ ^^ ^^^.^ ^^^ .^^^^ ^
compound.
^j^^
masculine form (KaKo-epyos) KaKovpyos
'
evildoer.'
This
they mentally analysed as KaK-oCpyo? and next made
upon this analogy. From the form aAAoS-aTrd-s,

formed with the neuter stem *aAXo8 and the
found as -inqico- in Latin hng-inquo-s, prop-inquo-s
Travowpyos
which
suffix
(
139
is
i.),
new
suflix -Sa-n-os is
made and
in this
way
TrafT-o-SaTTos arises.
In Latin, a mistaken
Latin,
sufifix of the same kind viz. -lentofound in a certain number of words, lutulentus 'muddy,' opu-lentus (for o/)-) 'rich,'
^*
tem-u-lentus 'drunken.'
This suffix seems to have arisen
from a combination of the

so frequent in participles
suffixes
and
-0-.
It
-ili-
(or -uli-), -ent-
may
possibly have
That such words have not their original form (see Skeat's
Dictionary s. v. and Kluge . Oxhoft) does not affect the point.
Popular etymology connected hogshead with hog's head.
1
287]
begun with the
217
single form graci-lentn-s, but this cannot
be proved.
In the Germanic languages also the same phenome-
non may be observed.
By
a wrong analysis
^^^ ^^^ g^^_
of the parts of a word, the final consonant
""anic
lan-
of the root has been taken as part of the

suffix
and then a
suffix
-keit
new words has been made

The
Modern German to form abstract
series
with this spurious
of
suffix as their final element.
used in
substantives has arisen from the combination
of the
ordinary suffix -heit (English -hood) with a ^ at the end
Thus
High
and on
form many others have been made,
of the previous part of the word.
German
in Middle
arose the form miltec-heit or miltekeit
the analogy of this
gerechtigkeit 'righteousness,' dankbarkeit 'thankfulness,'

etc.
'
So too the English
suffix -ling
has arisen from the
addition of the suffix -ing to an -^stem and an ensuing
mistaken division of the component

that from a few old English words
parts.
lyteling
'
It
cetheling 'nobleman's son, prince' preserved in the
Eadgar the Aetheling,
all
youngling, darling,
have sprung.
etc.,
the
later
seems
little child,'
name
forms nestling,
be remembered that these processes

do not belong to a past time only they Living and
dead suffixes,
\vere not perfected in a day to remain un287.
It is to
changeable for ever afterwards.
Just as sound change
is
perpetually in progress, so too the constant gTowth and
decay of suffixes
is
an ever present factor in the history
Some
suffixes gradually die out and are

no longer used in the making of new words, others again
increase in importance and new words are continually
being made by means of them.
Such suffixes in English
of language.
Paul's Frincipien der Sprachgeschichte, chap. xix. p. 295.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
218
are
-er
nouns
for
the agent,
expressing
abstract substantives'.
On
287
-ation
for
the other hand the sufiix
which is seen in tru-th, bir-th and many other words,

and which corresponds to the -rt- (-o-t-) of such Greek
substantives as
make new
c'-rt-s,
8ap-cn-s
words in English.
133), has ceased to
In Latin also this
suffix,
pars etc.
had ceased
which appears in a mutilated form in mors,
and
form in
in its full
cu-ti-s etc.
vi-ti-s,
before the classical period to form
new words,
its
place
being usurped by -tion- as in men-ti-o, co-ven-ti-o etc.

288.
Besides the two methods of forming new substantives which have been mentioned, viz.
,
jv,
^
new (J) the addition 01 a formative sumx or
^
,,
Four methods
of
forming
substantives.
'
and (2) the combination

of (a) two stems or {b) two words in actual case relationship to one another, other two methods also occur, but
suffixes to a root
need not detain us long.
The first
1
A curious
meaning
-er
is
of these
is (3)
Reduplication.
example of the development of a
This although
suffix in a
new
the use in School and University slang of the suf&x
as in footer for football, bedder for bedmaher, etc.
This ap-
and whimsical change began, it is said, at

Harrow, where ducker was used for duck pond.' From Harrow
it spread to other schools and to the Universities, where in common parlance Rugger and Socker have taken the place with the
players of Eugby and Association football of those terms 'respec-
parently senseless
'
tively,
This
is
'
'
while fresher bids fair to usurp the place of freshman.

not uncommon in language the slang of one generation
;
The hybrid word

and Latin suffix, was for long a
byeword, and supplied a nickname to its inventor, who was ever
after known as Starvation Dundas.
Why the suffix -er should have been so generalised is hard to
creeps into the literary dialect of the next.

starvation, with its English root
see.
It
has been ingeniously suggested that English objects
spondaic words and so a lighter termination was used.
to
288]
219
perhaps existing in every Indo-Germanic language is at

no time common, and for obvious reasons. It comes into
existence for the purpose of expressing emphasis.
As
a child says a 'big, big house' to indicate a very big
house, so language seems to have occasionally caught up
such forms and perpetuated them in a more or

plete shape in such words as
Pap-fia.p-o-'s,
less
com-
Lat. hal-h-u-s
'babbling".
The last method of forming new words is by the use

Vowel Gradation or Ablaut. Whatever the origin
of this phenomenon it certainly did not at first indicate
of (4)
difference of
meaning ^, but at a later period was utilised

and so words of particular forms take
for this purpose,
to themselves vowels of a particular grade.

like A.oy-o-s of the masculine
Thus words
gender affect the o-vowel
in the root; neuter words like ycVos affect the
e- vowel,
although to both rules there are exceptions.
If the
difference
was originally one of pitch accent as many
philologists think
( 92),
there
is
a curious parallel in
the modern English application of stress in a similar
way
i)xas,
progress
(svLhs.ia.nt\Yei),
progress (verb), subject
(substantive), subject (verb), or again content (substantive), content (adjective)'.
Eeduplication in the verb will be discussed later
Brugmann, Grundr.
ii.
'
See the interesting
letter of
1891, Tol.
II.
p. 456,
who
( 446).
7.
Dr Murray
in the
Academy
for
finds that, out of 341 correspondents,
150 always accent the second syllable of content, 100 always the
and the others vary according to the meaning.
first syllable,
A SHORT MANUAL OF
220
xvii.
Classification of
A.
289
Nouns.
Root Nouns.
Root nouns are those
289,
are
in
which the case
attached to something which
it
is
analyse further, in other words to a root
suffixes
impossible to
(
24).
Such
nouns are not very numerous in any language, and a

large proportion of them seems to have descended from
the primitive Indo-Germanic period.
Latin has developed
more of them independently than any other language,

except perhaps Sanskrit.
Some do and others do not
show traces of gradation in their vowel system \
Root nouns without gradation
(a)
Gk.
Lat.
aX-s
?-s
fxvs
vav-s
u-s
Root nouns with gradation
(b)
Gk.
Eng.
Lat.
/3o0-s (
181)
bos
63)
cow
TTOIJ-S
(Doric
Zei5-s)
TTcis)
P^-'
Jov-is etc
foot(0.-&.fot)
290]
221
For an explanation of the origin of these forms see

note
(ii)
after 265.
Nouns with formative
B.
As
290.
number
far as can at present be ascertained, the
of suffixes originally used in the
'
01
from the
earliest period their
Noun
suffixes.
J3ut
number has been conby combinations of two or more
tinually
added
suffixes,
(ro</)-cu-Tepo-s
-r,
nouns was not very large.
lormation
286)
suffixes.
to
Lat. pos-tu-mu-s,
grac-il-ent-o-s
Although some of these combinations date
etc.
from a time before the separation of the original IndoGermanic community, most of them are of late origin.
Hence many
occurring in individual
of forms
series
languages have no parallels in the sister tongues, and

the discussion of such forms properly belongs to the
grammar of the language in question.

Of all suffixes -0- is the most common
various suffixes ending in
-0-
the great majority of nouns belong.
-io-
number of
over,
-'-
and
-to-
many consonant
-n- -r-
and
;
'
to
or the
it
as -mo- -no- -ro- -to- -yp-
stems also
exist.
considerable
There
are,
more-
stems, such as those which end in
Besides these stems, which include a
-s-.
very large proportion of the whole, there are others
ending in dental and guttural stops, which

mentioned in their proper places ( 346 350).
will
be
As
regards the original signification of these forma-
tive suffixes it
is
at present idle to speculate,
In individual languages
1
of
it,
we do
find particu-
As almost every consonant stem has an

the theory that
claims to acceptance.
all
-0-
xheir
signifl-
'"'*"'-
form by the side
stems were originally -o-stems has strong
Cp. note after 265 and 344 n.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
222
lar suffixes set apart to indicate special
some
cases,
we
same
find the
meanings, but, in
suffix specialised in different
senses in different languages.

to have
290
Some
seem
suffixes too
no well defined meaning, but are employed
in a
great variety of u.sages.

291.
The
which has apparently the most

meaning is -a. In all the lanJ
xi
guages which m any degree retain the
suffix
definite
The suffix a
and
feminine
gen er.
diff'erent original
dicates feminine gender.
J.
declensions this suffix in-
In adjectives this suffix most
commonly forms the feminine
to those stems which, in
the masculine and neuter, belong to the
-0- class.
we have I'c'os, ve'ov, novus, novutn, but via, nova.

From the widespread usage of this suffix to
Thus
indicate
the feminine gender, most grammarians have considered

Recently, however,
this its original use.
Brugmann
has
contended that -a had originally nothing to do with

gender, but was utilised in this way because some words,
such as the Indo-Germanic word for
woman
* qnd, Boeo-
( 140), happened to end originally with

That the original meaning of a suffix may
be forgotten, and that it may be used in quite a different
meaning and with quite a different purpose from its
tian /8ava etc.

this vowel'.
original one,
we have already seen
283).
But the
uniform employment of -d to indicate feminine gender

shows that the suffix has been so used ever since a time
preceding the separation of the Indo-Germanic peoples.
Earlier than that
it is
unnecessary for our purposes to
and therefore we may leave the original meaning
go,
of
this suffix as well as of the others undecided.
292.
^
The
-i-
and
--
Techmer's Zeitschrift vol.

raging on the subject.
is still
stems are of
iv.
p. 100.
all
An
genders.
Of
acute controversy
293]
the consonant stems, those in
223
since they mostly
-er-,
express the agent, are largely masculine
words in -en-
and
-on-
-s
gender in other
are also of all ^*'^-
genders, particular grades of the suffix being, however,

to
some extent
some usage
or in
it
may and
the use of
for
is
used in an
adjectival sense,
which it was not originally intended,
Hence
'frequently does change its gender.
-o-
As
specialised for particular genders.
soon as a substantive
stems as feminines
( 55).
In compounds
same is true. Originally a compound substanwas of the gender of its final component. Thus
poSoSaKTvXos meant properly 'Rose-finger' as a substanAs we know it in Homer,
tive and was masculine'.
however, it is an adjective 'rosy fingered,' and consealso the
tive
quently, although
to agree with
it
;a>s
keeps
its
original ending, it
a feminine word.
properly a substantive
'
soul devourer,' but
agree with a neuter substantive like
form
dvfiofiopov.
way they form
When
made
is
6vfit.o/Sdpo^
is
also
when made
n-rjfi.a,
it
to
takes the
the -s-stems are used in this
new nominative and
accusative.
Thus,
we have
/J.EVOS is
a neuter word, but from the same stem
Evfjiivrj's
a masculine name, and the same form used adjec-
tivally for the feminine as well as masculine, with the
form
ev/xeve-;
293.
for the neuter.
As
has been said, -o-forms go hand in hand
Even before the separation ^gî^^^î ^^^

had ^^ ento""**'
been used to indicate masculine and neuter
But
stems, while -a-forms indicated cognate feminines.
gender
was
crossed
by
the
influgrammatical
this purely
ence of natural gender or by that of other words of
with -a-forms.
of the Indo-Germanic peoples, -o-forms
Delbriick, S. F. iv. p. 12,
and Grmidr. Syntax
198.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
224
cognate meaning,
293
word of mascu-
rpocôs is properly a
form and, since TraiSaycoyo's is not an

early word, was once applicable to such a
line
guardian as Phoenix was to Achilles.

times, rpo4>6'; indicates duties
But, in later
more frequently discharged
by women and becomes feminine, while a new masculine

form Tpo<ûs begins to appear. All the while a feminine
word Tpocfyrj has been used to indicate that which the
To express another idea arising from
Tpo0o5 supplies.
Tpo<fir]
plural
Tpo4,ij
and
we have another word formed Tpo<j>fiov or in the

Tpo4)a,a, the return made by the child for the
which he has received. This word is in the neuter
formed by adding another suf&x to that already
is
existing.
Some
Masculine -cstems in Greek
and
(in Greek most frequently -td-) stems

become masculine and, when they do so.
i
c
generally take final -s m Greek and form
...
ttom-tov.
ttoAi-ttj-s,
-ov,
some
the genitive m
-a-
Latin.
stems of this kind in
Homer
vocative forms and have no

'
Their history.
In only one or two

-s
and
appear, paricidas.
These words are said to have been (1)

original abstracts, next (2) collectives, and
*
t7-utk
'
finally (3) specialised for individuals.
yotith
In Latin
-s, l-n-TroTo, etc.
instances in old Latin does a final

.
are said to be crystallised
final
scriba, agricola etc. are masculine.
which are
(1)
Compare English
abstracts, the state of
1 This is Brugmann's view, Curtius' Studien ix. p. 259 ff.

But
Schmidt from dpioira Zeus argues for a different origin {Pluralbildungen d. idg. Neutra, p. 400 ff.). According to Schmidt, eipioTra
'
wide-eye
'
is
a neuter substantive in apposition to
Zei's (cp. origin
As evpvoira was used unchanged with vocative as

well as ace. and nom., genuine vocative forms like ix-qrlera were
also used for the nominative, and new forms were made on the
same analogy.
of Lat. vetus).
294]
being youug and true respectively,
225
(2) collectives,
the
'
youth of a country' etc., (3) specific, 'many youths,'

'mathematical truths' etc. So ttoXUtt]-^ would be (1)
citizenship (abstract), (2) the
a citizen
tive), (3)
body of
citizens (collec-
(specific).
When -a-stems change to masculines, when

294.
such words as rpodo's
become feminines, we ^
'^
Gender m words
,
'
'
have examples
of the influence of natural indicating ob^
jects
without
sex upon grammatical gender.
4'rjy6^s Lat. sex.
fagu-s and other names of trees are feminine for another
.
As
reason.
words
it
happens, in both languages the generic
Accordingly
for tree, 8pC-s, arbos, are feminine.
the generic word draws over the words indicating the

individual species to
its
own gender^
Hence the rule
that independently of the character of the suffix
names of
trees in both
all
Greek and Latin are feminine
( 55).
But now we are
Why
Why
face to face with a difficult question.
should the generic word for a tree be feminine
should not everything which has no natural sex be
grammar ?
also of the neuter gender in
there
is
at
To
this question
The older
upon the personifying tendencies of
present no satisfactory reply.
philologists relied
'
'
The
primitive man.
existence
of such
tendencies
denied by some of the greatest of recent scholars ^
is
But
there are certainly traces of such personification in the
language of English
And
1
if it
sailors,
(Grundr. Syntax
^
talk of a ship as
man
'
she.'
stand
In Greek, according to Delbriiok, the generic word follows
the special words, S. F.
100
who
be true that the ideas of primitive
iv. p. 6.
Delbrvick
now
is
more doubtful
3).
For instance, by Brugmann
in
Techmer's Zeitschrift
ff.
G. P.
15
iv. p.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
226
294
same relation to modern thought as the
in the
child
stands to the grown man, such tendencies to personification will not
thing
is
seem at all wonderful. To the child everyand deserving of reward or punishment
alive,
even as he himself
is.
The two reasons

natural sex and
assigned,
viz.
the influence of
(1)
of the
the influence
(2)
gender of
cognate words, will explain a large number but very
from the whole of the phenomena of gender.
far
Why oTkos
and victis should be masculine while So'/xos is masculine

in Greek and dotnus feminine in Latin, we do not know.
Even if we assign the change of gender to the working of
analogy,
it
is
not easy to suggest the model, imitation
of which caused the change.
Gender.
295.
The Indo-Germanic noun
is
characterised as
such by the possession of special features to mark the

possession of Gender, of
Number and
distinguishing marks of
all
of these
of Case.
But the
need not co-exist in
any one word.

In
-0-
Gender in
stems, the sufiix

-0-
stems;
-s in
word;
(changed to
-III
-i-
and
-u-
stems:
nominative in an
^-j^^^ ^YiQ
word
is
-v in
The
nominative marks the neuter.
the nominative generally
marks a masculiue, occasionally a feminine
-/-
-s
or -u-
in -ff and
(!e-) stems;
-I-
nominative
is
neuter,
stem indicates
either of the masculine or
of the feminine gender, the absence of
such a stem
Greek) in the
at the end of the
-d-stems
any
sufiix that
291) and
-1-
{-ie-)
stems are in the Indo-Germanic languages

generally feminine and have originally no
sufiix in
the singular.
Nasal and liquid
296]
stems as a rule have no
-s-suffix
227
in the nominative,
whatever their gender may be.

Neuter i asai and ugender is, however, generally indicated by luid stems;
the appearance of the stem suffix in its weak grade as
a long or short sonant nasal or liquid cp. rep-fj-a, Lat.
;
termmi (neuter) with
rep-fimv, Lat.
rJTr-ap,jec-ur (r)', cTKojp (r?), calcar,
rwp, da-tor, etc.
end in
In
with
ira-i-qp,
pater,
Soj-
stems, nouns of the neuter gender
-s
-os -6s or -as in (jreek, if/eCSos, \beuih,
m -OS (-US)
/
yepas,
ter-mo (masculine);
those in
-is,
-.
or -is (gen. -ens)
T
m Latm,
.
in -s stems
however, havilig as a rule changed their gen-
der before the historical period, while those corresponding to the type of the Greek
-e?
culines
and
and feminines of
-i?s,
aiS-ios,
{honor), arbos (arbor).
Greek
Mute
-17s is
-s
ivyiv-ri'i,
of
-s
stems appear in Greek as
-)s
in Latin as -os or -or, honos
The type corresponding
to the
represented only by the fragment de-gener.

'
stems, except those which end in
culine or feminine gender
is left
Thus
The mas-
have disappeared.
forms like gen-us alone survive in perfection.
when the gender

without
suffijc,
also disappearing
if
is
-nt-^,
mark mas-
by the addition
neuter, the stem
the stem-ending or some part of
it
the phonetic laws of the language so
require (cp. ydXa with yaA,aKT-os, Latin lac with
lact-is).
Number.
296.
The
original
Indo-Germanic language distin-
guished three numbers, the Singular, the Dual and the

1 The
Sanskrit form yakrt may, as some authorities hold,
have an additional sufEx -t. If the -t is original, ^tr-ap, jec-ur
represent an original *ieqrt. On the question of long sonant
nasals
2
etc. cp.
158 note
3.
See 306 note.
152

A SHORT MANUAL OF
228
The
Plural.
characterised
different
by
Some kinds
Plural in Abstract nouns.
their
296
numbers in the noun are each
own
suffixes (cp. 34).
of substantives, as abstracts, collectives
^^^ Houns of material, may be expected to

But in all
gccur Only in the singular.
languages such words frequently occur in the plural.

in English we speak not only of sugar and wine,
but also of sugars and wines, meaning thereby different
Thus
So in Latin, plurals
forms or kinds of the material.
like
vina, carries; veritates, avaritiae occur '-
297.
may
Other words
the dual,
Svui,
be expected to occur only in
But nevertheless such
aij.<f>u>.
words are often inflected as
may
indeed be conjectured that the Dual
specialisation of one out of
many
plurals.
is
It
merely a
original forms of the
Be that as it may, the earliest historical use of

the Dual which we can trace seems to have been to exPlural.
press things
which occur
hands
eyes, the ears, the
(a) naturally in pairs, as the

etc.,
as the two horses of a chariot.

for a
Its
or (5) artificially in pairs,
Later the Dual
combination of any two things.

earliest
usage.
i^s
use
Plural.
is
In the
used
is
first
sense
quite distinct from that of the
But
as soon as the
Dual comes
to
be applied to any two things without regard to their
being naturally a pair and without any emphasis being
on the idea of duality, it becomes a grammatical

luxury it has no sense separate from that of the Plural
laid
and consequently
When
it
speedily dies out.
things are thought of in pairs, every pair
may
be regarded as a unity and be followed by a singular

It
verb, though this construction is not very common.
^
See Draeger, Historische Syntax der lateiiiischen Spracke^
4-8.
298]
229
worth observing that the Dual in Greek is rarely used

without SvM unless when the objects referred to are a
is
natural or
and
artificial pair',
this agrees with the use
of the Dual in Vedic Sanskrit.
In Latin duo and umbo are the only surviving dual
forms and these are inflected in the oblique
The use
298.
remark
is
puai
lost
in
^'''"'
cases as plurals.
of the Plural which calls most for
that in Greek and the Aryan languages a
neuter noun in the plural
is followed by a verb in the

The reason for this is that things -[f^^^g^ piâi
which make a class or set bv themselves ^"*{; singular
verb.
may be treated as a unity. But in the historical period they are so treated only when the word is
Singular.
neuter, although
it
may
forms were originally
be conjectured that
An
collective.
all
plural
ingenious theory
has been recently revived'' which endeavours to prove

that the nominative plural neuter
at
all,
but a collective singular.
writer^ that in
many
is
no genuine plural
It is
argued by another
cases where a plural verb
is
put with
a neuter plural in Homer, this arises from a later corruption; thus the earlier reading in Iliad
ii.
135, accord-
ing to this theory, was cnrapTo. XiXHrai for the ordinary

a-TrdpTa XeXwrai.
The Converse
of this usage, the use of
a singular verb with a masculine or feminine substantive

in the plural, usually
known
as the
Schema Pindaricum,
Here the verb
has an entirely different explanation.
always precedes the subject.
Consequently,
it is
argued,
the writer or speaker changed his mind as to the form
Monro H.
G."
173.
Cp.
By Johannes Schmidt,
(1889), pp. 1
3
J.
Pluralbildungen der indog. Neutra
ff.
Waokernagel, K. Z.
30, p. 308.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
230
of his sentence while he
speaking
it
hence the
298
was in the act of writing or

sequence of a singular
illogical
verb and a plural noun.
The theory which
2gg.
,
Theory to
plain this
ex-
con-
explains the neuter plural
nominative as a collective singular
struction.
sup-
is
ported not Only (1) by

Vi
occurrence with
its
'^
a singular verb in the Greek and

guages, but also
by the
(2)
Aryan
lan-
fact that frequently a neuter
plural is formed to a masculine or feminine singular

d (tXto^
but rd
a-lra,
-q
KeXevOo'S
but
in
Homer vypd
Latin locus but loca, sibibis hut sibila'
etc.
Ki\ev6a
;
while, on the
other hand, a masculine or feminine plural to a neuter

singular hardly occurs at all.
It has also been observed
by various writers that when a masculine or feminine
and a neuter plural both appear in the same word, the
As
neuter plural has generally a collective meaning^.
number were
the personal pronouns of the plural

nally inflected in the singular
and passed over
plural inflexion at a later period
327), so it
tended that the original genitive oijugd was

*jugum, but that later
it
origi-
to the
is
con-
*jiigds, not
took the same inflexion as the
masculines because the neuters and masculines had most

cases the same in the other numbers.
Since in other
numbers the neuter has the same form for nominative
and accusative, in the plural jugd, originally only nominative, comes to be used also as accusative.
(3) It is
also
urged that
languages do use collective singu-
'
Sohmidt, Pluralb.
Cp. with this what has happened in the development of
Latin into the

pi.
many
neut. are the
p. 5.
Eomance
same
in
languages.
As
form as the nom.
in Latin
nom. and
sing, fern.,
aco.
neuter nouns
whose plural has a collective sense became feminine, thus folium

leaf,' /oHa
leafage,' but /o!n oi foliae 'leaves.'
'
'
299]
lar
forms instead of the neuter plurals.
âtris for Trpo/Sara (Od.
OepdirovTa
ii.
231
Homer uses Trpo-
HerodotuS
75),
SepaTrrjirj
for
Latin has jwvetitus, English ^/omÂ, for
(v. 21).
juvenes and young men respectively
( 293), and the same

appears in other Indo-Germanic languages.
fur(4)
ther support is found for the theory in the fact that in
the same language the same word has both a neuter and
a feminine form, or that kindred languages show, one the
plural, the other the feminine form.
vov
and
Attic
i;
Speiravr],
vevpov
ijvia pi.
rjviai,
and
vevprj,
</)t5A.ov
but
Thus we find hpiiraHomeric ra 5;via, but
(j>vX-j
(post-Homeric)
Latin caenientum and caementa, labium and labea; 0.
H. G.
ndma
nam
but 0. E.
n.
but 0. E. lagu
sing, 'law.'
i.
t, 0.
(5)
Saxon gi-lagu
A plural
in the predicate where only a single object

as in
Homer
^pvcreov
(7Z.
yivoLTo {II.
8(3pa 8e rot
Scoa-co
is
is
in question,
KaXbv dpovov,
acjiOiTOV aet,
xiv. 238), KCLVO'S dvr]p.,,a.v6i, kvvwv
233)
xiii.
n. pi.
often used
p.(.\-7rr)6pa
Latin nemo me lacrmnis decoret
neque funera fletu faxit (Ennius' Epitaph), per clipeum

Vvlcani, dona parentis (Virg. Aen. viii. 729); compare
the frequent use of
colla,
only one object of the kind

tives
class,
come
guttura, ora, pectora where

is
meant.
(6)
These
collec-
be used for individual members of the
to
because they express originally the nature or
characteristic
which the members of the
common; hence
kinsfolk,
is
used of a single person (Eur.
Latin custodia
684); in
is
German
stud, (of horses),
class
have in
a-vyyivna, signifying first kinship then

Orest. 733);
used in the same way (Ovid Met.

state,
originally the
viii.
same as English
has come to mean steed and finally mare,
and frausnzimmer literally 'women's chamber,' gynaeceum, became first a collective word for 'women' and
,
since
the seventeenth century has been used for
'
A SHORT MANUAL OF
232
woman
From
'
'.
which has been so often cited
Noun
300.
'
pass in
mathemati-
a development parallel to that of youth
truths,'
cal
we
truth an abstract quality
English, to the comparative concreteness of
299
(cp. 293).
Cases.
In the original Indo-Germanic language the
noun possessed at
Instrumental.
seven cases: Nominative, Ac-
least
Genitive,
cusative,
Dative,
Ablative,
Locative
In the Instrumental some
have discovered traces of an amalgamation of two

Weretwosepa- nally separate cases
an
and
authorities
origi-
Instrumental pro-
'usedlnTheîn- perly SO Called and a Comitative or Sociative

strumentai?
^^^^^
g^^ ^j^g existence of such an original
distinction
very doubtful, and any observable
is
ence of meaning
may
differ-
be attributed to the fact that
inanimate objects as a rule must be spoken of as instruments, animate objects as companions or helpers.
301.
The
indo-Germau-
not, however, all that could
i^sJ^''*com- indicated
piete.
number
by these seven
relations expressed
^-re
by means
of cases.
guages, such as Finnish, have a

of cases
and by
this
niteness of relation than
Some lanmuch larger
means express greater
it is
cases
have been
possible to express
defi-
by the
seven Indo-Germanic cases, which cannot distinguish,

example, between rest in and rest on, motion into
for
and motion towards, motion from and motion from out

of, notions all of which are distinguished by the more
complex Finnish case system.
302.
In the enumeration of
The vocative ^^ not reckoned as a
not a case.
forms
1
especially
in
Schmidt, Pluralb.
cases,
the vocative
case.
Among noun
the
-o-stems the
p. 25.
303]
233
vocative of the Singular stands apart, precisely as the
Singular of the Imperative stands apart
the -o-verbs.
Xo'ye in
the noun,
especially
in
the verb are
Ae'ye in
simply stem-forms without anything to mark them as

Neither has any
belonging to a paradigm of forms.

suffix
nothing
mark
that which marks the stem
besides
to
mark
a person
of
case
the
Xc'ye
relation,
Xoyc has
to
some stems, and
In
verb.
nothing
always in the neuter gender, the nominative serves for

the vocative in the Singular; in the Plural the nominative discharges the function of the vocative
in
all
stems.
303.
Cases originally existed in
three Numbers,
all
Singular,
Dual and
Dual and
Plural, separate forms for each of forms
Plural.
But
in
the
some
for
the cases were apparently not found necessary.
This
is
true at any rate for the dative and abla-
The Dual forms vary

languages, and the whole system
tive Plural.
much
so
is
in different
already so rapidly
decaying even in the earliest historical period, that
it
is
impossible to restore with certainty the Dual paradigm
except in the forms which served indifferently for nominative, vocative
and accusative.
In the Singular there
are separate endings for the individual cases.
stems, however, except the -o-stems, there
is
In
all
but one
form from the earliest period for genitive and ablative.

Stems ending in nasals, liquids, -a- or -i-{-ie-) have no
case ending for the nominative, which in masculine or
feminine forms of nasal or liquid stems
difference
is
expressed by a
of gradation in the stem suffix
Neuter forms except
in the -o-stems
( 354 ff.).
have no sufSx in the
nominative, vocative and accusative Singular, all of

which are indicated by the same form in all neuter
A SHORT MANUAL OF
284
303
In the -o-stems, the nominative of the neuter
stems.
has the same form as the accusative of the masculine
whether there
(op. Ci'yo-") jugu-in, with oIkq-v vicu-m)
was any original connexion in meaning between the two
:
has
to be proved.
still
As regards the
304.
Ongm
origin of case suffixes in the
00
Indo-Germanic languages we know nothing.

o
of cases.
They
exist from the earliest historical period
noun form, and therefore are

beyond the reach of Comparative Philology. Various
as an integral part of the
mainly on the analogy of other languages

where the noun remains in a more primitive stage of
theories, based
development, have been propounded.
Some
authorities
hold that the suffixes are pronominal in origin, others
The whole
that they are of the nature of post-positions.
question
enough
too speculative to be discussed here.
is
to say that the reasoning is largely
uncertain
therefore
BndiriKs
nominal
but the probability
nominative
pro-
and
is
that
the
suffix is deictic or pronominal,
fhe same may be

-^
post-positional.
It is
a priori and
said but with morehesita-
_
_
tion of the accusative suffix, while in the
other cases
it
seems more likely that the
post-positions indicating originally
In German books
relation.
Grammatical cases into

and local cases, ^t^q
latter
it is
suffixes are
some kind
of local
customary to divide the
'grammatical' and
'local.'
To
group belong such as the abla-
tive
and
ing
to the former are assigned those cases, such as the
genitive
locative,
which distinctly show a
local
mean-
and
dative, where the local meaning, if ever

been in process of time obscured. But to
grammatical is no aid to the elucidation of
existent, has
call
a case
'
'
and all that we know of language goes to

show that the vague usages ranked under this indefoiite
its history,
'
305]
heading are in
235
probability developed from earlier
all
simple and concrete local uses\

In the later history of the separate languages,
305.
there
is
a constant tendency to reduce the

;
number
from one or
arise
all
of several causes
phonetic, as
(i.)
This tendency
^
of case forms.
when
may
'
Three causes
of syncretism in
cases.
the suffix of the instru-
-dis,
mental plural of -o-stems, becomes confused in Greek

with that of the locative -ois{i) in otxots and oiKoto-t, or as
when
in Latin the ablative singular of -o-stems by losing
its final
ivicod
-d-
and
(ii.)
becomes confused with the instrumental
vied)
when one
syntactic,
case extends the area of
There
usage are analogical.
is
its
Such extensions of
usage at the expense of another.
a doubtful margin where
either case might be legitimately used
for
some cause
the one case becomes more prevalent than the other with-
and afterwards gradually encroaches
in this borderland
on the proper domain of

confusion between
we
for
'
its
rest in
vanquished opponent.
'
find exemplified in the English usage

'
Come
hither,' is
The
and motion towards,' which
'
'
Come
here
widely developed in case usages in
American Philological
no such thing in language as an originally grammatical case or form of any kind.'
The same writer in reviewing Delbrttck's Altindische Syntax says
'To pronounce a case originally grammatical
[A. J. P. XIII. 285)
^
Cp. "Whitney (Transactions
Association, vol. xiii. p. 92)
'
of the
There
is
simply equivalent to saying that its ultimate character lies

beyond our discovery; and the statement might much better be
is
For to postulate such a value at the

deny the whole known history of language,
which shows that all forms begin with something material, apSuch an explanation simply
prehensible by the senses, palpable
made
in the latter form.
very beginning
is
to
betrays a false philosophy of language.'

A SHORT MANUAL OF
236
other languages.
The
305
cases could express relationship
Hence
only in a very general way.
arose the use of
make the meaning

which we now call pre-
adverbs to go with cases in order to
more
These adverbs,
specific.
become the constant concomitants of

and when this has happened, there is an
positions, in time
some cases
ever-increasing tendency to find the important part of
the meaning in the preposition
and not
in
the case
ending.
(iii.)
third
may
cause
frequent use of some cases.

separate forms for plural use,
to confusion in plural as
be found in the
less
The smaller number of

and the greater tendency
compared with singular
forms,
seems to be owing to the fact that plural forms are
less
needed and are in less frequent use than singular forms.

The Dual is less used than either the Singular or the
Plural and
The
its
forms are more corrupted.
following table will
show the degree and manner
of confusion which has affected at the earliest period
the original cases in Latin, Greek and the Germanic

languages'.
Idg.
306]
xviii.
365
-ei-
Stems which end in
a.
-0-
-u- (including -eu-), or a
ff.),
and possibly
suffixes.
In the Singular.
A.
306.
Case
all
237
root words
made
-i-
(including
mute consonant,
originally
uominativ
the nominative singular of masculine and
feminine forms
manu-s
ijSv'-s
vi-s
in -s
oTko-s vicu-s, ot-s ovi-s,
âcrtXev-s,
dmpa.^
audax,
t-s
^^^.
-^j^jj .j.
^'
All others have the stem suffix only,
etc.
-d-
stems when they become masculine in Greek add the

veayias etc.
There are also one or
293).
-s,
.without
-s-
two examples in Latin as paricida-s. In "'*'"bstems which end in nasals or liquids it seems that the
final nasal or liquid was either always dropped or there
were double forms with and without the final nasal or
liquid, the use of which depended on the phonetics of
the sentence (cp. 235 ff.).
Compare rep/xuiv with Lat.
termo, Skt.
pa
with
kvcov,
Skt. pita with iraTrjp Lat.
The lengthened strong form
pater.
nominative of such stems
(cp. Trariyp
is
regular for the
with Trarip-a
etc.).
In the -o-stems the neuter is formed by adding

-m (Greek -v 148) i,vy6.v Lat. jugu-m. In ^^^_ ^^^^^^
all other stems the neuter has no suffix,
b.
but the stem
weak
''
suffix, if it
has gradation, appears in the
grade'.
In words of whatever gender, phonetic changes according to
the regular laws of the language take place in the ending,

for 'dvaKT-s, Lat. rex for ''reg-s.
Gk. (pipuv for *bheront-s
ceptional compared with ddois for *odont-s and

factorily explained.
lac for *lact{e).
So also in neuters yiXa
is
&af
is ex-
not yet satis-
for ''yaXaKT, Lat.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
238
The vocative is originally a stem form

ii.
Hence the vocative proper has no case suffix
307.
(
307
302).
In stems without
lx6v, ava (=*avaKT), Zcv.
oXkc, Tt-dXi,
nominative
Vocative.
the
suffix
vocative has
.
different grade
from the nominative
,
:
wixtfirj
(Homer) Traryp VOC. TTOLTep, iroi/Ai/v VOC.

Except in -o-stems, Latin has replaced the
separate vocative form by the nominative, or the forms
{-a), VOC. vviJ.<f>a
n-oifniv.
have become phonetically indistinguishable.

Neuters have no vocative form separate from the
nominative form.
308.
The
iii.
is
Accusative.
suffix of the accusative is -m,
after
_
a sonants
Greek has thus otKo-i/,

an -'i- (-ie-) stem
consonant.
manu-m,
.,
Hence *ped-m sonant, *uoiko-m
n-oTvia-v (originally
securi-m,
which
sonant after a consonant, consonant
ot-v, tJSiI-v, T-v, B^d-v,
374), Latin vicu-m,
vi-m, dea-m, luxurie-ni (an
in all of which the consonant sound appears.
other hand Greek irarep-a,
7rotju,eV-a,
atSco
-l-
stem)
On
the
= *atSoV-a),
Latin patr-em, homin-em, arbor-em,
6(upaK-a, (f>epovT-a,
audac-em, ferent-em show the sounds which represent

original
-in.
In the neuter the accusative
is
the same as the
nominative.
309.
iv.
Gradation
in
genitive suffix,
The
"''*)
"5
suffix of
'"'i^h
foj-j^y -^yith
grade in the genitive.

io (-es-io),
This
is
the genitive appears as
gradation.
-es,
Consonant stem
gradation appear in their weak
In the
-0-
stems the
suffix is -os-
apparently the same suffix as in other stems

practically accurate.
the consonant -m
when the
No doubt
originally
*pedm kept
following word began with a sonant,
but the separate languages did not keep up the consequent double
forms.
309]
with a pronominal element

stems there
{-ie-)
-t-
is
added'.
-io
239
In the -a- and
seemingly a contraction between
the stem and the suffix
otherwise
it is difficult
plain the difference of accentuation between
and ti/ai??, opyuias

form is kept in the
nfir],
to exopyvia
in the nominative
in the genitive^.
Greek, the -os
later period with all
consonant stems including also root words like

etc.
TraTp-o's,
primitive
161)
as -OS
Se?-
-s
is
-77
if
ovi-s,
case suffix
presumably
we should have expected the
genitive to
contracted with
is
appear as -ms not

manii-s
fusion with
The
(-a) is
Greek
-OS,
Secr-TroTTjs
In early inscriptions a few traces of

etc.
in
*Se/x-s)
which
-es
Zeus
-es
the -OS suffix are found, Vener-us

in
ttovi,
appears in the
which becomes phonetically

generalised in all consonant stems exactly
In Latin,
in Greek.
is
form
genitival
'house-lord.'
-is (
rroi.niv-0%, ttoS-o's etc.
In
-i?s
but there
etc.
the suffix in Latin
-s is
(-"?).
is
in ovi-s apparently a con-
-is for earlier -es,
since in
-i-
and -M-stems
the original genitive form seems to have ended in either

-ei-s
(-oi-s),
manii-s
may
-eu-s
or -i-es {-i-os), -u-es {-u-osf.
(-ou-s)
represent an older *'manou-s whether as an
original form or as the Latin phonetic representative
of original *maneu-s''
stem appear also

/3aa-iXyj{F)-o';,
in
Attic
Ionic âcriAeos
Greek
Hirt, Idg. Forschungen

Hirt, Idg. Forschungen
(ep.
5?8e-os
271
n.)
11.
i.
p.
*7;Sef-os)
Homeric
by metathesis of quantity,
Tragic iroAeos
explanation
/JacrtXe'ios
Strong forms of the
178).
130
p. 11.
the ending
etc.
^TroXet-os
'.
ff.
According to Streitberg's
was
-so originally.
Brugm. Grundr. 11. 2312.

The form in -eu- is not required by any language; -ou- will
explain all the forms which occur.
^ The Attic irdX^ws (from irdXijos) seems formed on the analogy
"
A SHORT MANUAL OF
240
Ill
Latin the original genitive of
Loss of original
Renitiveinsome
Latin stems.
-ds
The
Latin
no trace
IS
Of
genitive ending
corresponds either to
otKct
-- {-ie)
there
-os-io
_r
lound in paterjamilias
_
-i
probably the old locative
is
and
-o-, -a-,
stems has disappeared.
SOS-
,,
the -o-stems
oi
is
i.
etc.
vici thus
ending,
the variant form of
oIkoi or to
otKoi itself ( 176). -ae of the -a- stems may represent the
older disyllabic -dl still found in the poets {Bomdl etc.)
which was formed on the analogy of the -2 in the -o-stems

and may have begun with the masculines in -a, scriba
luccuriei etc. of the -I-
etc'
forms.
The
Gk.
The
suffix
in
suffix
-'"'^-
Greek -m-stems
-Tos in
Many
not
is
-ei.
original.
explanations of this suffix have been
The
offered.
instead of
6vd;u.a-Tos
stems are also analogical
dative probably influenced both -ae and
best seems to be that -tos in
taken from the adverbial
*ovo/xi'-os is
-TOS in CK-TOS, ev-Tos^.
310.
..
^.
Ablative has
form
separate
only in -o-stems;
,
As
V.
.
the only steins
already mentioned,
form for the Ablative

which have a separate
^
^re the -0- stems, where the ending is -d
inSince
preceded by some vowel.

contracts with the preceding -e- or
nature cannot be ascertained.
discharging ablatival functions.

confused in
s^trumeSai' ani
locative.
pl^ce in the second century
as in others
loss of
B.C.,
led to a
an analogy which seems also to have kept the
from contracting to *7ro\oiis.

Brugm. Grundr. ii. 229.
Fick, B. B. XII. p. 7;
tholomae
them
In Latin the
confusion between the ablative and the
of /SaffiX^ws,
I.
F.
its
lost the abla-
^^^ ^na[ -d of the ablative, which took
7r6\eos
1
of the stem,
Greek has
tive in the -o-stems, the genitive in
is
-o-
this vowel
i.
p.
300
ft.
Brugm. Grundr.
Brugm. Grundr.
ii.
ii.
244.
poetic
231
in-
c.
Cp. Bar-
312]
At
strumental.
241
a period preceding the separation of the
from one another the -d of the ablative
Italic dialects
had been extended to other stems hence in old Latin

praidad 'from booty,' airid 'from copper' etc. The
:
other ablative forms patre, homine, pede
are not
etc.
genuine ablatives but either locative or instrumental

forms (see under
311.
vii
The
vi.
and
viii).
original dative
Greek
suffix is retained in the
forms
8d;av-at, Sovvai
= Sof cV-ac)
ended
in -ai.
infinitive
Dative
This
is
eon-
etc.; else- gk^'^stims wi?h
where consonant stems, -i- and -u- stems '''**'and root words in Greek have replaced the dative by the
locative,
Trarlp-i,
In the
etc.
-0-
6u>paK-i,
TTOi/xtv-i,
and
with the vowel of the stem

the suffix
is
occasionally
oikw,
regular throughout
-ei),
TrdXe-t,
1)(6v-l,
7ro8-t
-- stems the suffix is contracted
rt/iij,
In Latin
deS..
patr-i (in older Latin
homin-'i, audac-l, ped-'i; vied ( 181, 3),
older Numasioi, poploe {=populo), deae (cp.
Matuta on
inscriptions with y/ca), ov-i, manu-'i (for '^manou-ai 174).
312.
The
vii.
added
to the stem.
locative
original
according as the ending
The
-i
had two forms,
was or was not
stem,
if
^^^^^^^^^^-^
without
graded, ap- ^nd^
The suffixless form
peared in a strong form.
was probably not locative fr'om the beginning, but in time

was thus specialised. In Greek and Latin there are but
few traces of the suffixless locative. So'ûei/ the Homeric
infinitive is
an example
frorci
a -men stem
359)
it
seems probable that the type <^(.pîv (if =*(l>epe(rev) is

also a locative: ate's is an example from an -s stem
(aif-e5 cp. Lat. aev-om) of
locative with the

1
This
is
'.
doubtful on account of the accent
*aiu-esi ought to
G. P.
which aUt {=*alF-ea-i) seems the

In \iyecr-6ai the same loca-
-i suffix
become alu
an original form
in Greek.
16
A SHORT MANUAL OF
242
tive has
been traced
as the substantive
Latin presents even fewer
280).
same stem
preposition peties from the
The
examples.
312
pemis stands alone, unless legis-sem
280) form a parallel to Xcyea--6ai.

The locative in the Greek consonant,
313.
etc. (
^
Extension
,
of
the use of the

locativem Gk.i
and
-*-
of the dative
-u- stems, has taken the place
^
'
In the -o-stems
vi).
'
whether the
and
under
(gge
doubt-
it is
forms
of
the
locative are coeval or whether the -ei forms are
the
ful
The
earlier.
The
hypothesis
former
-01
more probable.
in a noun stem,
is
forms in Greek are very rare
-ei
oiKEt is
-ei
the only form found in the literature.
Other-
wise the locatives are of the type represented by

Cp. also
'lo-dôl etc.
which
to
is
Xi.vkoiy^vri'i
y]l3aiyvij<;'^
'
born at Pylos
'born at Thebes.'
'
oLkoi
parallel
Elsewhere
the forms of the locative of -a-stems in Greek have been
In
absorbed in the dative.
stem form in
-ei or -e^
the ordinary stem
The
-ei-
-i
comes
^.
'
The
locative, or arises
mental.
TrdArjt
Homeric
yjhil
to a
from
irTokd.
(Homer), Attic
'
dmni, Romae.
was added
ln\j&\xa.vici, deae(sexx.),luxuriei
\o
i>
nSei.
w&
locative in form
jj-oA.ei,
-u- stems are similar: jiaa-iXrjF-i,
m Latin.
into
-t'-stems, -t
hence the Homeric
for the
meaning compare
ablative in other steins
is
either
from a confusion of locative and instru-
In the former case patre, Iwmine, genere, pede
In tragedy this form has generally been emended by editors
an emendation which destroys an interesting

In Homer the town is 'tiroSriâi {Iliad 11. 505),
certainly the original form {II. iv. 378) of which 6^(3ai
Q-qâyev-q?,
historical record.
and
is
GiJjS?) is
the locative, this locative being later treated as & nominative
The same is probably true of 'ASijeai and other plural

names of towns. The same explanation has been given of German
names such as Sachsen, Xanten.
Brugm. Grundr. 11. 260.
plural.
'
314]
represent older forms ending in
etc.
latter
also
314.
165), in the
may
represent an earlier *manou-e.
The suffixes of the instrumental were (1)

or -os', and (2) -hhi.
Two suffixes
In both Greek and Latin the in- """"t^-êitoiviii.
either -e
(1)
strumental of the
In Greek
case.
forms containing the instrumental ending
rnanu
(see viii).
-i
243
first tjrpe
its
has ceased to be a separate
functions have been taken over by
the dative, in Latin by the ablative.

that -a was the instrumental suffix find
bial forms as /acto, TreSa, ajua,
Latin aere, pede
Those who hold

it in such adver-
Tra/Da, f(.KO.
(in eve/ca),
iva,
etc.
The suffix -bhi appears in Greek as -</)i. But

(2)
when the instrumental ceased to be a separate case in
Greek, the usages of the suffix were extended so far that
forms are found in the ablatival meaning of the
-<î
genitive, the instrumental
dative, rarely in
Homer
and locative meanings of the

and
as true dative or genitive,
The number
The form is used
once at least (in Alcman) as a vocative.
found
of forms
is
not very large.
indifferently for either Singular or Plural.
was
Thia
-e,
is
Schmidt contends that the sufEx

was -a, but with some hesitation.
a vexed question.
Brugmann
that
it
Recently Hirt has contended
(I.
F.
1.
Greek really present an instrumental
p.
13 S.) that the -a forms in
suffix
-m
(-m).
The
principal
reason for holding -a to be the instrumental suffix is that Lat.

inde corresponds to b/da, and that therefore pede corresponds to
TreSd.
But
(1)
the equation
is
not certain
inde
may
just as well
a better equation in respect of meaning; for absence

cp. irpocde.
(2) Original *pedi would undoubtedly be repre-
be
li'S-(v),
of
-1/
sented by pede in Latin.
162
A SHOET MANUAL OF
244
B.
Even
315.
315
Dual.
in those cases (Norn. Ace.
and Voc.)
for
forms going
Dual forms for wliich Several languages show
nom. voc. ace,
j^g^^jj. ^^ Q^g original, it is difficult to decide
what or how many were the original sufiixes. Except in

duo and ambo, the Dual has disappeared in Latin ( 297).
For the masculine and feminine in con_,.^,
Witn gender.
sonant-stems and root words, Greek shows -
,
as the SufSx,
and
-Trarep-e, kvv-c, /36-e etc.
In
-0-, -i-, -I- {-ie-)
Brugmann' regards the lengthening
-u- stems,
of the
stem vowel as the original form for the masculine and

feminine, there being in the -o-stems, however, another
original
form in
-ou.
For the -a stems he postulates
-at
form of the ending in the Dual nominative

in the forms rt/iat, equae etc. employed by
as the original
and finds it
Greek and Latin as the nominative of the Plural. The
Greek dual forms riyna etc. are then analogical formations after the -o-stems.
It seems on the whole simpler
to follow Meringer in regarding the forms in -ou and -0
as phonetic variants (181 .) and to treat the nom. of
the Dual as a collective form identical with the Singular
OM-stems^
For the neuter the

Without gen''^'''
Contained
suffix for all

-*
or
-I,
stems
is
representing different grades.
and Latin,
KOT-t,
this suffix
vi-gint-I,
is
said to have
the two forms possibly
found only in
But
in Greek
li-Kocr-i,
pu-
the neuter forms having elsewhere the
same suffix as the masculine and feminine, a fact which

would rather lead us to suppose that all genders of the
1
Grundr.
11.
284
ft.
Meringer, B. B. xvi. p. 228 note. Brugmann's explanation

of equae is untenable, for in Latin -at when unaccented becomes -I.
2
317]
Dual had
originally the
originally
singular
same
form
If the
suffix.
collective, this
245
is
the more
all
is
probable.
The forms
316.
much from
vary so
and the
the oblique cases of the Dual
for
one language to another

*^'''"'
restoration of the original forms
consequently so
discussed
in
(Jinroiv) etc.
that the question cannot be
difficult
The Greek forms ittttouv

seem only the correct phonetic representadetail
here.
The con-
tives of the old locative Plural {*ehuois-iy.
sonant stems
suffix
{Tro^-oiv,TraTip-oiv etc.)
have borrowed the
from the -o-stems.
Plural.
C.
Nominative and vocative, masculine

is no separate form
guffi^fOTnom
the vocative in the Plural, the form for d voc. maso.
317.
i,
ii
a.
and feminine.
for
''^^''^
is
There
and
fern.
the nominative being used wherever the

vocative
is
The
required.
original
Latin this ending appears as
borrowed from the

strong form
*ouei-es
-ei-
-'-stems
-es,
suffix
where the stem
coalesced with -es into
becomes in Latin
oves'\
is
In
-es.
the lengthening being
On
suffix in its
Hence
-es.
Idg.
this analogy are
iovmQA. patr-es, homin-es, audac-es, ped-es etc. as compared
with
iraTep-S, TroL/xiv-^s, OmpaK-cs, 7ro8-S etc.
Lat.
apparently arises by syncope from manou-es

ifScis
= ?8ef-s.
manu-s
228), cp.
Greek and Latin have both diverged
See however 322.
The Greek 6ies

Brugmann
*6/ei-6s.
^
is
not original
ace.
forms pedes
we should have had
explains the byeform in
old accusative form of the
The
etc.
-i-
may
stems *oui-ns
also
-is
ovis,
dels
in Latin as the
Grundr.
ii.
have influenced the nom.
317.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
246
317
from the original type in making the nom. Plural of

and
in -0stems.
-a-
^1"^ -d-
stems end in
tiirbae.
oIko-i vic-i
-i,
In the -o-stems, the suflix
rowed by analogy from the pronoun; Idg.

+ es) becomes in primitive Greek toI
{ =
similarly in Latin is-toi vicoi
the -a-stems, -ai
(yLiat,
whence
Dual
of the
-oi
is
bor-
*toi uoik-os
poIkol,
and
later is-ti vici.
In
Brugmann holds, the

The change to
original nominative
these
-i
forms must
have taken place in Latin and Greek independently,

the
others
Italic dialects
made the
has
for
change,
preserving forms which are the lineal de-
and -a +
-es (-as).
inscriptional forms in -s from -o-stems
such as
scendants of the original -o+

Latin
is
forms of the -o-stems
315).
Latin alone of the
-o-
rifiaC,
turbae for earlier turbai)
formed on the analogy of the

rather than, as
-es (-us)
magistreis are later analogical formations.
Nominative and vocative neuter. The suffix

^^^ probably originally -^, whence in Greek
Suffix lor nom.
and voo. maao. .a.
But there is reason to believe that this
and fern.
suffix was not attached to aU stems.
The
i,
ii b.
neuter Plural of the -o-stems, as already pointed out,
was a feminine
collective
form
stems, at least those in -n- and
298).
Consonant
seem to have made
-r-,
a Plural from the singular form by lengthening the stem
vowel
(
of this
= *-mn)
Stems in
in -* and
in
the
Lat.
rcp/u-coi/
Lat. termo
ter-men
is
by the
possibly
side of rip-fia
a surviving
trace.
and -u seem to have made the neuter Plural

-w.
Of this type Lat. tr'i-ginta alone survives
-i
classical
languages.
Whether
this
-i
was a
strengthening like -on beside -n in the nasal stems or
was a contraction of -i + 9 is uncertain.

Analogy has largely affected these neuter forms.
In Greek the -a ( = -n) of consonant stems has replaced
319]
-d in the
-o-stems
hence ^vy-a
for original *yug-d.
In Latin, on the other hand, -a of the
stems was carried on to

is
all
247
-o-
^^^^^ ^f ^na-
other stems, as ^^-
shown by the quantity in early Latin. In the classical

final -d was universally shortened and hence
period,
jug-d, nomin-a, cornu-d.

318.
all
iii.
The
accusative Plural masc. and
stems probably ended in a nasal followed
fern,
of
sufflxoiaccu-
by -s. The old view was that the ending native Plural,
was -ms, s being a mark of the Plural added to the form
for the accusative Singular
Brugmann now holds
'
that
the Letto-Slavonic forms compel us to assume -ms as the

original suffix except in -d stems in which the original
accusative like the original nominative Plural ended in

It seems,
-ds.
had
however, more probable that the -d stems
also originally -ms as the suffix
and that the Skt.
forms, on which the necessity for excepting the -d- stems
mainly turns, are a new formation within the Aryan

branch, being in reality only the nom. form used for the
The nasal of the suffix was either' sonant
accusative.
or consonant according to the nature of the sound pre-
ceding
sent
*7raT/D-vs
*Svcr-ixevcrvs
but f otK-o-vs.
Sva-fnivu's
which ought to become
does not repre-
*8i;o-/lii'^s
but
is
Original -dns
the nom. form used for the accusative.
would have become in both Greek and Latin -ams, whence
TLfj.ii';,
For the short forms of the accusaand -d- stems compare
tv/rbds ( 227).
tive Plural in Greek from -0-
248.
319.
iv.
The
original suffix of the genitive Plural
seems to have been *-om.
This in
-0-
and
Q^îti^g ^-^^^^
-d- stems contracted with the stem vowel

into *-dm (Greek -wv, Lat. -um). The genitive Plural of
1
Grundr.
11.
186.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
248
the
-ffl-stems
affected
^"-
319
would have been phonetically the same

might repreFor the -d-
-0-stems ; Oei^v
by pro- ^s that of the
*0o-uiv
or *â-<ov.
sent either
stems a new genitive Plural has been formed in both

Greek and Latin on the analogy of the pronominal
From the earlier *Tao-(uv Oeuiv Lat. *is-tdsum

deum come raW 6e.awv (Homeric), is-tarmn dearum.
As the masculine forms in -a in Latin are not primitive,
adjective.
caelicolum etc. are more probably analogical than origi-
The Latin -o-stems
nal.
-a-stems and
vicorum but
320.
V.
Ablative Plural
make -orum
follow for the
most part the
in the genitive Plural
hence
foiKuiv.
In Greek, the genitive of the Plural,
like
*^ genitive Singular, performs the functions
Latin follows the original
of the ablative.
language in keeping one form in the Plural for ablative
and
dative.
321.
vi.
Dative Plural
The reconstruction
'l^ti'^ ^'^^
ablative
of this original form for

It is often
is difficult.
given as *-hhi-os, but whether Latin -bus
could represent this original form

Original suffix
doubtful.
is
doubtful
197).
Greek has entirely lost this original form,

using instead of
instrumental forms in
it
-ois etc.
the locative in
for
which see
or the
-a-i
viii
below.
Latin also uses these instrumental forms in the
stems and generally in
ambiguity would arise

etc.
But
-a-stems
alls,
322.
hence equabus, deabus, filiabus
pennis, mensis etc. where there

vii.
The
tive suffix,
"'.
-0-
where
except
because of the masculine forms equis,
Forms of loca- ^^
the
the
is
dels, film.
no ambiguity.
locative seems to have originally ended
to wliich were frequently
positions of doubtful
meaning
-i
Aryan and Letto-Slavonic languages, -u
added
and
is
post-
-u.
In
generally
added
-i.
322]
;
in
249
Greek and apparently in Latin, the
Some authorities, however, regard /iCTttlv
and Lat. mox, which they
way accounting
stems, iWoitri,
If
possibilities.
for
the retention of
oiKoio-i, 'A^jfvTjo-i etc.

-i
Theories
on
Others
suffix.
treat the Greek suffix as representing -su +

in this
was
'^^"^^ ""^''-
identify with Skt.
maksu, as surviving remnants of the -u
suffix
i (-cFi-, -a-t),
-a--
in vowel
But there
are other
was a movable postposition which did
not become an integral part of the locative form

the period
the
when -a-- between vowels disappeared
retention
of
-o--
is
satisfactorily
till
after
in Greek,
accounted
for.
Another explanation is that the -cr- in iWoto-i etc. is

restored on the analogy of consonant stems <j)vXaii etc.
It seems on the whole most probable that -i remained
movable till a comparatively late period, and that thus -s
being treated as final was retained. But if so, the explanation given of the Dual forms in -ouv ( 316) must be
given up.
In Greek and Latin, traces of the suffixless locative

Plural are rare and doubtful.
In Greek
might represent the locative without

but as the form phonetically represents
oLKois
-I,
sufflxiess loca*'"^'
also the in-
strumental form equivalent to the original
assumption
is
*-dis, this
hardly necessary, more especially as the
uses of locative and instrumental are confused in the

Singular,
(where
-o-i
appears in
all
stems
Trarpd-ai, Trocfie-a-t
has come from the other cases instead of the
phonetically correct
*Troifi.a-cn (a
=n);
cp. <t>paa-im
Pindar,
the phonetically correct form for Attic ^pc<Tt), Outpaî,

(Trecr-cri (Homer), oBova-i (= * dSovT-cri, an analogical form
instead of the weak form * oSao-t with
-n-, cp. oSa|), voa-a-i
(Homer) by assimilation from
ixdv-o-L.
Attic
TToXea-i
*'7ro8-
-a-t,
ttoXi-ctl
(Ionic)
cannot be a phonetically correct

A SHORT MANUAL OF
250
form, whether the stem be in
-i-
or --, but
dvpdcri,
ordinary
formed on the
in the -o-stems, which were affected by
forms from -a-stems,

analogy of
must have
The
followed the analogy of other plural cases.
-ori
the pronouns
322
'Adijvrja-i.
êaio-t
etc.
are
326 vi). The regular locative forms

and some others are retained only as
adverbs.
The Latin forms cited from inscriptions for the locaand -a- stems dewos (masc.) and devas (fern.)'
tive of -0-
are possibly
323.
viii
to be explained otherwise.
The instrumental
cc.
"O-stems
Instrumental
Plural.
jj-^
as AtKpt-<î?,
.iijîg^
dfx.-cjiL';
sufilx in all
Of
gufx such Greek forms
tiîg
may be
surviving traces, but
equally possibly to explain the final

eK, e^;
x<3p', X'"/"'^-
viii b.
*-ois,
is
except
seems to have originally ended
it
otherwise
-s
is
cp.
In Latin the suffix has disappeared.
In the -o-stems instrumental forms ended in
whence
in
Greek
-ots,
probable that this form
is
in Latin -7s ( 181,
3).
It
the original Plural of the
which case -ois would represent -0 + ai-s. Consequent on the confusion of meaning and the similarity
dative, in
of form, the Greek instrumental in -ois

in
-oLo-t
came
and the
locative
to be used indifferently in the Attic poets
according to the exigencies of the metre.
From
middle of the
alone was
fifth
century
B.C.
onwards,
-oi<;
the
The forms in -aig, Latin -is, from -dstems are a new formation on the analogy of forms from
By the end of the 5th century B.C., the forms
-o-stems.
used in prose.
'
deivos is cited
from the Dvenos inscription found
in 1880, but the explanation cannot be accepted
till
in
there
agreement as to the meaning among the interpreters

occurs in the short inscription G.
Corniscas Sacrum.
I.
L. Vol.
i.
is
;
Kome
more
devas
No. 814, Devas
325]
251
have entirely ousted on Attic inscriptions the

genuine and spurious locative forms in -acrt, -ijcrt and
in -ais
-aim,
-q-Ti,
-rjcn.
Pronominal Declension.
xix.
Pronouns which distinguish gender.
1.
Under this heading are included demonstraand interrogative pronouns. The relative
324.
tive, relative
a comparatively late specialisation of a
certainly
is
demonstrative form, or (as in Latin) of an interrogative.
The same form serves for both interrogative and indefinite

uses. As an interrogative it is accented, as an indefinite
pronoun
it
is
Pronouns, like nouns, have
unaccented.
developed differently in different languages, and Greek
and Latin draw some of
their
commonest pronouns
from different stems.
The
325.
chief stems which appear in Greek
and
Latin are
i.
Indo-G. *so- *sd-
sing, of the article
ipsa.
0,
7;,
preserved in the Greek nom.
and possibly
in the
Latin
ip-se^,
Oblique forms, mainly accusatives, are found in
old Latin
sunn,,
sam,
sos, sas.
The stem
in the original
language seems to have been confined to the nom. Sing,

masc. and
ii.
Eng. she
fern.
Indo-G.
*to-,
of the
*tod:
same
origin.
found in Greek to
aU cases of the article except

For Attic ol, at in the
In Latin, the stem
Plural, other dialects have tol, rat'.
is found in is-te, is-ta, is-tud and in an old particle
{=*tod, Eng. tfMt)
and
is
*td-,
the nom. masc. and
in
fern. Sing.
-e
= unaccented
Imperative legere = \iyeo
(for *\^ye(To).
For
*i'pso.
For
-0
compare in the Passive
A SHORT MANUAL OF
252
325
quoted by Quintilian' topper {=*tod-per) 'straightway.'

ovTO's is a combination of the two stems *so- and *to with
the particle u often found in other combinations, especially
in
Skt.
probably
237),
avro's
(*so-u-to-s).
explained.
To
not yet satisfactorily
is
stems belong also o8e and
these two
6 Sciva which has been wrongly divided (cp.

though none of the many explanations of the
form are altogether satisfactory.

iii.
Indo-G.
*ei-, *i-
Old Greek
i-m from a stem whose nom.
is
ace.
t-v,
while the other cases are in the strong grade
eim,
etc. (
viv are
326
The Homeric and
ii).
explained^ as
*(rfi
the particle discussed in

iv.
From
comes the Greek
relative os
l-va (
Indo-G. *ho-, '*kde-Kci-vos is
here,' ec-ce, hi-c, etc.
*qi- below)
ov-Ki, 7roA.Xa-Kt-s^, etc.
vi.
/itv,
= *ios).
342) for
Greek
e-Kci,
The weak
*i-va..
a locative adverb
derived; Latin ce in ce-do 'give
From a cognate stem
come Latin
significations
poetic forms
the same or a similar stem, Indo-G. *io-
probably found in
V.
is,
Lat.
cv
{*eio-),
from which
ei-
and *vf-iv, where cr/x- is

326 iv and vF- is the enclitic vi.
+
form
is
Old Latin
weak grade
in the
ci-ttxi
ci-s,
*hi- (cp. *qo-,
and possibly
-kl in
English has words with both the
found in Greek and Latin
Indo-G. *qo-, *qd-, *qi-: Greek
ki-m, hi-ther.
ttov, iroi, tto-ô',
(cp. Eng. what ttoSThe interrogative forms

in Attic, ToC, Toi, represent the Homeric tc'o ( = *qe-sio).
The Homeric Tew is an analogical form. The same stem
interrogative adverbs, Lat.

ouds)
TLs, Ti,
Inst. Oral.
By Thumb
it is
i.
6,
40.
in Fleokeisen's Jahrbiicher for 1887, p. 641
ff.
But
very doubtful whether an enclitic particle could thus be com-
bined with a pronoun

'
qtwd
Lat. quis, quid.
(cp.
Brugmann, Grundr.
Wackernagel,
ii.
409.
I.
F.
i.
333).
::
is
326]
253
also used for the indefinite pronoun, the difference
being that when the pronoun
used interrogatively
is
it
has the principal accent of the word, while when used

indefinitely it passes on the accent to the
i-Tts, ocr-Tis
si-quis, etc.
The Latin
sents the 5'0-stem with a suffixed
The Latin
vii.
*quo-i
comes from a stem
hi-c
with a deictic particle
formed
-i
word preceding
-i suffixed.
relative qui repre-
To
(op. hie below).

Jio- (cp.
ho-die)
*hoi, *hai,
thus
added the particle -ce (v) hence hi-c, hae-c.

The neuter ^hod has only the particle -ce added; *hod+ce
becoming hoc. The Indo-G. form of the Latin ho-, hais
not certainly known.
viii.
Brugmann' finds an original stem *o-, *-, in
Greek -i 'if (a locative case), and the mere stem in
e-Ket, Lat.
e-quidem; possibly also in the augment
is
e-(jiepov, etc. (
445).
The pronominal declension
326.
differs in several
respects from the declension of the noun.
of difference alone
is
it
On
the points
necessary to dwell here.
The
points of difference illustrated by Greek and Latin are

i.
Some masculine
(a)
appear without
(
325
final -s
TO (for *tod), Lat.

TToS-aTTOS,
.
-o-forms in the nom. Singular
Indo-6.
*so,
Gk.
final -s
Latin ipse
o,
have
-i
suffixed
hi-c.
The neuter
(b)
Others which have no
i).
Latin qui,
aliud:
Difference in nominative formation.
singular forms its nominative in -d
is-tud: aXXoh-aTvoi, Lat.
Lat.
quod:
tI (for *qid), tions from noun

declension
-J.
Lat. quid.
the
nom.
in
of
"^
(c)
is
In Greek the feminine Dual rai
replaced by the masculine tw
genders (see also
cp. Su'w, Lat.
315).
1
Grundr.
ii.
409.
duo of
all
A SHORT MANUAL OF
254
The Plural
{d)
formed by the addition of
is
326
to
-i
the stem, a characteristic borrowed in both languages

-o- and -a- stems ( 317).
The neuter Plural makes the form for nom. and
Lat. quae ( = *qua + i), Ime-c.
In Greek
-di.
by the nominal
{e)
in
ace.
this formation is lost except perhaps in Kai ( 342).
The
ii.
genitive Singular *to-sio, etc. Gk. toIo,
etc.
was probably the origin of the special genitive form in

the nominal -o- stems.
A suffix *-sias must be postuthe
lated as
form
original
the feminine genitive
for
many languages
it must go back to
But it seems nevertheless
^^ obvious amalgamation of the mascuhne
Singular in so
that
the Indo-Germanic period.

Pern.
gen.
miied form.
^^^j^
neuter
-sio suffix
Whether there was
the noun.
whether the type
for all three genders, or
noun, was
Latin gen. in
"*'"
rise to
much
in the fem. genitive.
discussion,
to ^live. sprung
isti-c, illi-c)
noun
-as, as in the
genitive forms in Latin, istius, cuius, eius
have given
genitive affixed.
in either -oi or -ei
a genitive
its
istius, illius
from a locative
with the ending
These locatives
313).
explained in the same way.

which, owing to
in
cannot at present be determined'.
earlier,
Greek follows the noun declension
The
with -as of a-stems
originally only one form
ist'i,
-os,
etc.
seem
illl (cp.
-us of the
may have ended

may be
cuius (older quoius)
From
the accented form
qiioi,
accent, retained its original vocalism,
was made by
affixing -os, -us as in the other
words mentioned.
In the other members of the series

these old locatives remained as datives, but from quis a
new dative to quoius was made *quoii or *quoiei on the
Brugmanu, Grundr. u.
by Hirt
(I.
F.
ii.
p.
130
ff.).
420.
A different
explanation
is
given
326]
analogy of
255
This form became
illius, illi, etc.
and then cui

iii.
The separate form
first
quoi
'.
-o-stems
with
is
much
To
to pronominal influence.
may
fluence
the same in-
pronominal
^'''at'^'^s.
be attributed the separate ablative forms
-od, -e<^ in the
same stems
-Tos Lat.
-tus:
The
(Lat. equodjfacilMmed).
suffix -6iv is frequent in all
Like
of the genitive in nominal
probability referred
ciz-tos,
pronominal stems in Greek.

in-tus, -Oev is properly
an
adverbial suffix which has become so firmly incorporated
with the paradigm of the pronoun that the forms
used for the genitive.
etc. are
their adverbial signification.
rhust have been added to

*T-^VU>,
*TOVTW for
a-edev
and others retain
If the forms Trjv(2-6e, TovToJ-6e
found in Doric authors are genuine, the
etc.
the
suffix -6e
original ablative
form
*Tr]VUiS, *TODT(o8.
In forms for the ablative, dative and locative, a
iv.
suffix -smis frequently found.

is
tto-Ocv
identified with
found
Skt.
a separate particle.
as
This suffix
sma, which
also
is
The
gy^j. .j^. ;
p'"o"'i"s.
locative
ends in
either -i or -in: cp. the personal pronouns in Lesbian

vyu,ju.i
or
v/j-ixLv,
-sm- suffix
is
where
represents -sm-
-/x/u.-
( 329).
This
Brugmann conjectures", in the

form o-tl/jli ( = *Tt-o-/i-i) from Gortyn in
also found, as
dative (locative)
This explanation seems

Class. Rev. vi. 433.
than Brugmann's {Grundr. ii. 419), which assumes
a combination of an interrogative with a demonstrative stem
quoiei = quo an adverbial case form + eei (from is). Such combinations must, however, be admitted for other Italic dialects. Another
1
J.
H. Kirkland,
slightly simpler
but
still
less probable explanation is that of
oskischen Sprache p. 151,
who
Buck, Vocalismus der
identifies quoiu-s
with Gk.
ttoio-s
and
supposes the genitive and dative to arise from a confusion in the

use of the adjective, the value of which was practically genitival.
2
Grundr.
ii.
423.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
256
326
In Latin, the suffix appears in the strengthened
Crete.
forms memet, temet,
ipseniet.
Forms with -sm-
are more
widely developed in Sanskrit.
The pronoun had a separate instrumental form

found in Greek l-va. Many
'^^ '*'*> ^till
V.
Pronominal
instrumental,
adverbial forms from pronominal stems are
possibly old instrumentals in -m: nl-i-m, istinc
m + ce)
etc.
On
ist-i-
the analogy of these forms, helped by
old accusative forms like partim, statim', others were
made from stems
of
many
other kinds
gradatim,
pedetentini etc.
The
vi.
Pronominal
gen. PI.
pronoun ends
genitive Plural of the
in
*-sdm.
In the masculine and neuter forms
^j^jg ^g^g
jQg^
jjj Ijq^Jj Q-j-ggjj
and Latin, but
in
Latin was restored later from the noun forms after the
This is proved
suffix had been extended to them ( 319).
by the
fact that the
pronominal stem originally appeared
in a diphthongal form before the suffix
*foi-sdm, whence
in classical Latin only *is-thrum not is-torum could be de-
veloped.
as
Plural.
-i
The diphthongal form of the stem arose from the

of i-^nioQ of -/, a mark of the Plural (326 \d),
with the original stem, and seems to have
mark
been carried through
all
the cases of the Plural.
The
nouns ( 322) may have

forms *toisi ekuosi
from
the
pronominal
been derived
being changed later into *tois! ekiioisi'
-oi-
of the locative Plural in
Cp.
now
Delbriick
{Grundriss,
Syntax
255).
It
may,
however, be pointed out that these Latin forms have exact Slavonic
parallels
in Old Bulgarian instrumentals like pa-t'i-vii, final
being here, as frequently, lost in Latin.
Cp. Brugmann, Grundr.
ii.
430.
-i
COMPAKATIVE PHILOLOGY.
328]
2.
The
327.
express
Personal Pronouns.
pronouns
personal
thou, we,
/,
257
forms to
the
i.e.
you and the reflexive
self, selves
are an extremely old formation, in several respects
primitive than any other part of the
They do not
declension.
more
Indo-Germanic
distinguish gender, and there
are forms in the oblique cases which have no clear case
ending,
/i,
Lat.
me
etc.
The forms
originally inflected as singulars, the
the Plural in the pronouns of the
for the Plural
stem
first
for
the Singular.
But even
originally no
and
second persons being different from that for
were
jPfng^fQ^ 'Jj^^J
'^'^^^
in the Singular of the
pronoun
of the first person two entirely different stems have to
be distinguished iyu>, Lat. ego, Eng. / (0. Eng. Ic), is a

different stem from e-/x,e, Lat. me, Eng. me.
As in the
noun, different grades of the stem appear in different
:
Case usages are not in
cases.
defined
e.g.
all
instances
the original form *moi, Gk.
/xot,
clearly
Lat. mi,
locative and is used in Sanskrit as a

Greek and Latin as a dative.
328. A. i. The original form in the nominative Singular of the pronoun of the first person is hard
' ^'
to determine. The relationship between Gk.
resembles
genitive, in
cyw, Lat. ego,
and
Skt.
lia,
and Skt. ahdm,
like that
between Gk. ye
has not yet been satisfactorily explained.
have the form iymv which apparently

The nominative
ending
as Skt. ahdm.
same
shows the
tv
is
found in Doric
tu.
for
thou
was
form
of the Indo-G.
phonetically
from tv, but
o-v
come
cannot
Attic
Greek
Some Gk.
(iialects
G. P.
17

A SHORT MANUAL OF
258
from the
arises
had
reflexive
ace.
As
i-fe".
originally
Greek and Latin, the
in
no nominative.
In the accusative the original forms seem to have
ii.
been *me, *tue (*te) and in the

*smI
{*se),
whence in 6k.
from the influence of
sibly
me,
328
te,
c-yoj),
/x
and
re Attic
reflexive
e-/i
(pos-
I:
Lat.
o-e,
se: Eng. me, thee.
The
iii.
genitive in Greek
is
formed as in nominal
whence Homeric cyucio

Genitive
possessive
Homeric o-eio,
( = *efx.e-(TLo), Ifxio, Attic ift-ov
cre'o, Attic
(Tov
Homeric eto, lo, Attic ol.
Such forms in Homer as rcoto thine can come only
from the possessive adjective, from which also the Latin
"0-stems with
and
-ctlo,
'
'
forms mei,
tui, sui,
can alone be derived.
and cuium, there
of cuius
As
in the case
a constant interchange
is
between the forms of the possessive adjective and of the

pronoun proper. The Doric forms eftoi)?, reols, eoCs are
monstrosities arising from a confusion with the genitive
suifix in -s of
iv.
noun stems.
For the ablative, Greek must use the genitive

forms, or those forms with an adverbial suffix
which, though originally ablatival, do duty

for either case (
326
iii).
In Latin, the old forms med,
when compared with the
Skt. mat, teat and Latin

comes from this stem), show a
change of quantity. This arises from a confusion with
the accusative forms, me, te, se, which are sometimes
found with -d appended.
V.
In Greek e/u.ot (fioC), <roi, ol, which seem in
form to be original locatives, discharge the function of
ted, sed,
sed
'
but
'
(if it
This form, disguised as
lectical influence
Bev.
really
VI. p.
259
may
f.).
Tp4, is
quoted by Hesychius.
also have been at
work
(op.
Wharton,
DiaClass.
COMPAKATIVE PHILOLOGY.
329]
259
In Latin ml is not a contraction of mihi,

but the descendant of an original form
*mei or *moi as in other languages. The mSJiSgrfsOT
'*''^"''forms mihl'tibl sibi are difficult.
The
datives'.
-vowel
the root syllable
in
their enclitic uses.
The
may
be explained from
original Indo-6.
"^^'
form cannot be restored with certainty, but
that the forms are old is shown by comparison with Skt.
'
''
mahya(m) and tiibhyaim). The nominal suf&x, Gk. -0i-,

has probably influenced these forms, tih'i etc. with l
final are
no doubt due to such forms as
329.
B.
ist'i
etc.
In the Plural, the forms in Greek and
i.
Latin are very different. Throughout the Different

pronouns of the first and second persons fn^'oreek^'and
Plural, Greek shows the suffix -sm- ( 326 iv). ^''''"
The nominative in Attic has been influenced by the
nominal declension. The most primitive forms are the
Lesbian d-yn/ic (= ^îi-sm-e)-, v-fx.\x.i (= *iu-sm-e).

In the
stem syllable, the same form as the English us, you' can
be distinguished.
The dual forms in Greek from the
first person
Homeric vm, Attic vw, v(Si.v (vwv), are closely
:
vos is from the same original

stem as English we. The dual form (o-i^w) for the
second person in Greek still awaits explanation. -<û)
connected with Latin nds.
may
be conjectured to be of the same origin as
-<â)
in
and in English bo-tk. a-- can hardly come from

here, and the form is specially remarkable as com-
a/jLtjxo
rF-
pared with the plural of the reflexive cr-4>i, a--(j>iv etc.

ii.
The ace. was originally like the nom. in Gk. as
well as in Latin.
,.
Ti
formations like
/
wî>
v/ji.d';
are analogical
.^
Accusative.
r/;u,ts.
In Sanskrit the corresponding forms are genitives.
You
is less
certain than us.
172
A SHORT MANUAL OF
260
Since the plural pronoun was
iii.
originally in-
fleeted as a singular, the forms
Genitive
forms.
a-cfiwv,
be a new
ly/xcuv,
vfitSv,
as the genitive appears in Attic,
nostrum
formation,
forms
like the singular
329
328
vostrum
(nostri),
iii),
must
(vostri),
come from the
posses-
sive adjective.
The remaining
iv.
Forms
together.
for
other cases.
(
326
T,^'ii\x
X,
cases are inextricably entangled

ijiJ.lv,
vwiv (viov) of the
iv).
found frequently
vjxiv,
also
are locatives like the Cretan o-ti/m
Dual
is
also locative.
In
nobis, vobis,
apparently for '"nozblus, *vuzbhts, we can
recognise the
same
suffix as in the singular tibi, sibi
Possessive Adjectives.
From the stems
330.
of
me: rfe te: e se, are

Homeric cjuds, rcfd?,
e/ie
formed the pronominal adjectives

kp6<i
mens,
Old Latin
Attic
sovos).
Old Latin
tiius {=^teuo-s.
o-ds is
tovos), situs (=*seuo-$.
from *Tf o-s.
plural forms, Attic
by means of the
ijIxiTepo";, vfxinpo-';,
cr(êVepo-s.
and
With
o-<^(utTtpo9.
oioster
and
Homer
the same
had
of the pronoun:
also forms
made
the
makes
vajtVepos
Latin makes
dialects,
directly from the stem
a/i/xo-s, v/a/ho-s, o-(^d-s.
XX.
Uses of the Cases.
The nominative was not
331.
has also
suffix
Other Greek
vaster (later vester).
e.g. Lesbian,
From
suffix -npo-
originally the case of
The nomi- the Subject, for the personal endings of the

native.
^gj.^ expressed vaguely the subject of the
i.
sentence
Lat.
(jid-fni
inqui-t,
'
(Attic
<f>-f]-p.i),
says he.'
'
But
say L' â-ri (Attic

in
many
(l>y)-(Ti),
usages greater
332]
261
precision was necessary, and a substantive or pronoun
was added in apposition to give the meaning that definiteness which was required.
This substantive or pronoun is commonly called the subject and the nominative
is its case.
This apposition may, however, be expressed
by other cases, cp. Lat. dedecori est and modern English
It's me.
The
332.
vocative,
In
a case.
when
Homer
is
not
(and also in Sanskrit)
out,
,^-^^^
j;
is
^^^_
*'-
a vocative and a nominative occur together they
are connected by a conjunction

II.
pointed
already
as
properly no part of the sentence and
Se vave.
'ArpeiS?;, a-v
282.
i.
When
one invocation was followed by a second, it

seems to have been the rule from the earliest period to
ZA irarep, "Ih-q&ev
put the second in the nominative
:
KijStoTt,
/AcSctoi/,
TravT ETraKOiJEts.
fxiyifTTi,
'HcXtos 6\ OS TTavT
276
II, ni.
The occurrence
arises
of the
by an analogical
i<f>opa.<;
xai
vocative
in
attraction.
the predicate
genuine vocative
always appears in the sentence and causes the attraction.

oX/8ie,
Matutine pater
Kovpi, yivoio
sen,
Theocr.
xvii. 66.
lane libentius audis

Hor. Sat.
ii.
6.
20.
Cp. Milton's imitation of the construction {Paradise

Lost,
iii.
1 ff.).
"Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven
Or
1
The order
TWea6'
first born...
hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream."

is
sometimes reversed, ya/x^pbs
opofi' Stti. xev efirw
evyarrip.
Cp. also
c3
Od. xix. 406.
7r6Xcs uai S^p.,
^/xis
diyarip re,
Some Mss however
Aristoph. Knights 273.
read
A SHORT MANUAL OF
262
333.
The
iii
"
The accusative brought the noun

<iuite indefinite relation to
ao-
cusative.
333
into
The
the verb.
nature of the relation was determined by
the character of the verb and
dependent noun'."
its
The accusative could, however, be used also with adjecWhile it may be difficult to
tives and substantives.
historically
trace
the whole
original meaning, it
of its
usages from one
seems simplest to define the
cusative as that case which answers the question
'
ac-
How
far=?'
(1)
a,
The
accusative with verbs of motion towards.

dvi/ir] fxiyav
"rj^p^yj
ovpavov OvXv/jiTrov tc
i.
497.
In a mist went she up gTeat heaven and Olympus.

rogat quid veniam Cariam
Plautus, Curculio,
He
b.
asks
'ii(f>aLcrTov
why
come
ii.
3.
60
(339).
to Caria.
iKave So/jlov e'tis apyvpoVeâ

77. xviii.
To Hephaestus' home came
Nunc domum
silver-footed Thetis.
propero
Plautus, Persa,
At
369.
ii.
4. 1.
present I'm hurrying home.
Compare with these usages
of place the usage of
person.
C.
fj.vqoTtjpa'S
d(j)LKeTO Sla
yvfaLKwv
To the wooers came the
Od. xvi. 414.
fair lady.
Brugmann
Naturally, as the usages of the case develope, this simple
Gr. Gr.- 178 p. 203.
becomes too vague.
test
333]
d.
iKctvo)
To'8'
263
Vaguer usages are not common in Greek

to this I am come is practically the only
'
'
construction.
In Latin the construction most similar
the accusative of an abstract substantive which

the supine spectatum veniunt etc.
is
is
called
Closely akin to the accusative with verbs of motion
towards, are the accusatives of time and space.
The
(2)
accusative of time.
TipTTOVTaL /jLaKapes 6eoi rj/xaTa Travra
The
Od.
filias
meas
celavistis
clam me
Plaut. Poenulus,
years have you concealed
(3)
The accusative
my
M. was a
of space.
Jl, xxiii.
529.
throw behind.
spear's
nomina insunt cubitum
longis litteris
Plaut. Poenulus,
The names
v. 4. 83.
daughters from me.
MijpioFijS XeiVcTO Sovpos iporqv
(4)
46.
blessed gods take their pleasure at all times.
annos multos
Many
vi.
iv. 2.
15.
are in letters a cubit long.
The accusative
of content.
This comprises the constructions known as (a) the

cognate,
and
(b)
the
quasi-cognate
accusatives, the
an analogical extension of the former.

The cognate accusative expresses merely the same idea
latter being only
as
is
contained in the verb,
it
being the accusative of a
substantive from the same root.
The quasi-cognate
accusative has the same effect, but though verb and noun
convey the same idea, they are not formed from the
same
root.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
264
333
/^"-XV^ fi-dx^crdai..
a.
pugnam pugnare.
To
fight a fight.
Od. XV. 491.
^0J"S dyadov jiiov
b.
Thou
good
livest a
life.
ut profecto vivas aetatem miser

Plaut. Amjjh.
That you may indeed
live
iv. 2.
.3
(1023).
your time in wretchedness.
Cp. also,
kXvU)
iyia ixijx-qvoT
cr
ov UfxiKpav votrov
Aeschylus, P. V. 977.
I
hear that thou art maddened with no small disease.
This construction
limits in early Latin,
widely extended,
till
is
restricted within very
but as time goes on,
in the Imperial period
it
we
narrow
is
more
find such
loose constructions as
grammaticus non erubescit soloecismum,
si scieiis
facit
Seneca, Epp. 95.
The
scholar does not blush for a mistake in

if
he makes
(5)
a.
it
8.
grammar,
wittingly.
Accusative with transitive verbs.
When
the verb
is
changed to the passive
accusative becomes the nominative.

7ratl/0>
TOI/0
TOV dvOpiitTTOV
hunc hominem laudo

I
In the passive
praise this person.

oSe 6 dvOpwTro^ cTraivetrai
hie
homo laudatur
This person
is
being praised.
tliis
333]
This construction
b.
265
extended to verbs which
is
are intransitive.
TriTTovOiv ola koI ere kcli Travra? jxevii
He
Euripides, Frag. 651.

hath suffered such things as wait thee and all men.
cives
meum
casimi luctumque doluerunt

Cic. p. Sestio, 145.
The
citizens
Two
c.
my
mourned
mischance and
grief.
accusatives with one verb^
These accusatives may be

different types, (y) of the
(a) in
apposition,
same type, but one
(/3)
of
ace. of the
person, the other of things.

Ilaiav' v/ivovcri toV
a.
Aarous yovov
Euripides,
Paean they
ff.
F. 687.
praise, Leto's son.
Ciceronem consulem creare
To make
TTjv
p.
fjid^^v
Cicero Consul.
Tovs Papjidpovs iviKTjaav
They defeated the

Multa
In
y.
foreigners in the fight.
deos venerati stmt
many ways they worshipped

tJôvij Ti^
yvvaL^l
ixrjSiv
the gods.
uytes dX.\i]\ai
\iyuv
Eur. Phoen. 200.
Women
have a certain pleasure in reviling one another.

Tribunus me sententiam rogavit
The tribune asked me my opinion.
Sometimes a transitive verb and
its
accusative to-
1 There
may be of course more complicated oonstruotious
where one or more accusatives depend on another accusative.
Cp. Dominus me boves mercatum Eretriam misit Plaut. Persa, ii.
5. 21, My master sent me to Eretria to buy cattle.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
266
333
another verbal notion, and
gether are equivalent to
govern a second accusative.

6iol
.'IXlov
W^vto
<f>Oopai...\(/-ij<l>ov<;
iif/r]<j>L(TavTo)
Aesch.
The gods voted the wreck
animum
lianc edictionem nisi
815.
advortetis omnes
Plant. Psezid.
Unless you
Agam.
of Troy.
i.
2.
10 (143).
attend to this notice.
all
Accusative with substantives and adjectives.
(6)
The substantives which take
accusative are
this
Originally all verbal substantives
had
the same power of governing a case as their verb.
In
mostly verbal.
noun
Sanskrit a
of the agent regularly does so, giving
such constructions
as,
if
called infinitives, supines
All noun forms
and gerunds, retain
other forms have, for the most part, lost

eo-Ti Tis
(a)
would be
existing in Latin,
represented by the tjrpe dator divitias.
SwKparijs
to.
power
this
it.
fueTiuipa cl>povTLanji
Plato, Apol. 2
One
b.
Socrates a student of the heavenly bodies.
sum
iitsta
am
wator'' datus
Amph.
Plavitus,
Prol. 34.
appointed ambassador for justice.
In these constructions the noun of the agent with a

verb expresses the same meaning as the verb
<f>povTLû
p.op<j>-rjv
ut iusta ararem
Ix")
= iJ.^p<f>op.aL)
Cp. also
Ounruai xai
is
T(3
compare
tv
2.
t. p..
piv Trpwrd
a-oi
Eur. Or. 1069.
OVTl TTJpaVTOS Tl3 OVTt SouXoS TttS pyi(TTa'S
^lovXeia';
Plato Rep. 579 D.
'
The
real tyrant
a real slave in respect of the greatest flatteries and
slavery.'
1
The only example
and Schoell read
in
Latin with a noun of the agent.
iuste in the
new Teubner
text.
Goetz
333]
267
In Latin the construction remains more extended
than in Greek.
Bomam
Reditus
The return
Quid
tibi
to
Cic. Phil.
istum tactio
est
right have
With
b.
you
108.
Plaut. Cure. v.
What
ii.
Rome.
2.
touch him
to
27 (626).
?
verbal nouns (Gerunds).
Eur. Ion, 1260.
ola-riov rijv tvxtjv
We
must bear our
lot.
(The construction
not Homeric.)
is
Poenas in morte timendum est Lucr.

must fear punishments in death.
i.
111.
We
Livy, xxv. 13.
Cp. vitabund.us castra
Avoiding the camp.
With
c.
adjectives.
ayaôs Po-qv
01
^01 ayaOoi
ovo/ua kXvto's (Homeric).

eicri
irairav
ap^rqv
Plato, Legg.
The gods
qui
manus gramor
The
'
accusative of the part affected
have come from Greek into Latin.

txeXos Au',
constructions as os
589.
iii.
1.
19 (785).
would be heavier of hand.

'
developed in Greek than elsewhere, and
Kecf>aXrjv
d.
siet
Plaut. Pseud,
Who
900
are good in respect of every virtue.
is
more largely
is
supposed to
Hence o/ijuara koX

II. ii. 478, is the model for such
iimerosque deo similis, Virg. Aen. i.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
268
333
Adverbial accusative.
(7)
The process by which accusative forms
crystallise
into adverbs can be very clearly seen in the historical
In Greek
development of most languages.
it
very
is
marked, the number of adverbial accusatives, except

from adjectives and pronouns, being very limited in the
early
Thus
period.
Apyeioiv K/oareei
'AxtA-Xcvs
Ka\a
in
Homer we
ExTopa
find /^^ya Travraiv

K\oviu>v
aanrep-î';
and more rarely neuter plurals,
fiedUre
uXk^s
OovpiSoi;
XeAdyâcrtv
tlixtjv
wkws
lêir
v/Acts oixcVt
To-
But the adverbial accusatives from .substantives,

x^-P'-^ etc., do not occur in Homer, with the ex-
Oioicnv.
StKijy,
ception of TTpoipaarw
the phrase
two
{II.
xix.
262),
Styiias
8e/ias Trupos aWo/jievoio (cp.
four times in
283) and one or
others.
There are three classes of adverbial accusatives
(a)
the neuter of adjectives both Singular and Plural, (b)

the accusative feminine of adjectives with a substantive
the accusative Singular of substantives.
understood,
(c)
The course
of development
to trace, as
(i)
from
ra.xi(TTr)v TropevecrOai'
from
ace.
is
in
many
cases not hard
ace. of content, 6$a KiKXrjym, ttjv
(where d8dv
of time, TrpujTov,
is
easily supplied);
cvv^jaap;
(iii)
from an
defining the extent of action of the verb, eJpos,
(ii)
ace.
/j-eyeôs,
This includes the ace. in apposition to the sentence, a usage in which

x^'p'" is found
ovo/xa, x'^P'-"'
XV.
II.
means
'
^''^V^ etc.
744,
x-P'-^
as the pleasure
"Ekto/dos
'
drpuVai/Tos,
where
x'^P'-''
(of Hector).
In Latin these usages are more frequent in late than

many adverbial forms in Plautus
in early Latin, for
usually called accusatives are probably to be explained

otherwise.
'
Cp. English keep to the right.
333]
i(TTL)(6(l)VT0
a.
SeiVOV &pK6/JLiVOl
They stalked with
II.
As
429.
II. xvi.
vultures shrieking loudly fight.

ego nil moror
I
Plaut. Persa, v.
snake glaring
15.
Lucr.
v.
33.
fiercely.
dWa
ov jxaKpav avea-Tiv
oo
i.
care nothing.
acerha tuens... serpens
A
b.
342.
\\\.
furious look.
alyvTrioX fjLeyaXa K\dt,ovTC fiOûivTat
(OS
269
TrX-qalov.
Eur. Phoen. 906.
To
this
-fariam,
bi-,
construction
tri-,
belong the Latin forms in
quadri- fariam.
Otherwise
rare
it is
aetermim, supremum, and some others occur in the

poets.
Siopeav TTapd toC
C.
Si^/itov
eKafie to )(mpLov
Lysias,
He
For corresponding uses

and tenus ( 57).
in
Latin compare partim
Accusative with prepositions.
(8)
The usages with
prepositions are
more frequent in
the accusative than in any other case.

partly owing to the vagueness of
sitions
This
meaning,
may be
for prepofirst
used
where the meaning of the case by
itself
too vague to express the precise intention of the
speaker'.
'
ia
its
which spring from older adverbs are
in those cases
is
vii. 4.
got the place from the people gratis.
The use
(See 340
ff.)
of us as a preposition in
found only with the
aco. of persons.
Greek
It is
is
curious because
it
explained by Eidge-
A SHORT MANUAL OF
270
The accusative
334.
iv.
tive-
As
in
most of
[
its
334
relations
is
with the verb; the geniThegeni- closely Connected

with the noun.
connected
tive is similarly
the genitive closely
far as its functions are concerned,
resembles an
But they are not
adjective.
of the
same
origin, the old belief that such an adjectival stem as

was identical with the old genitive 877/ioio
Srjfjioa-io-
There was however to some extent
being erroneous.
confusion between genitival and adjectival forms, cuius

in Latin being also declined as
also the constant interchange
an adjective. Compare
between the genitive of
the personal pronouns and the possessive adjectives.

When connected with verbs the genitive "expresses
partial control
by the verb of that which
the Object, while the Accusative

control' "
ate a
aprov <ây
'
he ate the
is
contained in
complete
expresses
loaf,'
aprov
e<f}a-ye
'
he
slice.'
(1)
The
many
possessive genitive includes
different
usages which frequently can be exactly determined only
Compare the following construc-
from the context.

tions
Horti Caesari.s
'HcrioSou epya
pater famUias
Trapa 6iva 6oXa.(Ta-q%
voti
jKvto-Tjs p.ipo%
Tyj%
partem
Apollin IS partem]
\ Aios /utpos
8vu)
U, xxi. 89.
y(.v6p.ia-6a
Her's are we twain".
way (Journal
of Philology, xvii. p. 113) as arising from us 'where'
nom. ijXSec ws âaCKeis (eari). The verb

was frequently omitted, hence the change to the ace, a
parallel to which can be found with yena where in Skt.
1 Grimm quoted by Delbrttck S. F. it. p. 39.
^ This might be explained also as an ablative, but such conoriginally used with a
after us
'
'
334]
lam me Pompei totum
271
esse scis
Cic.
Fam.
13. 2.
ii.
Similar constructions in Sanskrit seem to show that
the rare construction

123,
'
Thou
Kclo-at ctSs
liest slain
akoxov
of thy spouse,'
Eur. El.
cnâyei's,
is
a true genitive
arising from the original value of the participle as a
noun.
It
must, however, be remembered that
only separate ablative form,
viz.
in
the
if
the -o-stems,
is
borrowed from the pronoun ( 326 iii), there is no criterion by which to distinguish genitive from ablative
This construction, like
singTilar except usage.

yi>6fjLi<j6a
ttj? Svu)
above, lies within the debatable land between
the two cases.

(2)
The
partitive genitive
is
also a widely
extended
type.
Sia yvvai,K<2v
Fair
Iiino
(Hom.)
among women.
Saturnia sancta dearum^

Enn. Ann.
i.
72.
Saturnian Juno holy among goddesses.
//.
Most hateful
to
me
art
176.
i.
thou of the kings fostered by
Zeus.
mawime divom
Enuius Ann.
i.
71.
Greatest of Gods.
^^pvaov BiKa TaKavra
Ten
Jl. xix.
247.
talents of gold.
struotions are found in Skt. with forms distinctly geuitival (Delbriick S. F. v. p. 153).
1
Tliis construction is
Greek.
however possibly an imitation of the

A SHORT MANUAL OF
272
hanc miiiain
few
334
auri
Plaut. True. v.
This mina of gold

Sair'
Kpuwv
ayaOj^v
8.
bring.
re kcu olvov t^Svitotoio
Od. XV. 507.
goodly feast of flesh and sweet wine.
cadmn
vini iwopino
Plaut. Stichus,
I toast
To
this
you
iii.
1.
24 (425).
in a cask of wine.
construction
belong such phrases as the
Latin id aetatis, and quid hoc
est
Ampk.
homlnis Plaut.
137 (769). Under it also may be ranged the genitive of material (which is often made a separate class)
ii.
2.
TctTT?;?
cpioio
Od.
'mountains of
iv.
124
'a carpet of wool,'
further development of this type
definition,
monies auri
gold.'
as in
Homer's epKos
is
the genitive of
oZovtoiv,
where
oôvtidv
expresses what would have been expressed by oSdvres in

apposition, 'the fence of teeth' (=
This construction
is
which
also frequent in Latin
is
the teeth).
and English
monstrum liominis (Terence) a monster of a fellow" etc.

The genitive with substantives of verbal nature.
(3)
This includes both the genitive of the subject and
'
'
'
the
'
genitive of the object.'

StDT^p katuv
dator divitiarum
Giver of good things
Giver of riches.
Here however the construction is tire reverse of kpKos dS6vTuv,

the nom. in the one case being the gen. in the other.
u6s XPW"
{Hdt. i. 36) 'a monster-boar,' is an exact parallel to monstrum
^
homiiiis.
334]
273
ovSlv rjiuv yjpKicrav \trat 6iv
o)S
Eur. Supp. 262.
For supplications of the gods availed us naught.
Empedocles in deorum opinione turpissume labitur
N. D.
Cic.
E.
makes shameful
slips in his
xii.
I.
29.
views about the gods.
qKii K0.1VWV epyujv iyxeiprjTr]';
Aristoph. Birds 257.
He
has come to take in hand strange works.
omnem natv/ram
esse conservatricem sui
De
Cic.
Fin.
v. ix. 26.
All nature desires self-preservation.

(4)
The
The
verbs so used are verbs of ruling, and verbs
genitive with verbs'.
The
expressing feelings or sensations.
with verbs of eating, touching
genitive in Greek
etc. is partitive.
'Aya/A/AV(ov (iieya TravTuiv 'Apyeiuiv rjvacrcrev
R
Agamemnon
ruled mightily over
all
X. 32.
the Argives.
ut salvi poteremur domi

Plaut.
Amph.
i.
1.
32 (187).
That we might make ourselves masters of the house in

safety.
IrapoL XiaaovTO
cireo-crii'
Tvpwv
alvvfjievovi
levai ttolXlv
Od.
My
^
ix.
comrades besought me that, having had their

the cheeses, they might return.
Delbriick
is
now
inclined {Grundriss, Syntax 147) to
this the starting point of the genitival usages.
The
of
make
older view
seems however more probable.

G. P.
224.
fill
18

A SHORT MANUAL OF
274
liaec res isitae
me, soror, saturant

Plaut. Stick
These things
ovM
surfeit
Ti
with
grief at
The construction with such verbs
is
II. XI.
657.
I^- ^-
608.
Aen.
much
x.
less
quent in Latin, except with verbs of remembering
meminit domi, Plaut. Trin.
173.
fre-
com-
Compare
20 (1027).
iv. 3.
18.
all.
Virg.
belli
1.
i.
life.
tSoTe x"PM'?^
expertus
Cp.
me
oTSev TTCvêos
Nor knew he the

<^(UT
334
quoiusquam misereat\ Ter.

(64); quctfitquam domi cupio,opperiar, Tlnut.
also the rare constructions ne
Hec.
i.
Trin.
1.
iv.
7
1.
22 (841).
This construction of cupio
is fre-
quently explained as being on the analogy of cupidus.
condemning have no
Homer, although this genitive is frequent in
Greek and in Latin. It is not found in Sanskrit,
It is to be observed that verbs of
genitive in
later
and
its origin is
(5)
The
Many
not yet satisfactorily explained.
genitive with adjectives.
adjectives
are
developed
quently used in apposition
(cp.
from
277);
it
nouns
is
not surprising that they should take a genitive

again have a partitive meaning.
fulness take the genitive 'full
the instrumental
of,'
fi-e-
therefore
;
others
Adjectives expressing
they might also take
In Latin, owing (1) to the

form for genitive and ablative being originally the same
in
most stems
'filled with.'
(2) to
the fact that words expressing the
of take the ablative;

the confusion in the separate history of Latin
opposite idea 'empty, deprived

(3) to
Wagner
Bembine ms.
'
inserts te before misereat, believing it to be in the
275
334]
between instrumental and ablative, words expressing

fulness frequently take the ablative.
oiKTt^crat
(TuiTrjpia'S
aveA,7ris
Eur.
He
is
pitied
when
/.
T. 487.
hopeless of safety.
doiSot Tijufs Ifiixopoi
Od.
elcri
viii.
479.
Bards are sharers in honour.

iyii
îvoi
jttev
tov Xdyov Tovh' eêpd
Soph. 0. R. 219.
I
a stranger to this tale will speak.

OSvcTCTtiis iiriCTTpofjio'; rjv
avBpunrmv
Od.
i.
177.
Odysseus was regardful of men.
The construction is well developed in Greek and still

more widely in Latin, pattens laboris, peritus earuni
regionum, studiosus Utteraruin
The
(6)
usage of other
In
Homer
phrases
109;
tjrpes).
this is limited practically to one class of
irarpo's dfjL
ai'/iards eis
Owing
thou.'
ablative
it
is
etc.
predicative genitive (properly only a special
ayadolo 'of a good sire
ayaOoio, Od.
iv.
to the confusion
difficult to
am
I' //. xxi.
611, 'of good blood art
between genitive and
distinguish between (1) this
construction, (2) the possessive genitive, and (3) the

ablatival genitive.
fully
developed.
In Latin the construction

It
is
very
shows clearly how the genitive
borders on the adjective.

sets tu
med
esse
imi supselli virion

Plant. Stick,
You know
iii.
that I'm a back bench
2.
35 (489).
man.
182

A SHORT MANUAL OF
276
multi
cibi hospitem accipies
non multi
You
are to have a guest of
The
(7)
278
xiii.
adverbial genitive.
525
i?oi}? II. viii.
the
'in
'in
night.'
may be
Compare
27 'in autumn'; omoTf.
Xciiret >(fi/naTos
Kap-n-h^
ovhi 6epev; Od. vii.
airov
tovS'
also
B.
o-n-wp-qs
a-n-oWvTai oOS'
d-TTO-
118 'neither in winter
Brugmann' regards these
nor in summer.'
thus
the morning,' wkto'; Od.
\vKdl3avTos Od. xiv. 161 'in this very year'

xxii.
ix. 26. 4.
little appetite, infinite jest.
few Greek constructions of time
classified,
ioci
Fam.
Cic.
334
as develop-
ments of the partitive genitive, to which also he refers

the Homeric construction of space within which,' Su'
n-prja-a-ov
-rreSioio
made
'they
(always with forms in
etc.
The
(8)
way over the
their
genitive with prepositions
In Greek
case original.
plain,'
-oio^).
it is
is
probably in no
only the genitive of place
and /xcrdi. But in

and yu.6Ta occurs only
In both Greek and Latin, as in other
five times.
languages, some nominal forms (such as dvTtov in Greek,
te7iii.s in Latin), which have become quasi-prepositions,
that takes prepositions
Homer
c-n-l,
Trepl
their usages are limited,
take a genitive because their adjectival or substantival

force
still
V.
The
survives.
The
335-
abia-
*"^-
was distinguishable from
ablative
in the -o-
originally indicated
this
it
supposed that the separate ablatival form

stems was borrowed at a very early period
is
from the ablative of the pronouns.

it
the
Hence
genitive only in the -o- stems.
went comparison,
1
Gr. Gr.^ p. 206.
As
its
name
implies,
motion from, or separation.

'
he
is
taller
=
than
me
Monro H. G.-
'
With
being,
149.
it
335]
277
seems, conceived in the original Indogermanic language

as
'
from me.'
lie is taller
compared
is
The smaller
of the two objects
taken as the standard of comparison.
In ablatival sense.
(1)
With
a.
verbs with and without a preposition
prefixed
Aios 6vyaTp,
cTke,
Koi Sijiot^tos
TroXe/J-ov
348.
II. V.
Withdraw from the war and the
Soph. 0. B. 152.
nTj6i(3vos f/Jas
Thou
earnest from
contest.
Pytho
(cp. liaOpinv 'iaradQi ib. 142).
Aegypto advenio
(rare)
Plant. Most.
Kyjp
set
my
si
a,^0% fiiOirjKa
539.
heart free from anguish.
diu afueris domo

Plaut. Stick
If
10.
2.
ii.
II. XVll.
iv. 1.
18 (523).
you have been long from home.
In Classical Greek, verbs of depriving frequently take
two accusatives, though, as in Homer, many traces of

the original construction survive.
T^v piy deKoVTOS aTnjvpuyv
Whom
they
dotSoi'
reft
H.
MoCcra o^Qakfx&v
p-iv
The double
will.
ap.ep<Te k.t.X.
Od.
The Muse
430.
i.
by force from him against his
viii.
64.
bereft the poet of his eyes.
accusative
is
also
found in Homer.
It
arises presumably from the possibility of using the verb
A SHOET MANUAL OF
278
with either an animate
or
335
inanimate
'they
object
robbed him, they took away his goods'; the two con-
The Latin
structions being finally fused into one.
con-
and dative with verbs of taking

away is formed apparently on the analogy of the contrasted verbs of giving.
Eriiniit me morti is thus an
imitation of dedit me morti. For the original construction cp. domo me eripuit Ter. Adelph. ii. 1. 44 (198), se
struction of accusative
turn eripuit flamma Cic. Brut. 90.
Verbs of freeing and warding
off
sometimes also take
the simple ablative.

Tov ye deoi KaKorrjTOi ekvaav
Him
Od.
397.
V.
the Gods release from his trouble.

ego hoc te fasce levabo
Virg.
I will relieve
Tpuias
He warded
off
you of
afx.vv
65.
vewv
xv. 731.
II.
et igni arcere'
Tac.
To keep from
With
ix.
the Trojans from the ships.
aqua
h.
Ed.
this bundle.
fire
Ann.
iii.
23.
and water.
verbal nouns.
EKySacrts ou Try
âiveff uAos
Od.
There appeared nowhere an outlet from the

oKiyy) avaTTTcuo-ts TroXifLoio
Short
is
H.
V.
410.
sea.
xi.
801.
the respite from war.
Periphanes Rhodo mercator ('a trader from Rhodes')

Plant. Asin.
ii.
4.
92 (499).
In Plautus apparently only noster esto, dum tepoteris defemare

iniuria Bacch. iii. 4. 39, and possibly ecquis hie est qui iniuriam
foribus defendat? Most. iv. 2. 20. 'B'at forihus may be a dative.
1
335]
279
In Latin the construction was always limited to

place-names and soon died out, except in
tribe-name in the
give the
Roman,
as 8er. Sulpicius Q. F.
usage to
its
designation of a
official
Lemonia Bufus
'Servius
Sulpicius Rufus, son of Quintus, of the tribe Lemonia.'
With
c.
OS
adjectives.
vlwv iroAAwv T Kol kdBKiav cwfv eOrjKev
jU.'
II. xxii.
Who made me
bereft of
many
ut ego ewheredem meis bonis
noble sons.
me faciam
Plant. Most.
To
disinherit myself of
A,<U|8r)s
44.
my
i.
77.
3.
goods.
T6 Kol aiVêos ovk jTriScueis
n.
Not lacking
in disgrace
xiii.
622.
vii.
653.
and shame.
vacui cultoribiis agri

Ovid, Met.
Fields
With
d.
empty of
prepositions
tillers.
and adverbs.
All prepositions indicating motion from govern the
In Greek, genitives with such prepositions
ablative.
represent the
prepositions
original
becoming prepositions
and
TTc'Aas
(2)
a.
ablative.
also govern this case, e.g. i/oV^t
in Greek, coram,
The
Besides the original
some adverbial forms in the process of

palam, tenus
in Latin.
ablative of comparison.
oiîyX-qv vvKTOs d/XEtVco
mist better than night.
77.
iii.
11.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
280.
qua muliere alia nidlast
[335
piilcrior
Plant. Merc.
Than she
there
is
no
1.
i.
100.
fairer lady.
Comimratio compendiaria : for brevity or by

confusion the two things compared are not parallel, the
most frequent case being that a quality in the one case
b.
is
in the
compared with the possessor of the quality
other.
Kpu(rarv
avTe Aios yeverj trorafiolo rervKrac
R
The
race of Zeus
is
xxi. 191.
better than a river

(for 'a river's race').
sermo promptus
et
Isaeo torrentior
Juvenal
73.
iii.
His language ready and more rapid than Isaeus

(instead of
c.
Words and
Isad sermone).
meaning resembhng
plirases with a
the comparative take the same construction.

TuIvSe TO. erepa Troiieiv
Herod,
To
iv.
126.
3.
208.
do things different from these.

species alias veris
Hor. Sat.
ii.
Ideas other than the true.

iiullus hoc metuculosiis
Plant.
Nobody
aeque
Amph.
i.
1.
142 (293).
so nervous as he.
The Latin construction with aeque may, however, be

instrumental
338,
2).
is
a mixture of three original cases
336]
The Greek
336.
,
,11
dative, as has
been already shown,
the
11-
dative, the locative
281
The
"i-
dative.
and the instrumental.
Latin retains the dative intact.

"
The true Dative
whom
something
is
expresses the person to or for
done, or
who
is
regarded as chiefly
affected or interested'."
The
(1)
(b)
dative with verbs expressing (a) giving,
addressing, including
helping, favouring,
(h)
etc., (e)
motion towards
a.
fjLiopla
7;
(rare)
commanding,
(c)
obeying, (d)
anger, (/) belief, (g) yielding,

(^) with the substantive verb.
StSmo-iv dvOpM-n-OL's Ka/ca
Menand.
Folly gives
illi
men
Sent. 224.
troubles.
perniciem dabo
Enn. Medea, Fr. 5 (Merry).
To him
I will
bring ruin.
Sometimes an object to some extent personified appears in the dative instead of a person.
nj
y^
SavttîLV Kpelrrov icrriv
tj
/JpoTOis
Philem. Fr.
Lending to the land
is
li.
c.
better than to men.
debemur morti nos nostraque

Hor. A. P. 63.
We
^
and ours are a debt due to death.
Monro H.
In practice the dative is not confined

examples show, but the
usages are concerned with persona or with things
G.^ 143.
to persons, as several of the following
majority of
personified.
its
The
old
and somewhat vague
only definition which will cover
all
inclinatio rei is the
the uses of the dative.
'
A SHORT MANUAL OF
282
This dative in Greek
h.
interest,
a genuine dative of
is
rtva being used of mere address.
irpo's
ti
336
(TV
ix.rj
ToS' ci'voeis,
yu)
Xeyo
<jol
Aesch. ^gf. 1088.
thou understandest not
If
diclt Gleomeni,
this,
tibi
'
uni parcam
VeiT. Act.
Cic.
He
says to Cleomenes
I shall spare
ov8k ovTO) IcrrJKOvov ol
01
C.
'
tell it to thee.
you
ii.
v.
Adrji/aioi
Herod,
Not even
so did the
Cp. the phrase
clicto
105.
only.'
Athenians hearken to him.
sum
audiens
alicui.
OV KOKOV icTTLV
d.
TeLpOfj.ivoi'S
erdpoKTiv d/Aui'juev aliniv oXeOpov

II. xviii.
No
87.
vi.
evil is it to
ward
off
128-
headlong ruin from wearied
comrades.
gnato nt medicarei-
tiio
Ter. A7idr. v.
To be physician
e.
KOI
KepafjLev';
1.
to your son.
koI tcktovi tektioj'
Kepafiel Koreei
Hesiod,
Potter
is
12 (831).
W. D.
25.
wroth with potter, wright with wright.

vehementer mi
est
irata
Plaiit.
True.
ii.
6.
64.
She's a\vfully angry with me.

f.
p.rj
iravTO. Treipm
ttScti
Trio-Teucii'
aei
Menander, Sent. 335.
Try not always to trust
all
men
in all things.
283
336]
Livy,
credere suis militibus
To
45.
ii-
trust their soldiers (cp. crede mihi, etc.).

TO ov
g.
ovSevl clkidv
jiivo'S
Od.
xi.
515.
Yielding in his might to none.

cedaiit
arma
togae
Cicero.
Let arms yield to the gown.

h.
SiavoovfJicOa 8ia iroKi/jLov auTOis
Uvai
Xen. Anab.
We
are
minded
to
iii.
2. 8.
meet them in arms.
clamor caelo
it
Virg. Aen. v. 451.
The shout reaches

i.
'
I^V'''VP
His mother
'liTTTta
//.ovio
is
^''"''
to heaven'.
'A^poStrr;
Aphrodite
(oJ
//. v.
practically
248.
= iij.).
T(uv a8eX<^(3v iraTScs iyivovTO
Thiic. vi. 55. 1.
Hippias was the only brother who had children.
semper in cimtate
qtiibus opes nullae sunt, bonis invident

Sail. Gat. 37.
In a state those who have no property always envy the

well-to-do.
Cp. domino erit qui utatur Cato JR.M.

will
be owner
cative Dative
'
'
'
with abstract substantives^
This construction
be understood later
^
1,
'
the user
a construction bordering on the
(op.
See Eoby, Latin
is
'
Predi-
(cp. (4) below).
not originally locative however
it
Delbriick Grundriss, Syntax 136).
Grammar
Vol.
ii.
Introduction.
may
A SHORT MANUAL OF
284
With
(2)
substantives.
The dative
a.
336
is final.
Arist. Clouds 1158.
my
I'm having a child brought up, a saviour for
house.
dies colloqido dictus est
Caesar, B. G.
for
42.
i.
a conference was appointed.
The verbal noun takes the same construction
b.
its
day
verb
as
(rare).
Tovs apxovTas vvv vir-qpiTa^ rots v6p.0L% eKciXecra
Plato, Legg. 715
The
rulers I
now
c.
the laws.
call servants to
opulento hominl sercitus dura est

Plant.
With
(3)
a.
(a) adjectives
iravpouTW
irLorvvo'S
Amph.
man
Service to a wealthy
and
12 (166).
1.
i.
hard.
is
{b) adverbs.
fxeydk' avSpdaiv ipy
iiriîlpei
Theognis
Trust few when you take in hand
Oeoiai,
fjicv
a,y(p-qa-Tov
i/'eCSos,
75.
gi-eat deeds.
dvOpwTroL^ 8e
^p-qa-i.p.ov
Plat. Bej). 389
While a
useless to gods, it
lie is
bonus
sit bonis,
mains
is
sit
b.
useful to men.
malis
Plant. Bacch.
He must
b.
ix^pOi
iv. 4. 13 (661).
be good to the good, bad to the bad.
Slj
yU-Ot
KCLVO'S
OfXUl^
'Al'SttO
TnjX.y(TLV
n.
Hateful indeed
is
that
man
to
me
K.T.X.
ix.
312.
as the gates of Hades.
336]
While the dative
285
of advantage requires no special
discussion, the definition of the dative as a whole in-
cluding this,
it is
The
(4)
necessary to treat separately
final dative.
In Greek this construction
the infinitive
found
form
from perhaps
(cp. 525fi".),
main confined to
only an isolated case-
is
Indo-Germanic languages
in the different
all
in the
is
which
The
cases including the nominative.
infinitive forms in
Greek are partly dative, partly loca-
tive in origin, but in usage
no distinction
observed.
is
the Supine assumes
In Latin the accusatival infinitive
this final use (with verbs of motion), while the dative
and
locative forms (diwe
= Secâi,
leg-l,
= *leg-ai;
legere
The
value only in poetry.
*leges-i)
retain this
usage
however widely developed in the dative of the
is
substantive proper, which in Latin
is
final
not fettered by
the danger of confusion with other cases.
Tu pa $eo%
Trepi
8<3kv doiSj/i' ripiruv
Od.
To him God gave song

mater
filiae
to
make
it
iv. 3.
to her daughter for a
Plant. True.
gave
28.
gift.
dedi quinque argenti deferri miiias
Cp.
44.
dono dedit
Plant. True.
The mother gave
viii.
gladness.
five
minae of
silver to
be taken
(for
iv. 2.
30.
taking or
being taken).
vv/nâs es
vrjcrov
aTrioKLcre T-qXoOL
vaiuv
Od.
The nymphs she removed
xii.
135.
to the island to dwell afar.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
286
ea relicta huic arrabonist pro
left
him
as
an earnest
3.
iii.
for that
42 (603).
money.
parasitum misi petere argentum
Cp.
Plant. Cure.
I've sent to ask
6u/xos avriKev
o-e
The
spirit
Aa
moved thee
turn profecto
me
sibi
x^'Ps
to
lift
i.
3.
50 (206).
money.
6.va(T-)(UV
II. vi. 256.
thy hands to Zeus.
hibeant scurrae ludificatui

Plant. Poe7i.
Then
certainly let the wits have
me
for
v. 5. 2.
a laughing- stock.
quern virum smnis celebrare
Cp.
Hor. Od.
What
Tcu^ca, Oaiifxa
l&ecrdai.
receptui
A
Cp. hoc
mi hau
12.
i.
hero do you undertake to glorify
Armour, a wonder to
1.
II, x. 439.
see.
signum
Cic, Phil. xiii. 15.
signal for retreat.

sit labori^
laborem hunc potiri

Plaut. Paul.
It
336
argento
illo
Ter. Heaut.
She was
would be no task to
iTTiroi
me
i.
3.
6 (190).
to master this task.
/JapSio-Toi
Bduv
II. xxiii. 309.
Horses very slow to run (for running).

' Is it possible that this dative so frequent in Latin can have
been developed in early times thi-ough attraction to infinitives of
This has happened in Sanskrit
a similar form as here ?
hrali:
mdna
Veda
V. 31. 4.
The
priests
ened him for the slaying of the serpent

Delbriick, S. F.
v.
p. 89.
hantava
xi. Eig
magnifying Indra with songs strength-
iiidram mahayaiito arkair avardluiyann iihaye
(for
the serpent to slay
it)
337]
ne
sit
287
reliquom poscendo atque auferendo

Plaut. True. Pr. 15.
Left to ask and carry
off.
referundae habeo linguam natam gratiae

Plaut. Persa
have a tongue born to return
te
3.
24.
videre audireque aegroti
Plaut. Trin.
Sick to see and hear
to
iii.
(for returning) thanks.
i.
2.
39
(76).
you\
The
possibility that the predicative dative originates
some
extent, if not entirely, in attraction to another
dative in the sentence

of such
mihi,
Plaut.
doubt
is
Men.
strengthened by a comparison
is
luventus nomen fecit Peniculo
sentences as
1.
i.
1,
attracted into the
where Peniculo without

same case as mihi. From
nature the predicative dative requires a personal
its
dative along with
between
it.
There
mihi cura and
est
est
is
no difference in meaning
mihi
ctirae
both types of
construction are found in Plautus, but the dative in the

later period and especially in Tacitus developes enormously at the expense of the nominative.
The original dative was not used with prepositions.
The use of prepositions with the Greek dative arises
from its locative and instrumental elements.
337.
The
locative
situation in or at.
is
the case expressing
From the
earliest period,
^;i_
rpjj^
j.
<^'^*''"*-
however, there were added to this signification the related
meanings of on to ireStu) /idXe (Homer) he threw it on

and among rolcn cWci/ among them he
the ground
'
much
This particular type
'
is
'
very rare in early times
extended, especially with participial forms.
later it is
A SHORT MANUAL OF
288
The confusion between
spake.'
towards
common
is
(1)
in
many
337
and motion
situation in
languages.
Locative of space.
'EAXaSi
o'lKia
vaimv
II. xvi.
595.
11. XXI.
388.
Dwelling in Hellas.
at ZeiJ?, rj^VO<i OuXTj|Lt7raj
Zeus sitting on Olympus heard.

nullust Ephesi quin sciat
Plaut. Bacch.
There
ii.
102 (336).
3.
nobody at Ephesus who doesn't know.
is
KwrjaayTK
Tijiv
'OXvfiTTiacriv
rj
AeX</)0i9 ^prjfjLarwv
Thuc.
143.
i.
1.
Moving some of the wealth at Olympia or Delphi.

Philippa matre natam Thehis
Plaut. Epid. V.
1.
29.
Born at Thebes of Philippa.

TraTrjp
Your
cros
dypw
avToOi. /xL/xveL
Od.
187.
xi.
father remains there in the country.

sibi
quisque ruri met it

Plaut. Most.
112.
2.
iii.
Everybody's his own reaper in the country.
More
abstract.
Kcxapoiaro
U.
OvfjLw
They would be gladdened

^
After the
confusion
of
the cases,
256.
i.
at heart.
Greek
naturally used
genuine dative forms in a locative sense and vice versa.
For a
surviving locative singular accompanied by dative forms used as

locatives cp. Kapv^ erolfios ^âv
avvdiinevos, Pindar, Neni. iv.
example in the
text.
75
'0\v^Tri(;i.
;
re Kal 'la^/xoi
'Nefi^<}
for a locative plural cp. the
next
289
337]
ahsurde fads, qui
te
angas animi
Plaut. Epid.
You're an
idiot,
to
vex yourself at
1. 6.
iii.
heart.
Locative of time.
(2)
Tpnarm
^/xttTt
On
363.
II. IX.
the third day.

die septimi
Plaut. Menaech. v.
On
9.
94.
iv.
82.
the seventh day.

Od.
oySoaTO) CTEt
In the eighth year.

Cp. quot minis (passim), quot mensibus Cato, R. B. 43.
The
(3)
locative with persons,
preserved in Sanskrit and in Greek,
which
is
fused with the dative in Latin wherever
usurped by such prepositions as inter

In Greek the usage
tive.
as
OS Tpwcri
df.o'i
honoured among
Compare
<Ss
the
tUto
is
is
distinctly
inextricably con-
place
its
is
not
with the accusa-
found in such sentences
.S-i]fj.,
H.
xi.
58,
'
who was
Trojans as a god in the land.'
also the phrases at the beginning of a speech
among them up rose he/ Toto-t 8c fivduiv

among them he took up his tale.'
The locative of persons with verbs was found
(4)
commonly with () verbs of ruling, (6) taking delight in
Toto-i 8' dvio-TT]
'
'
rjpxe.
and the
like.
In Latin this construction
is
probably
retained with potior and with some verbs of the 6-class,
the preposition in which is so frequently used with them
seeming to show their locative sense.

construction with
ScTTas,
II.
G. p.
XV. 88,
Se)(Ofâ.i
i/xia-Ti S
'From Themis
The Homeric
KaXXmapyiw
Sc'kto
the fair-cheeked re-
19
A SHORT MANUAL OF
290
ceived she the cup'
337
seems better taken (with Monro')
as a genuine dative than (with Delbriick^) as a locative,
although similar locative constructions are found in

In this construction Sixofiai means to receive
Sanskrit.
as a favour or to take as an attendant does^
ordinary meaning
it
Koi avOpunrOLiJi dvdaafL
OiolcTL
a.
iroXXfi(Tiv vrjcroLO-L
kol "ApyeL
rules.
dvaacreiv
ttoh'tI
II.
To be king over many
islands,
and Argos
midtis locis potiri*
To be master
yap
ii.r)MO.
my
many
Sail.
aXdû} koi
I
Jug. 92.
4.
places.
Krrj/j.aa-LV
abode delighted with
in virtute recte
Od. xiv. 244.
my
children,
gloriamur
Cic.
we
In virtue do
The
(5)
108.
lady wife and possessions.
Cp.
and
ii.
all.
oiov ifiuva TfTapirofxevos TeKeetrcrti'
KOvpiSirj T
For but one month
in
669.
II. U.
Over (among) gods and men he
b.
in its
takes the ablatival genitive.
locative
is
X D.
iii.
87.
rightly pride ourselves.
found also with
{a) substantives
(b) adjectives.
In Latin this construction is absorbed in the genitive,

traces remaining only in such phrases as tieger nnimi
etc.
H.
Ahl. Loc. Instr. p. 40; S. F. iv. p. 56.
G.-'
143, 2.
Monro, H. G.-
Delbi-iick, A.
loc. cit.
L.
I. p.
65 calls this the iustrumeutal.
337]
291
Tpcoa 'Epi)(6ovios TtKero Tpweacnv avaKra
a.
II.
among
Brichthonius begat Tros, the king

Cp.
r]liai(TLV
King
titWots ava^
Thebes famed
in
avSpdai
T(ov Toi /xaraitav
XX. 230.
the Trojans.
Bur. Plwen. 17.
for .steeds.
<j>povq)jia,TMv
yXuMTcr' dXrjdrj? ytyi/crai /caTJjyopos.
Ae,sch. S.
c.
T. 438.
among men
Verily of vain imaginings
the tongue becometh infallible accuser.

dpnrpiiria TpiSeacn
Illustrious
The
(6)
among the
locative of
II. vi.
477.
Trojans.
motion towards.
English has
the same construction.

KXrjpov KVVfrj /3aA.E
The
lot
he threw
in
11. vil.
Xap-al l3dXi SeV8pa
He threw
187.
the helmet.
II. ix.
541.
the trees on the gTound.
procumbit kumi' bos
The ox
Virg. Aen.
v.
481.
on the ground.
falls
toto proiectus corpore terrae
Virg. Aen. xi. 87.
Cast at his length on the earth.
The
(7)
prepositions with the locative in Greek are
a'/tiî, ai/a, Iv, ctti,
êra, irapd, vepl, irpoi (irpoTi)
which
eVt,
a//.(/)i,
locatives.
stcbter,
i
61/,
Trepl
The Latin
and
77-po9
and
viro,
of
are themselves old
prepositions are
in,
sub, super,
coram.
According to Draeger, Hist.
Sijnt. i.- p.
573 not found before
Cicero, terrae not before Virgil.
192
A SHORT MANUAL OF
292
From the
(8)
mentioned
may
number of
considerable
locative a
Besides the prepositions
made.
adverbial forms are
337
be cited alu
(ak's 312), iripvcri.
year/ aVri ante, penes (312), pron.
ttoi
'last
Old Lat. qui,
etc.
The instrumental
338.
The
viii.
object
in-
strumentai.
the case of the person,
is
circumstance accompanying, or
or
acting as ageut, instrument or cause.
The
transition from the idea of association to that of instru-
ment
Thus
is
easy and can be observed in
many
languages.
modern English with is first a preposition of

association
The man with the child, the man jrith the
From the latter usage comes without difficulty
sicord.
with the sword he slew them, the earlier form of which
would be he had a sword and he slew them.
The sociative instrumental, whether (a) person
(1)
in
or (b) circumstance.
a.
aXu>jX(.vo% vrji
tc kol
irdpoicrL
Od.
xi.
161.
Wandering with a ship and with comrades.

si aedificabis,
operis iumeutis materia
adiucabunt
Cato, R. B.
If
you
build,
they
will
assist
i.
you with workmen,
beasts of burden and wood.

Tots dyaOoL'; avfJ-fJutrye,
KaKOicn Se
/j.rj
woO' o/xaprct
Theognis, 1165.
Mix with the good and company never with the

ipse
bad.
uno graditur comitatus Achate

Virg. Aeii.
i.
312.
Himself stalks forward attended by Achates only.

b.
Tpwes laxy
la-av
The Trojans marched on with a
II. xvii.
shout.
266.
338]
non dicam dolo
With non-personal
combined
frequently
'
skewers and
classical prose
ii.
90. 6,
'
Se
ft-iav
One
airois
The
all.'
:
it,
avVo's is
appears also in
construction
[i/aCi/]
airois dvBpda-iv tiAov,
ship they took,
with
1. 3.
Od. xiv. 77,
d/SeXoto-tv,
men and
construction
Thuc.
all'.'
The accompanying circumstance has

adjective
ii.
Homer
substantives in
Men.
Plaut.
speak with, guile.
will not
293
frequently an
very
extensively
developed in Latin.
d-yxi/xoXov &i
ri\ff
<T<f>
'^Kdîj tctiijoti Ovfiw

II.
And
xxiv. 283.
near to them came Hecuba with anguish-stricken
heart.
utinam ne imquam...cupido corde pedem
extidisses'
Ennius.
Would
that you had never set forth with your covetous
heart.
Hence comes the frequent
descriptive ablative
in
Latin.
(2)
The
The instrumental
place
of
of
likeness
construction
this
has
and
equality.
generally been
usurped by the dative or by usages with prepositions.
Compare with
in 335, 2
lo-os, oyaoio;, OjU,oi(u
this
c.
366.
construction,
i.^
which
effect of airb^ in this
144 note.
Draeger, Hist. Synt.
etc.)
nullust hoc metuculosus aeque,
The
For an explanation of the
Monro, H. G.^
vii.
counsellor equal with the gods.
(Cp. also
cited
H.
/iT^cTTwp ara'Aai/Tos
Oco<j>i.v
p. 538.
is
not
phrase see
A SHOET MANUAL OF
294
common
in Latin, falls within the border-land
ablative
and instrumental.
Instrumental of
(3)
Not
cause.
338
between
in
persons
of
early Latin'.
(ucêXes avTO^' oXidOai.,
avSpi Sa/Acis Kpartpm

II.
that thou hadst perished here, slain
Would
iii.
by
429.
a stout
warrior.
8'
fj
The
lQ(.(.v
jSopirj
Od. xiv. 299.
avifiM
ship sped on with the north wind.

Cic. p. Mil. 47.
iacent suis tesiihus
(rare)
They
lose their case by reason of their
(4)
own
witnesses.
Very common.
Instrumental of means.
Straov eyco S-vva/xaL fîpaiv re Trouiv re koI crdevei

II.
As
far as I
si
am
able with hands
and
feet
XX. 360.
and strength.
sumvio lovi probo argento sacruficassem

Plant. Most.
had made a
money.
If I
(5)
sacrifice to
i.
3. 84.
Jove almighty with good
Instrumental with verbs.
This very
common
construction requires illustration
only in the case of verbs of (a) price,

irpiaTO
a.
[jixe]
(b) fulness.
KTeaTecrcTiv loiaiv
He bought me
Od. XV. 483.

with his own wealth.
quattuor minis ego istanc emi

Plaut.
I
bought her with

'
(for)
Men.
four minae.
Draeger, Hist. Synt.- 229.
i.
3.
22.
295
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY,
338]
tw
(rare)
b.
8e ol ocro-e SaKpv6<j>i, rrXTjcruei'
R
His two eyes were
filled witli tears.
complebantur corpora
telis
Amph.
Plaut.
Their bodies were
Both of these
genitive of price
classes
filled
is
no doubt partitive
334,
It occurs in
The
genitive of
5).
Instrumental with (a) substantives,
(6)
The
take a genitive.
also
probably predicative.
is
95 (251).
1.
i.
with darts.
both languages with substantive verbs.

fulness
xvii. 696.
adjec-
(&)
and (c) numerals to express the thing in respect

of which a predication about the subject is made.
tives,
a.
(rare)
vo/j.Lê
yqft.a'i
SovAos etvai
tuS /Ji'm
Gnom.
Marry and think yourself a
natura tu
illi
slave as regards
pater
i.
hie
mews amicus
illi
is
am.
H.
ix. 58.
birth.
proximus
Ad. iv. 5. 17
generest
Ter.
friend
46 (126).
2.
OTrXoVaTos ya>eyi<îv
Youngest in point of
My
Ad.
birth you're his father, in schemes
b.
life.
es consiliis ego
Ter.
By
your
77.
(651).
nearest to her in respect of kin.

ivpvTipo's wp-oKTi^
7/. iii.
194.
Broader in respect of shoulders.

In Greek this construction disappears before the
'
In Latin however
of the part affected.'
tion
the accusative
is
it is
'
accusative
the regular construc-
a Graecism for the most part.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
296
mm pernix
manibus, pedibits mohilis

Plaut.
am
active with
my
M.
Many
mille
G.
in
feet.
[dpLBfiov
in
Homer].
number.
Verr.
ii.
measure
comparatives
with
Of words of quantity Homer uses
(jroXv,
etc.),
ji-iya.
Tts o8' eo-Tiv /xeiwv jxkv K^<j>aXfj
'
but
'ArpciSao
hyaji.ijj.vovo%
II.
Who
is
amabo
ad Quint. Fr.
you a hair the
The instrumental
(8)
ii.
15.
less.
of place disappeared in Greek
except in such pronominal words as
The instrumental
(9)
te
Cic.
shan't love
193.
iii.
head than Agamemnon
this less by a
ne pilo quidem minus
48.
1.
thousand ships in number.
superlatives.
the accusative
my
numero navium
Instrumental of
(7)
and
36 (630).
Herodotus
Cic.
1.
iii.
hands, agile with
TToXXoL dpiOfjiiS
c.
338
of time
irrj;
is
'by which way?'
possibly found in
XpoVo)' 'with time, in time.'
Both types are possibly extant in Latin. Delbriick'

from Caesar omnibus viis semitisque essedarios ex
slMs emittebat by all roads and bye-paths he sent out
chariot fighters from the woods'
quod iniquo loco
atque imparl congressi numero quinque horis proelium
cites
'
sustinuissent, B. C.
usage
i.
47,
'
for five hours.'
But
this
indistinguishable from the locative.
is
Brug. Gr. Gr."
187.
'
A. L.'I.
p. 54.
time
297
339]
Adverbial.
(10)
Adverbial forms from the instrumental are
one of
its
jutra, TTtSa
endings -a (or m),
many
had
for
particles such as Iva,
and adverbial forms such as Taâ, mko may be

T-^t, XiKpi-</>i'-9 are
referred to the instrumental.
of the same origin

cito,
common
If the instrumental
in both Greek and Latin.
probably
In Latin, forms like
314, 323).
niodo are instrumental?.
With
(11)
prepositions.
In Greek avv and
seem to have been originally
a^â
used with the instrumental'.
In Latin
cum
is
the only
instrumental preposition.
Absolute Cases.
In
339-
all
branches of the Indo-Germanic family of
languages there are case-forms used mainly with participles
and
referring to
some person
or thing other
than the
subject of the sentence, while at the same time they are
dependent on no other word. Such forms are said to be

an absolute case. But the Indo-Germanic
in
languages do not
this purpose.
all
use the same case for
gu'ês havVdif'absolute
Sanskrit uses regularly the ^g'
locative, occasionally the instrumental
and
the genitive, Greek uses the genitive and, in certain

cases, the accusative,
represent
an
original
which
may
instrumental,
Old
Latin the ablative,

locative
or
English the dative, which represents either the original
and the Slavonic languages the

The separate languages seem therefore to have
locative or instrumental,
dative.
Delbruok, S. F.
iv. p.
need with the locative.
133
fxeTo. (ibid.
p. 132)
was originally
'
A SHORT MANUAL OF
298
339
and from
somewhat different points of view. In Greek
lute case is Ken.
the Construction is a real genitive and not
'"'*
It probably arose in Greek
an ablative.
The ablative
time'
genitive
of
out of the
( 334, 7).
represents
probably
Latin
more
absolute
in
Latin absoconstruction
developed the
case
lute
is
sibiy loc.
independently'
instrumental than the locative,
^j^g original
for in the early
Latin the preposition cum
occasionally appears in such constructions

volentibus, Cato,
may
of time,
cmn
divis
usages, especially those
equally well be derived from the original
literally is
-jeXiov dFtovros
'within the time when the sun
the Latin sole oriente

or
Some
141.
While therefore the Homeric
locative.
taken
B.R.
is
at the time
'
when the sun
rises,'
rises
along with the rising of the sun.'
'
Corresponding to Greek sentences without expressed
of
Special forms
absolute con-
subject'',
^
.
such as eêan the absolute parti.
-,
mi
tion,
however,
is
This construc-
ciple iôv appears in the ace.
In Cicero and
not Homeric.
the later Latin the participle appears in the ablative
without an accompan3dng substantive
(1)
auspicato,
nee opinato, etc. or (2) with a clause in place of the substantive
tei'ga dantihits
qui modo
seciifi
erant (=
ttecu-
toribus), Liv. xxxi. 37. 7.
No doubt
various usages of the locative
and instrumental
bordered upon this construction from the earliest period, but the
use of one case for this meaning was not yet fixed.
2
Monro, H. G.^
''
More
% 246.
accurately, without a substantive in the
sition ( 331).
nom. in appo-
299
341]
Fragments of
xxi.
cases.
Adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions.
Between adverbs and prepositions no distinct

When a case ending was Prepositions
found too vague to express the meaning used to define
case-meaning.
order
intended, another word was added
340.
line
can be drawn.
to
convey greater definiteness.
strophe
So
(TTrjOtarcri
more
tions
irepi
rripi
'
with ana-
to
'
would
'round about the breast'
meaning of a case
requires
Hence the
the breast round about
oil
crTr'iOtcrcn
local the
it
airo
therefore no exception but the original type.
is
precede
ofi/jidTuiv
is,
The
the more preposi-
convey definiteness of meaning.
cases which are
most widely construed with
prepositions are the accusative, locative and ablative
the instrumental needs fewer and the genitive

dative none.
The
preposition therefore
is
and
only an adverb
specialised to define a case usage.
What then of aTrofiaLva, avicrxov and other verb forms

which are combined with words such as accompany noun cases ? Here the adverbial (adverbs) with
meaning is still retained v^m dirojiaLvu
from the ship he goe's off,' x^ 'pas dvecrxov they raised
their hands up.'
In Homer these adverbial forms are
'
'
still
frequently separated from the verb with which they
go.
In the later history of the language, the combination

and verb becomes more constant.
of adverb
341.
In the early history of
all
languages there are
probably few adverbs which are not nominal

or pronominal forms
adverbs formed from
verbs are late and always rare

verbs ending in -0
diro, irpb,
278).
Ad-
mro cannot be
art'^Teiie^'^'^'f
'*''"
c'l';^^''^
A SHORT MANUAL OF
300
amb- in amb-itus
etc., a.vT-1
Lat. ante,
(also
arap) Eng. a-sunder {=*snter),
v-jrip,
bly instrumentals,
is
-a
if
Lat.
Lat.
a?;,
loca-
a-Tip (cp.
i=s-u2}er^)
sj9r
/xer-a, 8i-a
possi-
the original suffix of the instru-
314).
ud, Eng. out)
oV
cp. Lat.
ctt-i
i'-i)
probably suffixless locatives, av-a, Kar-a,
(Skt.
tives with the -i suffix,
mental
341
any known case ai/' ( = aTr-?) Lat aps {ab),

Lat. ex may however be genitives; d/i0i Lat.
identified with
i^ (=K-s)
is
In
io--Tcpo5,
an old adverb *ud
concealed by phonetic changes.
the comparative stem found in

Sometimes a whole group of adverbial or prepositional forms seem to come from one
va-repo's
represents
the English utteo:
original stem, vrapos (gen.), Trapai (dat.) Lat. prae,
to which are akin
(loc.) -n-ap-a (instr.),
Latin de and Old Latin

deceit
'
se (sed) in se
are apparently ablatives
-n-ip-l
^po':, nipav, iripa.
fraude
for *ded,
'
without
sed''.
The
which are said to be originally

different , and of Latin cum (from *kom- root of koivo'? =
history of ^vu and
*Koyu,-io-s) is
not
a-vv,
clear.
Of other forms which have
may be mentioned
1
With
2 s-
is
certaiulj^ a case origin
dXXa, the proclitic form of aXXa ace
variant grade (Brugmann, Gr.
Gr?
p. 219).
compared with vrip, virb, Skt. upari, upa

the weak grade of ex (Osthoff, M. V. iv. pp. 156,
in super, sub as
explained as
266).
^
Buck, Vocalismus dcr oslsischen Sprache,
p. 31,
takes de as
the instr. of an -o-stem, a view which receives support from the

fact that the corresponding
tion
and cannot have
form in Old Irish di produces aspiraended in a consonant.
originally
Kretschmer K. Z. xxxi. pp. 415 ft. identifies ^dii and trdu, supThe double forms
I- to change to ir- as in Latin s-tiper.
date from Indo-Germanie times and hence a bye-form w is found
in Cyprian and Pamphylian.
This form he identifies with the
*
posing
Lithuanian sa Old Bulgarian
sit
'
with.'
342]
plural (cp. Lat. ceterum)
mental
o/xw-s,
301
ajxa (= *smm-a) probably instrufrom the same root as u/aa but with
;
different grade, ablative.
Some conjunctions have certainly descended

342.
from the primitive period and cannot be certainly anaSuch are tI Lat. que, yi,
vv, vv-v and vvv
num, (.t-i Lat. et, ov possibly Latin ]iau-, hau-t, hau-d.
The great majority of conjunctions are certainly or
lysed.
/j.-^,
Lat.
probably of pronominal origin.
Such are
in
accusative forms of the pronominal stem

ov
genitive, ol locative, -^-ând
tals, Toi ethic
i'-va
dative 'mark you
'
Greek
10-
o, a-re.
325
iv)
probably instrumenes,
must be scanned
-ôs
different suffix).
koL is explained as
which in Homer
(= îd-po^ cp. Skt. yd-vat with a
a neuter plural =
Latin forms are quod, quia accusative, ntei
Lat. quae.
(ut),
ubei (uhi) locative, quo ablative and instrumental.
quin
is
added.
the locative qui with the abbreviated negative ne
Many other forms
of obviously pronominal origin
have not yet been satisfactorily explained. Such are quam,

cum {quom), iani. The 'if particles in both Greek and
i and Doric at were
Latin present many difficulties.
formerly explained as being the same as Lat. sei {si) and
Oscan
svai.
accounted
for,
But the loss of aspiration is not

and Brugmann conjectures that d
'
easily
is
the
locative of an -o-stem, at of an -a-stem from the prono( 325 viii) found in the Skt. genitive
and svai may also be taken as masculine
and feminine locatives from the pronominal stem suo( 328 ii)^
minal stem
a^sya
Gr"
Gr.
For a
0-
sei
etc.
p. 225.
full
account
of
such adverbial case-forms see Delbriick,
Grundriss, Syntax, chapters xiv. and xv.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
302
xxii.
Stem formation in
343-
the noun.
Those nouns which are formed directly from

343.
the root with or without the addition of case suffixes
have abeady been discussed. It remains now to classify
the elements that are employed in the languages with
which we have to deal, in order to build up the stem
in those
noun forms which
are not
made
directly from
the root.
The suf5x attached

and
Simple
complex suffixes,
to a stem or a class of stems
be either simple or complex.

g^fgx
is
that which
further component parts,
e.g.
of oTk-o-s, the -u- of vic-U'S.
the
we cannot analyse
-0-
in the
may
simple
into
stem syllable
A complex suffix is one which
can be analysed into component parts,
e.g.
EA.a;(-ior-To-9
pos-tu-mu-s, where the superlative suifix in each case can
be analysed into two suffixes which have a separate and

independent vitality of their own.
344.
most
The
suflixes
used in stem formation
easily classified according to the
they are composed.

Classification
of suffixes.
may be
We
may
be
sounds of which
thus have six series of suffixes
Corresponding to the six classes into which
sounds were divided (^ 1135).

There
ending (1) in stops whether voiced,
stems
breathed, or aspirated, (2) in spirants whether voiced or
breathed, (3) in nasals and (4) in liquids in either case
whether consonant or sonant

(6) in
well
diphthongs.
represented in
But
81),
all six classes
language.
(5) in
vowels or
are not equally
Stems ending
in stops
344]
are
303
comparatively rare, those in spirants, nasals and

of few types but widely developed, those in
liquids
vowels commonest and most widely developed of all'.

From vowel stems it is impossible to separate diphthongal stems,
for, as we have seen, in various ablaut

the weak grade of a diphthong is a simple vowel
It i.s also to be remembered that the uniformity
( 252).
in stem suffixes, which most langriages present to us
series
throughout
all the cases of the noun, is not the original

state of things, but the result of a great variety of changes
both phonetic and analogical, extending over a great

period of time during which
many
external forces
may
have been brought to bear upon the elements of language.
The philologist in dealing with this part of language is

somewhat in the position of the historian viewing an
ancient battlefield or the ruins of some early fortress.
The historian sees earthworks, or the outlines of a
camp on the battlefield, he may trace the course of the
moat round the castle and make out where some of the
principal buildings stood.
But without other aids he
can advance no farther. The earthworks will not tell
him how the battle swayed this way or that, the ruins
will not reveal to him the date or number of the sieges
And
they have endured.
so it
is
An
in language.
errant form here and there shows that in former days
the uniformity which

exist.
is,
in
We
But
most
is
now
to be found did not always
and course of the changes

more than is at present possible.
to trace the causes
instances,
do know, however, that the Latin uniformity which
1 Torp, Den Graske Nominaljiexion {Christiania 1890)

contends that the consonant stems are contracted out of
*ersono-s
becoming *ersdn-s
Cp. also note after 265
p.
[dpa-tjv)
193
f.
p.
10
o-
stems
*nero-s becoming îiir-s
ff.,
{a-v-rip).

A SHORT MANUAL OF
304
344
through all the cases of da-tor is not original

and we have good reason also to doubt whether -o-
carries -tor
(
48),
in -o-stems did originally appear in all cases except the
vocative and possibly the locative
One main
345.
which
251).
factor in causing diversity in stems
was accent, one main cause of uniformity

was analogy. Most of the suffixes which
affect
we can assign with certainty to the original

Indo-Germanic language show traces of gradation few
And
if any have escaped the working of analogy.
analogy affects not merely the form of words when they
;
have once come into existence. New words are made by

Only grammarians and educated people reanalogy.
cognise
the elements
of which their words are made.
The great majority of the human race make a new word

by adding to a word already known that which they
imagine to contain the meaning they wish to exIf lytel-ing means child, then
press by the new word.
young-ling may be formed in the same way, and so
on ( 286). Every child makes its new words for itself
hence mouses as the plural of mouse,
by analogy
The forms mouses, oxes show good
oxes of ox, etc.
:
reasoning, but defective knowledge of the
history of
language.
Stems in stops are but poorly developed in the

Indo-Germanic languages. Those which are
found come mostly from dental and guttural
346.
suffixes,
and
ending in
kXioi//
all
or
-0- parallel
(cp. kAotto-?),
nearly
Opi^f/,
of
all
to them.
4>î'p,
them have forms
Labial root nouns like

Lat. daps, caelebs have
developed in the separate languages, and

Labial stems.
have no exact etymological equivalents

where,
(jiîf
may
represent *bhleq-s.
else-
348]
305
Stems in -t-. Pew seem to reach back to

347the Indo-Germanic period, although Greek
T
ana
j_'
nave each a
I/atin
number
fair
Dental stems.
of
forms.
v-ui,
{pi)KT-6s)
Compare
{
Lat. nox {noct-is)
also
Oiji, Xe/3?js,
= *iiacro-dot-s
Eng. night (Goth, naht-s
ayvujs
gen.).
Latin locu-ple-s, sacer-dos
tlirough *saci--dus)\
Greek has no par-
such Latin forms as com-es (from
to
allel
rt.
'
go
')
Greek moreover has
gen. aim-i-t-i-s, seges gen. sege-t-is.
changed many such stems into -d- stems, possibly because

in some cases both series have the same
changes of -tform of assimilation.
Hence parallel to ^''^^ '" Greek,
the Latin nepos neputis 'descendant' 'grandson,' Greek
has vtVoScs
Here a confusion has taken
{dXocrv^vq-;).
place between the original stem *nepdt- '*nepot- and a
Greek negative form from

because
less,'
'
children of Halosydne
are seals, to
applicable I
ttous, v^ttos (cp. rpt-Tros) 'foot-
Odyssey
in
whom
'
404, where
iv.
the phrase
occurs, the creatures indicated
the epithet
*vj;7roSs
would be equally
Sanskrit and other languages prove that
Other words which

Latin has kept the original form.
have passed in Greek from -t- to -d- in the suffix are
the numeral substantives StKas,
other languages show a
-t-
jrcvra's
etc.,
which in
stem.
362 ff.
These are more numerous in
Greek and in Latin than in any other language. Greek
has by far the greater number, many of which, however,
as in some cases above, can be shown to be analogical
For the
-t-
in
in -d-.
compounds probably
common sufBx -toCp. now Johannson
of the
suffixes in -nt see
Stems
348.
G. P.
is,
as Streitberg contends, a relic
( 378).
(I.
F.
rv. p. 144).
20
A SHORT MANUAL OF
306
of other
modifications
348
Secondary formations
stems.
from this stem are to be found in the adjectives in

-cu8e5
(TToi-tuSr;?
'
-(iSr]<;
grassy' etc.) which are often confused
with compounds ending in
The
-eiSrjs,
the signification being
and some
-.- stem
is also found.
The -8- in Greek is preceded only by -aand -t- <^wya?, eATrt's'. Latin makes no such distinction.
Latin unaccented -a- and -e- would be confused with -i( 159, 161), but we find besides -i- which arises in this
almost identical.
others
obviously
is
in
-S-
late, for
c'pi-s,
the ace.
pi-S-os
an
tp-iv to
way
in cuspi-s, lapis etc., -e- in nierces, -u- in 2>ecu-d-is
(gen.
50),
-tt-
Yn palu-d-is.
Stems in -h- (-k- and

is some authority
349.
Guttural stems.
for
In
an
all cases
-0-
consonant
stem.
with Skt. lopd^d-s",
*ldp>el(,-)
,,
Compare
fj-etpa^
there
stem beside
the
(stem
-q-).
>
akm-n-q^
(stem *meriaq-)
maryahl-s, Lat. senex (stem *seneq-) with
with Skt.
Lat. cervix is presumably for *cer-mC'S

and being thus from a root in -It has no -k- suffix.
Stems in -g- {-g- and -g-). These are very
350.
The latter is supposed
doubtful in apira^ and Tnipv^.
Skt. sanakd-s.
by some^ to be developed from a neuter nom.

-g-,
cp.
in -ng-
Kap-vyt
asrg
Skt.
Greek
in
'
blood
is
not
'
the origin
clear
suffix in
of the forms
âA.a-yf,
a-aXtr-iy^,
This suffix has been specialised in Greek for
words conveying "the notion of hoUowness," at any
'
i\Trls is
compound
ii
modification of an original -?-stem.
eiekin-v
and Old Latin volup
(neut. of
Cp. ace. of
-(-
stem for
^volupG).
2
See however Darbishire, Proceedings of Cambridge Philological
Society for 1893, p. 3.

'
Cp. Meringer, Beitriige tur GeschicJite der indogermanisclien
Declination, p.
6.
351]
rate in the forms -ty^

'
and
-vy^, o-Cpiyf
'
307
pipe,' a-irqXvy^
cave."
ii.
Stems in spirants. Here only stems which
351.
end in -s need be considered. The sufilxes with -s play
an important part in the Indo-Germanic
The varying forms
languages.
'*' ^ ''^'
of the simple
may all be explained as ablaut forms of one

stem, but in practice different grades have been specialised
-s- suffix
in different significations.
been specialised
the nominative, while
Compare
ai8<os,
(1)
The forms -os, -es have

and feminine forms of
for the masculine

-os,
-es
found as neuters.
are
= *dusds), Latin arbos, honos

(2) The forms in -es have been
rjm (Hom.
with yeV-os Lat. gen-US.
further specialised for the adjectival forms, while -ws,

are
-OS
i/zeuSe's
kept for the substantive forms
with
i/fcvSos
Suo-/xev7^s,
only trace of this which
The
side of gen-US.
is left
cp.
with
Svu/u.ci'es
in Latin is degener
adjective vetus
is
^/^cvSijs,
The
/ncVos.
by the
in origin a sub-
Analogy has led frequently to the

1).
generalising of one grade of the stem at the expense of
Thus aiScJs makes as its genitive not
the other grades.
*a&k{a)o% but aiSo((r)os, aiSoSs.
In, Latin this is more
stantive ( 138, n.
frequent
honoris for *honeris from *hones-is with the
of the nom.
arhoris for *arbes-is
temporis for *tem-
pes-is, cp. the case-form temperi isolated as
an adverb.
weaker form of the suffix where the vowel is

schwa , is probably to be found in
represented by
Greek xptas when compared with the
the
such nouns as
(3)
'
'
Skt. kravis.
But
it is
noticeable that most of the Greek
stems in -as have some type of -n- stem in connexion

compare xepas with Latin corn-u Eng. horn
with them
;
106) and in Greek itself with Kapa, Kapvo-i and Kpaa-1
Bloomfield, A. J. P.
xii. p. 27.
202

A SHORT MANUAL OF
308
TreSov.
and
may
Ke'pas
therefore represent *kern-s.
it
To the weakest
yip-a^
of all the forms of the stem
seems other suffixes were occasionally added
probably the origin of the Greek

the same root as Kp-a%) and
-KS- stems.
where by
other suffixes
-ies-
r J
speciaused
Tt,
itself it
hence
temple
-nt-.
viz. -s-
'
(from
etc., cp.
'
?iec-o.
connected with this
Closely
352.
'
(= *8oK-o--a)
So'f-a
nowa from the same root as
Lat.
Kop-a-r]
show
also
end in
the stem should
traces of -n-, but here

(4)
may
(both connected with yip-wv)
yyjp-a'i
351
and
are two
sufifix
has been
-ies
-ues-.
"
j-
j.-
the comparison 01 adjectives,
frequently forms the comparative and,
in combination with such other suffixes as -to-
and -mo-,
the superlative.
Thus, unlike as they seem,
iXaa-a-io (ace.)
one and the same
{*le{x)uios-) are
and lemorem
eAao-o-m represents
while lemorem like daWreni has
*-Xax-io(r-in, *(Xa(j(To-a,
taken over the long form of the suffix from the nomIn Greek, however, a confusion has arisen
inative.
between
fx.ut,ov-o<i
and -n stems
-s
TrXciovs
etc.
hence such forms as
lXdacrov-01,
= *ple-iios-es) may be compared
with the old Latin form pleores in the
Hymn
of the
Arval Brothers, though the two are not in all respects

The suffix appears as -ios, -ios in nominative
identical.
forms, as -ios-
found of the
form
in
-ies-
accusative
type,
eA.a;(-r-To-s, Lsit.
-is-:
(from *plo-is-mmo-s).
'
and
Cp.
it
forms.
is
Traces
are
also
frequent in the weak
pluri-mu-s, 0. L. ploirumo-s
Eng. next, O.H.G.
ndhisto
neighbour.'
353.
The
suffix -lies-
participle active.
1
In
was specialised
the
This form however with
suffix 374).
for the perfect

nominative this suffix ap-
-a
might
represent
*5o:-Tia
{i-
354]
peared as
-uos,
-uofi,
309
the accusative as
in
weakest form was in -us-, from which a

feminine form was made by adding the suffix
In Greek the
-l (-ie-).
"^*
suffix in -uos is retained,
fused in the masculine and neuter forms with

(op. eiScos
with
ftSmai)
vidufi)
suffix
represents
(Homeric
ISvia
the
original
with the weak
stems
ywvaiKts
fe'pya
feminine form
(Skt.
root-syllable.
In Latin this
has entirely disappeared, for the suggestion that
cadaver and papaver represent

has
but con-t-
a confusion not yet satisfactorily
6t8d-Tos),
The type
explained.
Its
-uos-.
little probability.
now regard the
-ues-
forms rhotacised
In Oscan, however, philologists'
existence of this participle as certain,
the future perfect active being formed by means of
The form
sipus
= scieiis
in meaning)
is
it.
explained as
being the perfect participle active of a verb corresponding in Oscan to Latin sapio, the perfect in Oscan being
*sepi (cp. Lat. capio, cepi), whence, with the
weak form^
of the suffix, sipus^.
354.
forms
Suffixes
iii.
As
suffix is -r-.
-or, -er
in the
in
-.s-
-or-, -er- ;
liquids.
The only
stems there are here
r;
r,
and possibly
liquid
many
F.
Here, as in the -s- stems, the forms in -or, -er are

for masculine and feminine forms with
specialized
different vocalism
1
(on the ordinary theory) according
Following Johannes Schmidt, K. Z. 26,
plained sifus
p. 372,
who
first ex-
(cp. 164, n. 3).
According to Buck, Bet oskische Vocalismus, p. 100. Bronisch

it as from the strong form of the suffix, but is refuted by
Brugmann, Berichte der Kon. Sikhs. Ges. der Wissemchaften, 1893,
-
takes
Gk. forms like ippyjyeM (Heraclea) etc. seem to show that

p. 138.
the feminine form had originally -ues-i in the nom., -m- in the
weak oblique cases.
3 For Oscan i = e see Appendix.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
310
354
to the position of the accent: -ar but -or^
-or-, -er-, -r
and -r
are
o
and
found in these stems
also
-m'-
-er- in
the accusative,' -r and -r

in the weakest cases of the
o
i-rr) in the nominative
The neuters
have -r
/
o
o
or in some cases possibly r, o-K-wp,
vS-oip-, and they carry weak forms throughout.
Closely
connected with these forms are others which in some
declension.
'
'
singular
ovdap,
languages show
rj-rrap,
an
stem
-n-
(where
The
-t-
Lat. jecur.
-a-
in the genitive
in
-r-
as the final
Skt. yak-n-as, 6k. îr-a-ros
--), Lat. jec-in-is {c^.
Greek
Skt. yakrt, Gk.
sujfiflx,
All stems of this form regularly show
ij-n-a-Tos
etc.
fem-ur gsn..
Of these two
several explanations have been offered.
are more plausible than the rest.
a confusion between -n- and

carried
these forms,
into
or
(1)
-nt(2)
Either there was
stems which
the
suffix
borrowed from such ablatival adverbs as

(
binations of the -r- and -n- forms.
have
Thus
was
was
-tos
ck-tos,
ey-rds
many com-
In these stems analogy produces
309).
fem-in-is).
a difficulty for which
is
Latin we
in
and
for the genitive of jecur, *jec-in-is', jec-or-is
new nominative femen by the side of

fem-ur and a new genitive fem-or-is. Compare vS-wp,
a
jec-in-or-is,
v'8-a-Tos
with
aAos-u'S-c-ij
(Gothic gen. wat-in-s).
and possibly iincla ; Eng. wat-er

a-K-uip makes o-K-a-rds
the Old
;
Norse sJcarn (Scotch shar-n) has a combination of both

stems in the nominative.
'
In Skt. the nom. sing, of
consonant
thus
svasii,
simplest explanation
assimilated to the
is
first
Double forms ( 237).

Schmidt (Pluraib.
'
We
jecinoris.
Latin
and u stems never

soro7'
(^sresor),
lias
the final
evd kvwv.
The
that in the sentence the final sound was
sound of the succeeding word, the origin

p. 193) takes these
must postulate the form
of
forms as collectives.
*jecinis in
order to explain
355]
311
The masculine and feminine forms in -tor-,

widely specialised as nouns of the agent, and
along with -m-- and -eras nouns of relationship.
The
355-
-ter- are
latter
class
certainly
dates from the Indo-Germanic

history of the former class is less easy to
determine because very many nomina agentis stand in
The
period.
close relation to verb-forms and may frequently

have been
developed within the independent life of the individual
The
languages.
type, however,
Nomina
a.
must be Indo-Germanic.
agentis^.
bo-r-qp
I
Soi-T-qp
bih-rup
Doric
dator
dK-rup
ac-tor
dpo-TTip
ard-tor
Nouns
b.
of relationship.
Tva-TTip
ixa-TTjp
pa-ter
md-ter
fa-ther
:
mo-ther
hro-ther
4>pa-T-np\
:
frater
(ppd-Ti^p)
dvyd-Trip
? ^-op^
Sa-rjp^
daugh-ter
soT'Or
sister
le-v-ir
O.E.
ta-eo?-
(husband's brother).
In the Germanic languages this class has disappeared, the
English
Latin
"
as in gardener
-er
representing the same sulfix as the
-drio-.
Explained by Hesychius as
(Grundr.
ii.
122)
native would be
dvydrrip,
ave^ths.
takes this as the vocative form.
Brugmann
The nomi-
= ''sues-or,
to which also corresponds the

borrowed by English from the Norse
In this word the
systir and has replaced the Old Eng. sweos-t-or.
Latin soror
iu}p
201); sister
is
Where s and r came together, the Germanic

-t- is not original.
languages inserted -t- between them: cp. stream from the same
The original Germanic nominative would
root as p4ui (srey,-).
thus have been ^svesSr, gen. *svestr-s.
3 From an original stem *daiuer- with various ablaut forms
A SHORT MANUAL OF
312
356.
Nasal
iv.
are found
suffixes
tliere are
no -m-
suffixes
356
in
only
-n-
used to form new
words, and the only words originally ending
-m-
in
are
the
words
Indo-G.
and
earth
for
snow
represented in Greek by xOwv and x""" respectively.

Final -m regularly becomes -v in Greek, and -v- is then
throughout the declension.
carried
words
cp.
x6a.iJi.ak6<;
(with euphonic
-jo-)
kum-u-s
gen. Mem-is.
For -m in these
xîix-iav,
stems, gradation plays a large part,
-s-
containing -n-
appears as en,
hiemps
x^^l^-"-,
Just as in the
on,
and the
en,
possibly w according to circumstances.
on,
As
syllable
n,
with their numerous gxaded forms.
and
n,
in the
stems, there are various kindred suffixes, -men-,

-uen-,
and
-r-
-s-
-ien-,
Closely con-
nected with the last mentioned are the suffixes in
-uent-,
and by the side of -en-, -on- are numerous fonns in -entand -out-. All of these forms had apparently at one
time a complete system of gradation, the details of which
some respects hard to determine, but which, at

was built up on the same principle as the
gradation of the -s- and -r- stems'.
It is not necessary
are in
events,
all
to suppose that
dependent
origin.
each of these -n- suffixes had an
Some
of
them may have
arisen
in-
by a
confusion of the final sound of the root with the suffixal

element, as happens occasionally in
modern languages
levir is an instance of popular analogy, the second syllable of the

word being erroneously connected with vir. The number of names
of relationships which go back to the Indo-Germanic period is
strikingly large and has been the subject of investigation by
Delbriick
in
a treatise entitled
Die
VerwandtscJiaftsnamen
in
den indogermanischen Sprachen.

'
I see
no probability in Bartholomae's view that the participle

had originally no gradation, A". Z. 29, p. 487 ff.
of the present
286).
357]
But
any rate
at
313
this confusion, if such it be,
dates from the Indo-Germanic period.

As in the -s- and -r- stems,
357-
so here the
different gradations of the stem suffix
are
specialised in different meanings.
Neuters S'""'"ditoon?
appear in -n and possibly -n, but there is """""''
no distinction parallel to that between ipevSijs,

f^vSk
and i/'58o;. The -n- suffixes have a considerable variety
of meanings,
the most
nomina agentls (forms
characteristic
in
-en-
-on-),
{-men-, -mon-), feminine abstracts
as
-ion-), active
{-ten-,
and descriptive adjectives
participles {-nt-)
being
uses
jiomina actionis
{-uent-).
It
noticeable that comparatively few -n- stems are found

in both Greek and Latin.
Latin developed a large
is
number
suffix
cp.
of new -n- stems, especially in the form

which replaced the older and extinct -ti-
yi/(3-o-t-s
(=*yv(o-Ti-s) with no-ti-0,
with con-ven-ti-o
etc.
With the
and -uent- Latin combines the
/3a-crt-s {
etc.)
always appears as
suffix
-uso-
= *qm-ti-s)
whether
e.g. -a- as in
without
forma,
-mon-
and -*uent-to-,
^.
Latin -onso'''
regard to the nature of the stem-ending to which

affixed,
368)
thus forming
suffix -to-,
*-uenso- -ansa- -vso- (in

formongus,'^formvsus).
^
^
/
The
suffixes -men-,
the suffixes -mento- (in cogno-men-tu-m
-tion-,
-5- as in
it
is
verbu-m,
Other forms which are

by Latin are those formed by adding -on-
-n- as in fuligo {fuliginosits).
much
affected
to stems ending in -g- or -d-, whether such stems are
simple or complex
marg-o
'
brink
calt-g-o 'mist' (gen. call-g-in-is)
'
(gen.
margin-is),
card-o 'hinge' (gen.
card-ill-is), testu-do 'tortoise' (gen. testu-din-is).
But
the new combinations are treated as themselves suffixes

(cp. -ling in the Germanic languages 286) and make
new words
plumb-d-g-o from plumbu-m, lan-u-g-o from
A SHORT MANUAL OF
314
lana
alti-tudo
stem
original
tions.
is
from altu-s
The form
etc.
357
the
of
disregarded in these secondary forma-
probable parallel to such forms are the Greek
(mostly poetical) abstracts axO-yj-^-wv,
T-rjK-e-S-wv, which
have sometimes derivatives again as cây-c-Saiva, a derivative in -la from a possible *<ây-e-S-(ijv.
In forms of the type
358.
strong form
Greek the stem
in
-pr]v-
K7](j>-rjv
the
the declension.
In
o-Tpa/?-u)i/,
carried throughout
is
rroXvpprjVi.';
appears in
form in the simple substantive gen.
its
weakest
(= *urn-),
api'-ds
weak form in all its existing

Latin has only one word with the weakest stem
which has
this
genitive, viz. caro
weak forms did

shown by other
'
flesh
'
That, however, these
cam-is.
exist in the primitive Italic period

dialects
cp.
Umbrian
all
*no-nin-es).
may
re-
makes
its
stems Latin -in- being unaccented
-11-
present either -on- or -en-.
hemonem
accusative
or
In old Lat.
Im'ino
The
homonem.
is
gen. no-mn-er
(with final rhotacism) with Lat. no-min-is
In
cases.
in the
suffix
-en-
is
apparently to be found in the Gk. infinitive of the type

4>puv,
now
generally recognised as a suffixless locative
parallel to the Skt. -s-an-i.
to
an
stem,
-.s-
(Lesbian
*<t>^p-ea--(v,
Tip-}xuv
r^p-fxa
Kpi-na
Imperat.
T
fl
-n- suffix is
added
*<êp-e-v,
<îp-uv
cf>ip-r]v).
-men-, -mon-, -mn-,
35g.
an
whence
If so,
-t
-mn-
ter-mo
tcniien
crimen
^\eye-iJ.eii-ai:
(neuter).
(e(;(-)n!-i
In Greek and Latin some forms

carry the long form throughout.
(Passive Imperat.).
k(.v6-jxu>v,
ser-mo
The number
etc.
of parallel
360]
forms
Tip-ixmv, rep-fia etc. suggests that
both forms had

and that the forms
originally belonged to one paradigm,
by mvitual
Cp.
315
had made two separate paradigms.

/Jafio?
and ySe'i'ôs etc.
The
levelling
and
TrdOoi
TreVSos,
infinitives of the type -^cF-ai are obviously old dative
forms from -men- stems.
which are used
Like various other noun forms
in the verb paradigm, they
in themselves to characterise
them
and hence each language
passive,
have nothing
as either active or
is
free
to
specialise
them in its own way. If the identification of Xcye'/Aevai

and legimini given above from Wackernagel be correct,
this form must be carefully distinguished from legimini=
XeyofxevoL of the Present Indie. Passive, although the use
of the former as the 2nd pers. Plural must have been
occasioned by the
latter.
The neuters
of this series
have frequently in Latin byeforms with Latin byetorms

-*''the additional suffix -to- cogno-men : cogno- '"
men-tu-m. With this may be compared ovo/xa and its
;
but whether the -t- forms from this

w-stem were occasioned by the existence of a byeform
with a -tosuffix, or whether from a new-formed ablatival
genitive sing. oVoâ-ro9 the -t- was carried throughout,
plural ovo/iara
is still
a vexed question
360.
-'ten-, -ion-,
(cp. 309).
-In-, -in- {-it}-)-
found only in Sanskrit words Kke

which -in- is generalised for all cases.
The weak grade of the -ten- suffix which survives in
Greek is -in-, a form which according to Brugmann' is
The form
balin-
still
'
-in- is
strong,' in
found
cLKT-lv-o's)
in
SeAc^-fs
(gen.
8eA.<^-rv-os),
and others with nom.
words the ordinary feminine

Brugmann compares
added.
1
Grundr.
11.
in -15 or
suffix
-d-
Sw-t-Iv-tj
115.
Ak-t-U
-Iv.
(->;-)
(gen.
In some
has been
by the side of
A SHORT MANUAL OF
316
S(u-rt-?
(cp.
27) with Lat. da-tio by the side of
In Latin the form -ion-
carried
is
Umbrian, however, preserve the weaker form

In neither Greek nor Latin
Lat. -ion-, very
-toiv,
more words with
das.
throughout the
Anio ; Oscan and
declension except in the river-name
declension.
360
is
in
the
the
suffix
In Latin there are many
common.
this suffix in ordinary use than there
are in Greek, but, notwithstanding, -tion- overshadows
tê morc simple form.
Meaningof-Jostems 111 Greek
honest words
with
of:
'dwellers in' or 'descendants

'
dwellers in heaven,'
'
In Greek the comsuffix
this
indicate
ou'pav-tW-e?, Kpov-iuii',
There are
son of Kronos.'
also a
few words of a diminutive or contemptuous meaning

'weakling' Aristoph. Eccl. 1058) parallel to
(iuaAa/<-tW'
Latin forms like homunc-io pumil-io

sufiix is of
and Latin
Be-
signification.
diminutives above mentioned,
the
sides
In Latin the
etc.
more general
forms in -ion- are found as ordinary masculine substantives
resti-o
'
rope-maker
'
(resti-s),
centuri-o etc.
are also feminine collectives or abstracts

cp. reg-io
'
a stretch of country.'
neuter
form in
obsid-io
It
-to-
obsid-ium.
in
use:
The
has ousted the old
suffix -tion- is
-ti-
used to form new abstracts
suffix (
:
native *stati-s with station-em.
must date very

ace.
far
Some have
contag-io
a parallel
contag-ium;
very common.
368) and
cp. stati-m
There
leg-io, opin-io
is
freely
from a nomi-
The beginnings
of
back because by the side of the
parti-m later part-emi stands a stem with a
tliis
old
differ-
ent root-grade, por-ti-o, ace. por-ti-on-em.

361.
-uen-, -uon-, -Hn-, -un- (-tin-).
The forms
of this suffix are parallel to those of
-ien-
Both this and 5ei\aKp-ioiv (Arist. Pa.x 193) are probably comic
patronymics cp. son of a gun, son of a sea-cook.
1
362]
317
The suffix is rare in the classical languages.

In Greek, apart from a few forms like almv {=ai-Fv
stems.
cp. Lat. ae-vo-m), m-iav fat (cp. Skt. p't-van-), it survives

possibly only in the infinitive forms Sovvai etc. (=80Fev-ai which is found in the Cyprian
dialect
Skt. ddvan-gy.
Brugmann finds the weak form -un- in (jipidra,
'
'
ireppara (= *(^pri-ca-Ta,
â-ra,
fi-a-Ta^
Hom.
(bpnara, *rrp- _
torms With extended stems

Lat. cognomen-ta, 359).
362.
oVo-
cp.
-ent-, -mit-, -nt-.
This suffix has always formed all active participles

except those of the perfect.
In Greek such passive
participles as are formed on the analogy of active forms,
and 2nd
1st
viz.
passive,
aor.
There are
Xv-6-ei/T-, (pav-evT-.
the same type, Gk.
oSov?,
also
also
yep-wv,
take this suffix
some nominal forms of

In Greek
Lat. de7is.
the only forms which retain the exact phonetic representation of the
participles like Sovs
original
:
suffix
-otit-s
are
oSovs,
and
the ordinary participial and nominal
4>^pwv, yipwv etc. must

by some analogical method be borrowed from the -en-,
That there was a close connexion between
-on- stems".
interchange
the two series is shown by the trans-
form of the nominative seen in
ference of stems
from the one
series
to
stems,
other, cp. Xiwv, Xiovr-o-; with Lat. ho, leon-is
the
with the
fern.
Xiaiva
(= *leuilia),
Brugmann's derivation
of the
OepaTnav,
and
6tpaTrovTO?
substantives avSpuv 'men's
from this suffix, and his identification of

-vv- in ciidiiva seem somewhat improbable {Grundr. 11. 116).
Even some of the forms given above are doubtful. In al/iiv and
Fick holds that in
aevo-m, u may possibly belong to the root.
Sbfevai, u was part of the root in the ludo-G. period, comparing
chamber,'
Latin
2
i-n-Trtliv
duam
'
stable
'
etc.
Brugm. Grundr. n.
198.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
318
(in
362
In Latin, with rare exceptions, weak

been carried throughout
with depawaLva.
forms
or -en- forms have
-?i-)
the declension
but iem, gen. eunt-is
{-*iient-s, *eiiont-
The neuter of the participle and adjective in Latin

presents some difficulty, fevens ingens (neut.) cannot
es).
it,
pianation'
Where
-ns.
uom.
^^^^^ tt
Neuter of Latin
-<- participles,
final -nt is
Thumeyseu's
suf&x.
-.s-
found as in the verb ferunt
according to this theory, represents
The ablaut
363.
Gradations in
more
etc.
-nti.
variations are well preserved in
much
In the classical languages
Sanskrit.
-nt- stems.
levelling has taken place, so that only
a few relics of the original system are preserved.
Greek beside
wv, ovtos
and the feminine

where
ex-
that in Latin final -nt became
is
iaa-a-a
= *snt-ia ;
we
In
find in Doric evTes=*sent-es
and possibly Homeric
/xeVacro-ai^,
we
have apparently in sons and praesens two different gTades
-aa-a-a
in Latin, besides lens euntis,
of the participle of the substantive verb^
Presumably
as in -r- stems the original declension ran in the simple
and compound forms thus

Nom.
*sents
Gen. *snt-es
The English
OVT-:
0. E.
berende etc.
*pral-snt-os.
participle is of the
her-end-.
is
*prat-sonts
The
suffix
same
in
found changed to -inge
origin
the
first in
^f.p-
participle
Layamon
in the beginning of the 13th century.
'
Archiv
fi'ir
lateinischen Lexicographie v. p. 576, following as
regards final -nt Bugge in K.Z. 22,

^ Glaanical Review, in.
p. 4.
'
For
this explanation
an 'accented sonant nasal'

p. 93.
p.
385
ft.
which does away with the diiBculty of

(cp. 157, n. 2) see Streitberg, I. F.
1.
365]
364.
This
319
-unit-, -mt-.
found only in the Aryan, Greek and

Itahc groups of the Indo-Germanic languages.
It is
suffix is
used as an adjectival
endowed
'
-to- in
nal
-unt-io.
it
In
appears only in com-
The
the adjectives ending in -osus.
Greek masculine form as
in x"P'-^'5 represents
The feminine
original -uent-s.
possessing,
'
endowed with charm.'
Latin, as already mentioned,
hination with
indicate
to
suffix
with,' as in xapt-ets
by
-tis
xapt-fo-o-a represents origi-
which should appear
as -aaa-a,
Gradation
in
but throu"gh the influence of the mascuUne '=the vowel has been changed to -e-. The stem gradation
'''*'-
in the oblique cases has also disappeared except in the

locative (dative) plural xapL-ea-i {=*-unt-s-i) which has
however changed its vowel like the other

this change of vowel compare Troi-yueVi
<t>pe(TL
for
365.
(fipacri
cases'.
With
for *Troi-/iao-t,
(found once in Pindar).
Suffixes in .vowels
the most numerous

divided according to
and diphthongs are much
They may be
the vowel by means of
class.
which they are formed into
(1)
stems in vowels
''"d diphthongs,
-fstems, (2) -<-stems,

Of these
(3) -i- i-ie-) stems, (4) -a-stems, (5) -o-stems.
the -o-stems are present in much the greatest variety of

combination, hardly any consonant stem being without
-0- to the consonant
its counterpart formed by suffixing
So
element.
also, beside
-i-
and
-11-
stems there are
and u may repreothers in -to- and -uo-Here

as ei, eu.
diphthongs
such
of
sent reduced gTades
conand
stems
vowel
between
difference
an important
Moreover
In the consonant stems

sonant stems is to be observed.
in the nominative
appears
suffix
the
of
form
the longest
is represented in the
grade
weakest
the
while
singular,
1
*X'^P''-f^vT-<Tt.
must have become
'xap'-""^'-

320
A SHORT MANUAL OF
genitive, dative
and instrumental.
365
But
in the vowel
stems the weak form frequently appears in the nom.

singular,
and the stronger grades in the
genitive.
'
Thus
by metathesis of quantity for ttoAij-os

(=*TT-o\rjL-o's), 7;S-iJ-s but -qSioi (= *r?Sef-os).
But what of
louic irdXi-os (gen.) and such forms as
Greek -ev7roA.-t-s
but
TrdAscos,
stems.
/Saa-iXev's
iTTTrev^,
weak stem
is
In the former case the
seen in the genitive, in the latter the
diphthongal form
is
found in the nominative with the
Homeric /Saa-tXyj-o^ (=*/iacnX.r]pwhence by metathesis of quantity /3ao-tA.ea)9 in
long form in the genitive

os),
Attic.
The
stems in
of these
origin
-tv-
complicated by the fact that in some dialects
is
'
further
they have
The type reprea byeform of the nominative in -r;s.

sented by ySao-iXeus seems coniined to Greek.
366.
Stems
(1)
in -i-
seem to have been somewhat

Some common names
rare in early times.
of animals go back to the original language
Gk.
(as
o-is (df-i-s)
Lat. ov-i-s
aiis-\-s).
and a few
In Greek
dual form.
In Latin
Eng.
other words such as Lat. auris (Lith.
the only neuter
is
oa-ae (=*oK-t-), a
eire)
neuter forms are hardly more numerous
except mare
seem compounds or neuter adjectives used as subanimal (for *animdle).
all
stantives, e.g. prae-saepe, ov'de,

Confusion of
tiei-stemswith
''^'*""
^^
Latin great confusion has arisen be-
tween original -s-stems, --stems and -ie^^^"^^

forms like plebes and sedes have
;
Mvei"^
neuter -s-stems parallel to them in Greek,

1
In Arcadian and Doric.
27, p. 84
f.,
Wackernagel, K. Z. '24, p. 295 ff. and

attempts to connect with Skt. words ending in -ayu-,
Tliere seems more probability in Torp's conjecture

{Den Orceske Nominalflexion, p. 102) that the Greek forma in -ev-
acjvayil- etc.
are
with
original
If Ze6s
= *die'uos
identical
bharu- etc.
-v(p.
stems
193)
cp.
why not
(popeis
(7r7rei)s
with
Skt.
= eiieos?
if it
368]
be true that they represent
The stems
tively.
in
-ie-
321
and
irXijOoi
practice of other languages, taken a final
nominative singular in
eSos respec-
in Latin have, contrary to the
-es
may
-s,
represent
consonant stem, an --stem or an -ie-stem
so that a
an original
(cp.
374).
The confusion between consonant stems and --stems is

explained by some as having arisen from the dative and
ablative plural in which the s of -.s-stems phonetically
disappeared, *sedes-bos thus becoming *.sede-bos sedi-bus,
a form similar to ovi-bus
stems in
etc.
Consonant stems and
became confused, because the strong stress
-ii-
accent on the
first syllable
made
the second syllable of
Thus *morti-s (= Indo-G.

*mrti-s) becomes mors, *parti-s hecomes pars etc., and a
new ace. form is made parallel to those of genuine conHence the new form part-em beside the
sonant stems.
words disappear.
disyllabic
old parti-m
now
only retained as an adverb.
Greek has confused
367.
with -c^-stems
'l
its adjectival
11
number
889), while Latin has a very large

.
m
.
of adiectives
etc.
-t-
.
:
^
Confusion
-i-
of
other stems with

-stems
COm-t-S, rud-l-S, turp-l-S Greek and Latin

.
great
forms in
ace. I'Soi-Sa (Soph. fr.
i'Sois
portion
01
the Latin
adjectives.
-^-
adjectives are however due to the fact that -u- adjectives
made
their feminines in -J- {-ie-)
masc, *suddu-l
Indo-G.
ralised the --forms
hence sudvi-s
*suddu-s
Latin has gene-
fern. (cp. ??Su-s, ySela).
for
both masculine
and feminine.
368.
The
suffix -tiis
more frequent
in the early
period of most languages than the simple

-i-
suffix.
died out.
is
In Latin and English
In Greek
it
generally added to a root in the
the accent
G. P.
is
it
soon
often appears as
sometimes on the
weak
root,
-o-t-
and
But as
133),
grade.
sometimes on the
21
:;
A SHORT MANUAL OF
322
probably the form of the root and
suffix,
confused with consonant stems

place
of this
in
Suffixes
arise
originally
suffijc
(see
above), and the
For examples
25 and 27.
cp.
Closely connected with this suffix are the two
369.
and
taken by the lengthened form
suffix is
-tion- ( 360).
368
In Latin, disyllabic forms are often
varied accordingly.
-tat-
-tut-,
and
sufflxes -tat- OX -tdti-
from the confusion between
The
stems.
-tiU- or -tuti-.
jjgjg again the double forms of the suffixes
suffixes
seem to
arise
and consonant
-i-
from a combination
In Greek -tuti- is not found,

of -ta- and -tii- with -ti-'^.
and there are but few common forms in Latin juventus,
Compare with this suffix
senectus, virtus, sereitus.
:
-tudon- in servitudo etc.
The other
370.
other
-i-
suf-
*'"^'
ill
-/-suffixes are
In Latin,
-ni-.
develope extensively,
through *acrs from

but
suffix,
oK-pi-s
-ri-
-li-
-mi-
and
-li-
Lat. oc-ri-s (cp. acer
springs
*acris).
-li- is
ttj-Xl-ko-?,
-TTTy-At-Ko-s,
Brugmann^ the
are -ri-
however,
not found in Greek

which have an additional
with Latin qud-li-s and td-li-s.
According to
cp.
suffix
so frequent
-dli-
in
adjectives
by analogy from these original forms.
Benfey regarded
*tan-,
-ri-
but poorly developed
They
niost languages.
-tati-
as
This
an independent word from the root
thus signifying 'extension' (L. Meyer Verg.
p. 532).
similar view regarding
-ij.7)v-
in
woi-jj.rjv
Gramm. 11.
and -rcijp, -riip
has been propounded recently by Prellwitz [Etymolog. Wnrterbuch

d.
griechischen Spraclie s.r.
Benfey's explanation of
av5p6-Tijs
and
aTfi-fjv
-tdti-
parallels
civi-tas
and B. B.
to
lose its vowel sounds,
seems
Grundr.
11.
98.
to support
-tiit-
306
f.).
we should have
the English
complete words) in man-hood, citizen-ship.

op. ved-Tfji with Lat. novi-tas.
xix. p.
could be accepted
If
in
suffixes (really
Greek, which does not

as the original form
371]
323
by dissimilation when
sound has already occurred in the word hence
palmd-ri-s for *palma.-li-s.
In Latin moreover many
suffix appears occasionally as -dr-
an
-I-
words appear with the

languages
-li- suffix
which have -h- in other

-mi- appears in
cp. 6/x,a-Xo-s, Lat. simi-li-s.
a few words
Oi-jxi-^
of
*6f.-
(rt.
Ti-drj-fjn),
(jnj-fjLi-^,
Lat.
ver-mi-s\
very rare in Greek
-ni- is
cp. kXo-vi-s, Lat. clu-ni-s
with an unexplained difference in the root-syllable, Lat.

com-mu-ni-s, ig-ni-s and some others,
om-ni-s probably
represents *op-ni-s^.
371.
is
The
(2)
make both
was employed
suffix -M-
substantives and adjectives.
not used as a secondary
feminine was made in

adjectives have
-I-
The
suffix.
{-ie-),
become -z-stems
originally to
It
and in Latin
all
the
In compound
367).
adjectives a trace of the original stem sometimes remains,

as in acu-pediu-s connected with
denies)
(sc.
'
and
(okw-s,
in genu-ini
-M-stems are of all
cheek-teeth,' cp. ycVu-s.
genders, and the root-syllable appears in different grades.

For the relation in Greek between -v- and -eu- stems see
365.
The
-u-
suffix
as long and as short
The form
appears also both

n-ijxv-'i
but
(replaced in Attic
in;x(os
-tos,
ttt/xems)
but
jJSeos etc.
is
-v-
o</>pBos.
are analogical.
which
hence
Tnfpêos
The Attic
Homer
has only
preserved in Attic in the
In Latin
An attempt has been made
amalgamation
"
by
acTTecus
the genitive in
adjectives
in
^'^"^
of the genitive in Greek -u- stems seems to
vary according to the quantity of the
forms
variations
''"'
6(l>pv-^.
many
-u- stems vary
recently to treat these forms as
of suffixes (Meringer, Beitrdge, p.
Brâl's view, that the plural omnes is homines in the
grade and with the aspirate
lost, is
an
3).
improbable.
212
weak
;;
A SHORT MANUAL OF
324
in the dative
371
and ablative plural between -u- and
The
forms, the syllable being unaccented.
tween yovv and Lat. genu
Of the
372.
is difficult
-i-
relation be-
to explain '.
composed of a consonant and

It is comthe most important.
suffixes
-U-, -til- is
tu- stems.
parativeiy rare
'nil
but
(ireek,
is
make
developed in Latin in the form -dtu- to
widely
abstract
substantives, especially in the sense of function or office
The
consulatus, principatus etc.
infinitive
forms called
supines are cases of -tu- substantives formed from verb
stems
529).
The ordinary Latin substantives
are all masculine

as lipta-Tv-%,
forms
cS-17-TiJ-s
etc.
are
feminine.
The neuter
Forms in
from the same roots in Greek and
-tu- rarely occur
Compare however
Latin.
all
have no parallel in Latin.
a'o--Tv, <^t-Tv
in -tu-
the corresponding Greek forms such
Lat. vi-tu-s
t-ru-s (=ft-Ti)-s),
ap-Tw-s, Lat. ar-tu-s.
373.
Brugmann
Other--sufflies.
from dhe
374.
(3)
stems.
-?-(-iV-)
-ru-
(SaK-pu,
lacri-ma for *dacru-ma')
La^^^
{Orj-Xv-'i
cites as other --suffixes -nu- (Xty-
Lat. pl-nu-s),
"'^-5.
'
haKpv-fxa,
and
-lu-
suck/ Lat. fe-l-are).
The
suffix -7-
and
-ie-
was largely used
to form feminines from existing masculine

,
,
stems.
The original form 01 the suffix and
.
/.
the relations between the
means
^
clear,
-J- and -ie- forms are by no

and though much has been written on the
Johannes Schmidt (Pluralhildungen,
p. 50)
short -u was dropped in Latin lite final short
contends that
-i,
final
and that the long
-U is introduced later hy using the collective plural instead of the

singular.
' The reading dacrumis for lacrnmis in Ennius' epitaph
nemo
me dacrumis decoret has no ancient authority, but is an emendation
made hy
Bergk.
375]
325
subject in recent years no certain conclusion has as yet
The
been reached.
Sanskrit as
-I
(devl
appears in the nominative in
suffix
'
goddess
'
fem. to deva-s, Lat. dlvu-s,
Indo-G. *deiuo-s), but in Greek as
-la.
Otpdnawa,
-ijSua,
ovaa, Soreipa, aX-qOua. representing respectively *5ySF-ia,

*Oepawv-ia., *sont-ia, *8oTcp-ita,
In Latin
*dX-)j6'(r-ja.
appears in the great majority of the forms of the

declension
But here the
ac-ie-s, spec-ie-s etc.
tion of the original form
it
fifth
restora-
complicated (1) by the fact

that these stems have assumed a final -s on the analogy
is
of such stems as are included in the third declension,

ab-ies etc.
have
and
(2)
byeforms in
because a number of such words
-ia,
the regular representation
suffix -io-
as the
seems to stand in ablaut relation to the
suffix
so -id-
-i-,
of
But
original -id, cp. luxur-ie-s
may
and
possibly like
luscur-ia etc.
have a weak grade of
-ie-
-'i-.
Forms with long
when another suffix follows,
in Latin are found
the form
-i-
only
as in vic-tri-x fem. to
Some suppose that -la.

cp. So-Tijp and So-rctjoa.
Greek nominative may have come from the
accusative form -tav and supplanted the older -l-\ others
vic-tor
in
the
consider -m the older form, et adhuc sub judice
In the adjectives Latin has added
suavi-s
T^Seia,
although
is
used as such in
375-
period
had
-i-
stems.
properly the etymological equivalent of
comes to be treated as an
it
all
genders
The
(4, 5)
-o-
and
-o-
-2'-stem
and
367).
-a-
stems cannot be sepa-
rated, the -d forms having been used as
feminines to the
lis est.
to the feminine
become confused with other
forms, which thus
Thus
-s
stems from the proethnic
..
^nd
--
'*^^'
291), although in all probability the suffix -d
originally nothing to do with gender.

1
Brugm. Grundr.
ii.
109.
These
suffixes
"
A SHORT MANUAL OF
326
more frequent than any
are
others.
The
375
-o-suffix
is,
indeed, so widely extended that the question has often
been raised whether
it
ought not more properly to be
And,
treated as part of the root than as a sufiix.
as has
already been mentioned, there seems to be no consonant

suffix
which has not an -o-form by the side of
even root nouns have parallel -o-forms.
Torp's theory' the forms with -o- are the earlier.
from an original *pedo-s
came a form *pMs,

*pod-s Doric
irw'?
*leg-s, Lat. lex;
Gk.
-4)opo-s)
padd-m
(cp. Skt.
and
Thus
neut.) there
Lat. pes with a " sentence-doublet
from an original *lego-s
it,
According to
(cp.
Gk. Xoyo-s)
from an original *bhero-s (Skt.
*bMr-s, Gk.
4>uip
-bJiard-,
from participial forms
came "^dhSt-s, bheut-s, Gk. 0ri<i, free

labourer,' <ôjs
man.'
Torp attributes this change to
the influence of accent, and almost alone amongst philologists constructs a scheme of original declensions
*dhe-to-s, *bheuto-s
'
'
One
consistent with the theory he propoimds.
declensions
may
be given as typical of
stem fovind in Attic

Sing.
Nom.
*ersono-s
>*Srsdn-s
Ace.
*ersono-m
>*erson-m
Nom.
*ersono-es
>*grson-es
Ace.
*ersoiio-ms
>*erson-ms
Dual Nom.
Den
Torp, op.
fications
*rsenom
18, (see 344, note).
The same theory with certain modiheld by other writers, and is the foundation of the
cit.
p. 14.
by Streitberg already mentioned (Die Entstehung der DehnI. F. HI. pp. 305416).
article
stufe,
k.
GrtEske Nominalflexion, pp. 1
is
of the
^rseno-s
Gren.
of these
that
apcnjv, Ionic epa-qv".
Gen.
Plur.
all
378]
327
Apart from the distinction between
376.
-a-stems to indicate gender, a distinction
which as we have seen
293)
is
not fully
uses of -0- and

""" ^*^''-
preserved in the classical languages, the most

values of -o-stems are (1) as class names
(2) as adjectives
the most
common
and
-0-
common
(common nouns),
of -a-stems as root
abstracts.
Gk.
(1)
Eng.
Lat.
vic-M-s ( 176 n.)
(borrowed from Latin).
ol/c-o-s
-joicJ;
(^1)7-6-5
fag-u-s
fieccft (cp.
^117-6-!'
jug-u-m
yoke
(2)
(pvy-V
i^^-o-s]
vi-o-v
vi-a
>
fug-a
inov-u-s
j
180)
nov-u-m
new
\nov-a
The combinations
377.
160, n. 1).
of -0- with a consonant
may
be taken in the same order as the consonant stems.

Original -bh + 0-
is found developed to a small extent

and Greek, much more widely in
"*'*<'" stems.
m
ITTLetto-Slavonic. With the possible exception
of mor-bu-s^ it is not found in Latin.
In Skt. and
Greek this suffix is mostly confined to names of animals
in Skt.
-1
Gk.
(.ka-(j>o-%
(where a
however
pare
Kopv-ri
'fox^'
epi.<ô-<;,
KiôL^-q
'weal,'
Kpora-tô-^
Com-
'temples,'
'top' and the adjective apyv-ô-s 'bright' with
a byeform
378.
= n),
KoXa-iô-s
oipyv-<f>e-oi.
The
suffix -t
participial formations.
0- is
very common, especially in
In English, -ed as
the suffix of the weak past participle
is
of
this origin.
1
p.
24
Brugmann, Grundr. 11. 78.

For this adaptation of the suffix
f.
cp. Bloomfield,
A. J. P.
xii.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
328
Gk.
loud
167
n.)
in-clu-tu-s
d-ypa-TO-s
i-gno-tu-s
un-couth (Scotch 'unco')
o-peK-rS-i
rec-tu-s
right
As the
example shows,
last
378
Eng.
Lat.
/cXu-t6-s
participle
this
But the
easily into adjectival uses.
suffix
passes
can also be
directly to substantival stems, as in a-yepacr-To-s
added
'
unhonoured,' and in Lat. in-hones-tu-s from the weak
Greek and
351).
.'
.
^,
meaning oi tne -toforms from verb stems in somewhat different
In Greek the meaning corresponds rather to that
stem of honor
Uses of -to- ^
stems in Greek Latin
ways.
(cp.
"
\,
,.
speciause the
of the Latin gerundive participle, while in Latin, as in
English, the
passive
potus
'
meaning
that of a past participle mainly
is
exceptions to the passive value are such as
Forms
a drunken man.'
substantives;
'rain,'
ve-ro'-s
in -to- are also used as
(J>v-t6-v
'plant,'
lipov-rq
(from ^pe/n-w) 'thunder'; Lat. legd-tu-s 'envoy,' dk-tu-m

'
phrase,' mul-ta
'
fine.'
Gk.
x6p-To-s
The
379.
with
-is-
-isto- (
hor-tu-s
352) and with
380.
^
-do-stems.
Eng.
yard (O.E. geard).
suffix -tois also
the weak form of
-men- and -uen-
Lat.
:
suffix
found in combination
-ies- in
-m??,-
the superlative suffix
and -m- the weak forms of
359, 361).
-do-
Kopv-So-s
'^
possibly found
'crested
.
lark'
,
adverbs like
in
Greek
(koou-s),
in
and in
o-toi^'^-So-v 'in
rows'
widely developed in Latin as an adjectival

du-s, stupi-du-s, soli-du-s, flor-i-du-s etc.
etc., is
suffix, timi-
Parallel forms
show that these words are

compound forms, the second component being the stem
in Skt.
in
-da- seem
to
382]
of the verb
'
give.'
and gerundive
None
uncertain.
Whether
'
participle
is
-do- in the Latin
gerund
of this origin or not
is still
numerous theories propounded
of the
in recent years to
explain these forms
The Greek patronymics
vincing ^
329
in
is
at all con-
-iSr;-s, -laS??-?
etc.
and the forms in -iSto's (-iSoCs) as

doubt
of the same origin as the -(Poare no
(ECpiayu.-tSij-s, Bo/Dca'-Sij-s)
aSeXt^-iSoCs
sterns.
The
381.
in
suffix
-ko-
certain
is
for
yuva-^d-s, represented in Greek possibly by

va.K-wBo-'s
Latin by juvencu-s,
104), in
Combined with
English young.
a few words where
is
it
the Skt.
.j.^,.
and sko-
""ffl^-
-s- as -sko- it
occurs in
obviously identical with the
Gk.
-sho- suffix of verbs' seen in (io-uKU), pa-sco-r etc.

(3o-<TKT]
'
'
fodder,' Sto-Ko-s
to throw)
'
quoit
'
(= *8iK-crKo-s from
Lat. esca (= *ed + sea)
Eng. wish (O.E. wusc
In Greek -otko-
=*un-sko-) from root in Lat. ven-us.

a diminutive formation
appears as
The
girl' etc.
The
same
TraiS-Lo-KT]
'
little
origin.
suffix in -qo- is
much more common,
apart from a few words such as Gk.
and Lat.
adjectival suffix -isk in English, green-ish,
child-ish etc, is of the
382.
SiK-tlv
sic-cu-s
'
dry
'
but,
O-q-K-r]
(=*sit-qo-s) literally
secondary and used mainly to make adjecthirsty,'

The suffix is often expanded into the form -iqo-,
tives.
-iqo-, -uqo- and -aqo-, the last three forms being shown
'
is
much better by Latin than Greek.

1
Victor
% 163)
2
Forms
Henry (Comparative Grammar
in -q- alternate
of Greek and Latin,
takes a different view.
Until an explanation oipando as satisfactory as Thurneysen's

is discovered, the view that gerundu-s = *geront-no-s
(from *pat-no)
or possibly *gero-tno-s seems the preferable one.

3
Brugmann, Grundr.
11.
90.
Cp. 538
n.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
330
with those in -qoand
their
ex-
pansions.
form
-ion- in Latin, it
or diminutive signification
The
suffix in the
languages
of all kinds,
from
a^p)(ri
form
in Greek
crK7r-TiKo-s
-iqo- is well
of the
is
'
same
-t-
What
-iqo-.
ap_;(-tKd-s
very frequent
modicu-s
running sore
'
hsavy
suffix -y- in
Germanic
origin, primitive
senting Indo-G.
ao-Tu),
-t- it is
rus-ticu-s, silva-ticu-s,
The English
many
appended to stems
vom-ica
fetter,'
in combination with
subst. can-ticu-m.
developed in
urb-icu-s, fullon-lcu-s,
Lat.
more simple
had a contemptuous
(from
6.<tt-i.k6-%
as substantives ped-ica
and
it is
In combination with
etc.
often has
it
homun-cu-lu-s, homun-c-io.
and Latin
av8p-iKo'-s,
etc.
In combination with
(cp. Lat. senex, gen. sen-is).

-lo-,
382
a substantival form
suffix -qo-
exactly the same value as the
other suffixes as
etc.,
When
349).
made with the
^^^
':
etc.
-iga- repre-
the secondary
bor-
-lolko-
rowed by Latin in Corinih-iacu^s comes

from is not clear. There are three possibilities, (1)
from -i-stems
KapSia-Ko's,
('2)--iinqo-, (3)
confusion with stems in -aqo-.
The forms preceded by a long vowel may be
383.
illustrated
-go-suffixes
preceded
by
a,
ant-lcu-s
long vowel.
by the Latin adiectives

am-icu-s,
^
cad-ucu-s ; mer-dcu-s ; and sub_
stantives lect-lca, JSas-ica; aei'-uca 'verdigris,'
lact-uca
'
lettuce
;
'
clo-aca
'
sewer.'
Greek has only consonantal forms parallel to the

above, and these rare.
cites
(
7repS-l^
Brugmann (Grundr.
'partridge,'
349) and a few others.
Kijpvi
'herald,'
11.
Latin has also
many
sonant stems, mostly adjectives (none however in

felix,
atidax
384.
The
88)
'boy'
/xetpa^
con-uc-),
also atrox, velox etc.

-s-suffixes
by the
combined with
are rarely extended
addition of an -0- or -a-suffix.
When
386]
other suffixes, as they are in
and
the
-ues-forms,
-
There
-so-,
probability in the -ies-
all
stands
-s-suffix
331
last.
^,
No o-sufflxes.
'
thus not
is
sd-'^
much
,.
although a few words such as the Greek
(= * ycveo--a, cp. Lat. gemrd-re),

*hoK-(T-9^),
evidence oi the type

yeverj
So'â (^*(ioK-o--a if for
Lat. Auror-a, Flor-a {=*ausos-d, *flos-d),
are apparently the surviving remnants of this formation.
385.
their side.
The -r-stems have throughout -ro-forms by

The forms in -0- and -d- are
therefore (a) simple -ro-, -rd- with collateral
forms -rro- -rra- and -ero- -erd-^ ;

(c) -tro-
-trd-
(b)
386.
{a) The suffix -ro- -rd- with
makes both substantives and adjectives,
Gk.
i-pvd-pb-v (aco.)
In Latin a preceding
*ceres-ro-m
204).
-ero-:
by
ag-ru-m
ac-re
(ace.)
Kipa^)
becomes cerebrti-m
lib-eru-m; -ro- and -rro- side
and
common
lapds {=*is-rro-sY.
Greek and
in
is
used to make new forms from existing stems

l<Tyy-p6-<;,
byeforms
changes before -ro- -rd- into
-s-
side in Ipos {=*is-ro-s)
-ro-suffix is very
(aco.)
ruh-ru-m
(stem of
i-X^vd-epo-v.
its
Eng.
Lat.
dy-p6-v (ace.)
-b-
-tero- -terd-
(d) -dhro- -dhrd--
-ero-
4)ol3-p6-^ etc.
is
The
frequently
o^w-q-po-?,
used as a com-
also
parative suffix, op. ev-epoi, Lat. s-uper, Eng. over.

*
Compare now
See Johansson K. Z. 30
p.
422
iii.
p. 349.
f.
be noticed that all stems in liquids and nasals + -0have forms where the consonant form of the liquid or nasal
seemingly preceded by the sonant form. But it is not easy in all
3
and
is
Streitberg, I. F.
It is to
-a-
cases to decide whether the preceding vowel belongs to the sufSx.

^
The
74n.
Attic form iepds
is
not
clear.
Cp.
Brugm. Grundr.
11.
;;
A SHORT MANUAL OF
332
387.
-tero-, -terd-,
(b)
bination of the
an
which seems rather a comwith -ro- than like -trois
-ter-,
used specially as the
the comparative and of pronouns which express
The
alternative.
generally appears
in the
suffix
pronouns in Latin
weak form
the
in
ut-ru-m
but
The adverbial forms from the comparative
al-teru-m.
stem have also the shorter form ex-tra, ci-tra

ex-teri (masc.
comparative
is
added to
-tero-
sense in-ter-ior
etc.
the reverse order in
in
Some forms
etc.
cp.
In Latin the other com-
pi.), ci-ter-ior.
parative suffix -ies
suffixes
387
-to- (-ta-) suffix
a parallel formation to
suffix of
where
it
occurs in a
compare
dp-icr-Tcpd-s,
also
the
sin-is-ter.
of this combination in Latin are found also
as substantives, mag-is-ter, min-is-ter.

Gk.
Compare
etc.
in-ter-ior
Tr6-Tepo-v
[u-tru-m^]
(c)
cp. fur-ther
whether
pronominal adjectives
also the
with nos-ter,
388.
Eng.
Lat.
iv-npo-v
t^/xc-te/do-s,
ves-ter.
The
suffix -tro- {-trd-) is
found most
fre-
quently as a neuter and in the making of class names
(common
nouns).
apo-Tpo-v,
ara-tru-7n (modified
Eng. raf-ter
poTT-Tpo-v,
feminines
'milking
Gk.
compare
-i-
adjectival suffix
The
As
It is,
( 387).
relation
is still
XiK-rpo-v,
X}'-^P;
'
Lat.
after
(if
declension)
stem)
Scotch lach-ter'.
pitcher,'
is
fere-tru-m
the verb
In eques-ter, pedes-ter,
pail.'
(changed to the
whether
rîpi-rpo-v,
For
Lat.
mulc-tra,
etc.
this suffix
found as a secondary
*equet-tri-, *pedet-tri, etc.^

any) of this stem to that of Tb-repo-v and
unexplained.
in midden-lachter
'
place for the dunghill.'
however, equally possible to attach these forms to
-tero-
390]
389.
The
[d)
suffix -dhro-, -dhrd- has arisen like
the English suffix -ling

of the word.
It is
Slavonic, but
333
286) from a mistaken division
found in the
classical languages
and
The meaning
the
not in Sanskrit.
same as that of
-tro-
masculine forms.
Gk.
is
There are however some
-trd-.
o\e-Opo-<;, 'ruin,' is
used along with
MaKcSwv by Demosthenes almost as an adjective. In

Latin cre-her is an adjectival form of the same origin.
Feminine forms illece-bra, dold-hra etc. are found inLatin.
But the majority

'
of the words are neuter: Gk. KXy-dpo-v,
crl-bru-m
bar,' Lat.
(kpl-vw, cerno),
the forms are abstracts

pro-hru-m,
'
sieve.'
Some
of
<nipyrj-6po-v (mostly in plural),
from this source.
if
The forms in
be mere varieties
and
-tlo-
of -tro-
-dhlo- seem in many cases to

and -dhro- produced by dissi-
milation.
The suffixes in -lo- are of the same types and

390.
have much the same meaning as those in
-lo- suffixes.
p
-ro-.
inere is, nowever, no series 01 forms
,
in
-I-
-do-
only by the side of them.

(often
-culo-),
In Latin
peri-clu-m
-tlo- becomes
and peri-culum, etc.
This suffix must be carefully distinguished from the
compound
-qo
suffix
classical period
+ lo- which
Plautus, however,
distinguishes
never shortening -co +
making -do-
also
appears in the
as -culo-, cor-cu-lu-m, uxor-cu-la, etc.
lo-
them
in
to one syllable,
disyllabic only for metrical reasons, as at
the end of a line or hemistich',
-do-
changed by dissimilation after another

lava-cru-m, lu-cru-m
'
most cases,
and generally
(cp.
Gk.
is
-I-
\v-Tpo-v).
Lindsay, Classical Review,
vi. p. 87.
sometimes
to
-cro-

A SHORT MANUAL OF
334
TTi-Xo-s
fi-lu-s
7fel-t
eX-Aci (Doric)
sel-la^
sett-le
-llo-
6iJ.-aX6-!
sim-ili-s'
elo-
ve<p-iKri
neb-ula
-lo-
The
neiul).
^^ ^ Secondary suffix with a slightly depre-
ciatory or diminutive signification, like -ish
sweet-ish,
frigid-ulu-s
Germ, nebel (O.H.G.
390
very frequent in both Greek and Latin
suffix is
loas a diminutive suffix.
in
Thus
etc.
'
coldish.
'
7ra;)(D-Xd-9,
thickish,'
Lat.
In the later history of the lan-
'
guage, these secondary formations often usurp the place

of the primary words.
This
bellus {*ben-lu-s,
cp.
The
sometimes
suffix
was
bene),
the origin of forms like
even
reduplicated as in
Of the same
puellula for *]}uer-lo-ld.
Greek diminutive
is
agellus {=*ager-lo-s), etc.
origin are the
suffixes in -uAXio-, ttSvAXtov 'idyll,' etc.
391tlo-
d.v-TKo-v
-dhlo-'^ d4ixe-d\(i-v
(borrowed from Gk.)
ex-aJi-cZa-re
sae-clu-m?
cp. sta-hulu~vi
392. Both -r- and -I- suffixes are sometimes preceded

which was borrowed originally from the end of a
-S-,
by
preceding root or stem and then treated as part of the
This -s- sometimes arises phonetically, as in
suffix.
For Indo-G. *sed-la.
"With change of declension as often, cp. x^t'M-<''ô-s hum-ili-s.
From the suffix -dido- with this change of declension comes the
1
suffix
-bill-
so widely developed
in Latin
for the formation of
adjectives.
'
This word
is
always so scanned in Plautus (Lindsay, C. E.
VI. p. 89).
*
Dr Fennell,
versity Reporter
in a paper
for 1893
views regarding the suffixes
summarised in the Cambridge Unipp. 435 6, attacks Brugmann's

in -dhro- and -dhlo- and connects e.g.
4,
probrum with the rt. found in Skt.

form *pros-ru-m 'a spot, stain.'
prs-, thus
making
its
original
393]
Lat. ros-tru-m (rod-o), ras-tru-m (rad-o).

it
In mon-stru-m
A development
has no such justification.
mascuhne
suffix in -stro- is the
335
of this
suffix -aster
new
found in
oleaster, parasitaster (Ter. Adelph. 779), etc., a suffix
which has been borrowed by English in poet-aster, etc.

With -I- suffixes this -s- had existed in the root of
ala = ax-la (cp. ax-is, a^-mv, Eng. ax-le), but is borrowed in pre-lu-m = "prem-s-lo-m, scala = *scand + s-ld
The suffixes in -n- are also often preceded by
( 188).
"^
-s-
186).
The
393-
-mo- occurs in a comparatively
suffix
small number of substantive and adjective
.^. guaxes
() primary,
forms pretty widely disseminated through

the whole family of languages.
:
7for-nia
dfe-fio-s
ani-mu-s
6ep-fi6-s
bar-w}
for-viu-s ( 141
<j>^-li.r]
The
fu-mu-s
6v-ix6-s
(pop-fi6-s
war-m
b.)
fama.
suffix is fairly frequent in Greek,
combination with
{a-Ta-6fi.6-s,
in a few
'
station
-t')
in cpe-T/id-s,
(as
'
sometimes in
oar
')
and
-6-
In Latin the feminine -ma occurs,
words as a primary
suffix,
ru-ma, spu-ma,
secondary in lacri-ma, or by adaptation after spu-ma^.

1
In Chaucer 'lap, bosom.'
(pep-w are
These three similar derivatives

an interesting example of the de-
velopment of meaning; har-m apparently as if 'bearer, support,'

like the English 'bearing' whence 'figure, beauty' (cp.
for-ma
formosus);
wicker.'
(pop/jid-s
(1)
'a basket for carrying,'
(2)
'basket-work,
The Eomance languages however postulate /or-ma which
renders the etymology doubtful.

'
and
The -<T- which appears

some other words
in
before
is
-p.-
in late.
'
Bloomfield, A. J. P.,
in
iir/iTi
by the side of
dd/ir;
not of phonetic origin and comes
xii. p. 27.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
336
The
394.
(5)
latives.
superlative
suffix
in super-
is
frequently formed with this
the comparative has in
in
-tero-
[ 39'
^^^ Latin -tmmo- in the superlative

But the simple -mo- is also
pos-tumu-s.
g]j^_
pos-ter-ior,
found in Latin pri-mus

pris-cu-s).
Somewhat
pare
opti-mu-s,
also
The same
nov-issi-mu-s.
for *pris-mu-s (cp. pris-tinu-s,
similar
is 7rpd-/xo-9,
pulcher-ri-mu-s,
suffix is
Com-
'chief
humil-li-mu-s,
found in Bng. fo?-e-m-osf,
which, like hindmost, arises from a combination of -uma-ist-
the superlative
Trv-jxa-ro-i
the same suifix
with
word
is
Aeolic
suffix
may
in ap-io-ro-s, etc.
possibly be found
and connected with
a-Tro.
if
In
the
In Latin
superlatives like pulcher-ri-mu-s, humil-li-mu-s etc., the
simplest explanation of the suffix
is
that -ri-mu-, -li-mu-
stand for -simo- which arises phonetically from -tmmo

after -t- as in pes-simu-s, *pet-tmmo-s,
Gk.
But
irl-TTT-ui.
from root oi pet-o,
2}essimus being in popular et3rmology
connected with peior, the suffix
is
then generalised as
-ssimu-s in novi-ssimu-s, etc.
The
395.
suffixes in -no-
parallel to the
-no- suffixes.
form a very large group,
numerous forms of -m-stems

;
-meno- y-mono-\,
-time- ; and in Greek -awo-.

Forms with -720- suffixes are used both
substantives and as adjectives.
-mno-
-no- (-nno-), -eno-, -ono[-foio-]
396.
T^K-VO-V
as
399]
The
397d/v-eno-s,
from
b-ono-s
0. Lat.
comes
bellus
Greek shows -ono- in such
*b-en-lo-s.
words as
found in Latin
suffix -eno- is
classical
337
Kp-oi'o-s,
0p-6vo-%,
The
iJS-ovjy'.
-etw-
suifix
survives in English in such participial forms as bounden;

-ono- in
fain (0. E. fwgen, 0. Low Germ, fag-an), and
in the first syllable of wan-ton^, Middle Eng. wan-hope
Gk.
cS-ri-s,
'
with the same root as in
bereft,' Skt. u-nci-s,
The
398.
as in
wan = *u-ono-
where
(despair),
(f>-^y-ivo-'s
'
lacking.'
adjectival suffix -ino:
Lat. fag-hiu-s
sometimes
is
beech-en,
but in (jreek words of time as
iap-L-vo-s
may possibly be
tive
ca/Dt
'
in the spring
new formation from
399.
The form
to
make names
the loca-
For a similar origin of other
'.
stems compare iyKtofiiov, literally what

and Lat. aborigines, the inhabitants ab
-ino-
suffix in the classical
early,
Eng.
cp.
is
is
said iv
kw/jlui,
origine.
common
as
a secondary
languages generally
of living beings, or adjec-
them I In the Germanic languages

and more widely as the suffix for
adjectives derived from 'nouns of material.'
In Latin
tives connected with
it
also so used,
is
the feminine of the adjectives in -moof the flesh of the animal

flesh,'
etc.,
although
(sc.
caro)
is
;
commonly used
capr-ma,
'
goat's
has other values as pisc-ma,
it
'fish-tank,' sal-mae, 'salt-pits.'

^
Brugmann's explanation
suffix
with the root vowel
is
of
not at
donum as a contraction
all
probable (Grundr.
11.
of this
67
c).
Wanton means properly 'without teaching, education.' The

simple word wan is of a different origin (Skeat, Etym. Diet. s.v.).
^ The order of development seems to be that -ino- first made
an adjective from the simple stem, the masc. or fem. of which was
Some forms as vicinus peregrinus may
next made a substantive.
2
be developed from a loc. as possibly in Greek okeios

G. P.
(p.
340
n. 1).
22

'
A SHORT MANUAL OF
338
-ijio-
jvic-inu~s:cp.Goth.aiweins
as ordinary adj. d7X'(rT-rco-s
'
TTpofurriaT-ivo-s^
Ino- as subst.i
KopaK-tvo-s
[peregr-inu-s
cp. sobr-inu-s
SeKipcLK-ivt]
ofânimals
-meiio-,
maiden
cp. reg-ina
su-lnu-s
The forms
400.
[(eternal)
cp.
= * sosr-ino-s)
-ino- as adj.
399
swine
-mono- (not found in Greek
an}' where, but postulated for some participial
and -mno- stand

Some Greek forms
forms in Sanskrit)
ablaut relations to one another.
in
in
-avo- after a consonant, as o-T'<^-avo-s, could phonetically
represent -mno-.
participles of the
ordinary
The
suffix
mostly used to form
is
middle voice, though some forms are

these
substantives,
present
{<TTpta-fi.a)
'
piXe-ixvo-v,
cp.
Trkr](r-iJ.oinj,
'
'
occurring most
last
quently when a substantive in
missile,'
satiety
-mon-
-men-
'
a-Tpw-ixvyj,
Lat.
is
'
couch
al-u-mnu-s,
nursling,' Vertu-mnu-s, col-u-mna (cp. cul-men)
minus
{termo and termen).
Owing
fre-
also
ter-
to the weakening of
Latin vowels in unaccented syllables,
it is
impossible to
decide whether -mino- represents original -meno-, -mono-
In Lat. legimhu of the 2nd
ox -mnno-.
Pass,
is
apparently identical with
the Imperative
it is
now explained
pi.
Xcyd-ju,vot,
as
an
pres. Ind.
while in
form
infinitive
identical with Xeye-yuci/ai ( 359).
401.
The
suffixes
found in Greek -o-wo- and Latin
-tino- present
there
is
might be a weak grade

that case
some
difficulty.
-crvvo-
(cp. vir-vos, Skt. svap-na-s).
In
we must suppose the two grades had once
existed in Greek, and that just as
by analogy
1
In Sanskrit
a suffix -tvana- to which
The suiBx
<rv
is
ere
(= rfc) produces
for tv, so here -cnvo- (= -Tpivo-)

frequent in proper
names
produced
iiXivoi, Albinus, etc.
402]
-avvo- for -TWO-
existed
-tono-,
in Latin,
whence
But
-tino-.
If a suffix -tueno- had

would have become phonetically
by analogy'.
it
in the
unaccented syllable
Latin words with the
all
339
suffix
-tino- are adjectives of time, cras-tinu-s, pris-tinu-s, etc.,
and
in Skt.
suffijc
With
found.
this
-tana- with the
same meaning
Latin form
suffix therefore the
more probably connected. A shorter form in -tnaalso found in Skt., and for this and other reasons
seems probable that the Latin
The question
is
is
is
it
suffix represents -tnno-.
as to whether the suffix -tno-
is
not the
origin of the gerund suffix in Latin has already been
touched on ( 194).
The forms in -meiito- and
noticed
The
402.
is
all
-uento-
have already been
359, 361).
with
suffix -io- -id-
mainly adjectival.
It
m order to
its
byeform
,.
'iO'
f.
make adjectives from

Some forms made with this suffix
stems
them.
-iio- -iid-
can be added to
Lat. patrius (= *p9tr-iio-s)
stems.
as Trarpios,
have no doubt descended
from the proethnic period; but the great majority of the

forms have been constructed by the individual languages
separately and at different times in their history.
suffix is naturally for the
a few forms like ay-io-s
'
The
most part secondary, although
holy,' o-ây-io-v
'
sacrifice,'
atud-iu-m, come apparently direct from the
root.
Lat.
In
Greek the suffix is disguised when it is preceded (1) by

T, K, 6, X which amalgamate with -i- into -a-a--, Attic -tt(2) by S, y which with -t- become C ( 197).
( 197)
;
When added
vowel
of
to
an
stem
the
-0-
or -rt-stem the characteristic
is
omitted,
possibly,
Brugm. Grundr.
dV'o-s therefore = *a7-iios.
11.
Brugmann
70 note.
222

A SHORT MANUAL OF
340
402
thinks', because the primary formations influence these
secondary forms
hence
ayp-io-s,
rt/x-ios
The
lud-iu-s 'player' {Indus), avius {via).
gradation
stems
Latin
m-ew:
hence in old Latin
not
al-iu-s,
ali-s, al'i-d,
^ypg jlteius,
^jjg
Velleius
etc.
seem
Vellius
etc.
The
secondary derivatives from Atius,
enumeration of the vast mass of

the addition of
Lat.
showed
CaeciUs as well as Caecilius. Names
<^l-'i'U-d,
Qf
(ti/^j;)
suffix
suffixes,
produced by
to simple suffixes and combinations
-io-
of simple suffixes, belongs rather to the
gTammar
of each
individual language than to comparative philology.
As the
403.
-i-,'
stems
J.
'no-
the
suffix -io- -id- is parallel to
with its
so the suffix -mo-ud"
"
suffix
hyeform
-uuo-
Some words
is
to
parallel
the
suffix
-u-.
in which this suffix occurs have already
been mentioned
specialised for
coiours.
-uud
20
and
manic languages
adjectives of colour
used for both nouns
It is
f.).
^'^^ adjectives,
in
Latin and the Gerspecialised
is
form
to
Lat. fla-vu-s, ful-cu-s, fur-vu-s,
A discovery by Bronisoh [Die

seems to throw light upon this
Oscan distinguishes between two groups of stems,
difficult point.
one represented by nom. Statis, the other by nom. Piintiia
'
Grundr.
oshischen
(Uo/j-TrTies)
11.
63, 2,
note
iind e Vocale, p. 67
3.
ff. )
this last being represented
by the Eomans as Pontius.
The principle is that praenomina or nomina derived from praenomina which have no -i- suffix make the nom. in -i- only while
forms from an already existing -10-stem have -ii. The -i- forms
;
thus depend on Indo-G. gradation, the

syncope.
We
-if- forms on special Oscan

might therefore argue from analogy that ri/i-io-s
has the structure of primitive formations, while Skaios from SIkt)

parallel to TL/xri represents a later Greek formation for SiKa + uos.
So
olK-ia represents
oiVcios
an early derivative
parallel to
represents the secondary formation,
represent an adj. derived from a locative
dvdpaoi
is
oi/ceios
ol/c-o-s,
ofxei, cp. e-Ku-nos (
obviously an analogical formation.
while
however might
325
v).
405]
gil-mi-s, hel-vu-s
341
Eng. sallow, yellow, fallow\ blue and
possibly grey.
Gk.
Eng.
Lat.
\ai-f6-s
cli-vo-s
low
lae-vo-s
slow
= hill
(
op. 136)
174)
Attic Kv6s, leVos represent */fv-fo-s
As
îv-Fo-'s.
a secondary suffix
verbals in -rio- (=-T-fo-)
it is
some
adjectives
Kopcr-rj)
'
'
mort-uo-s
(cp.
cp.
tri-mestr-i-s
Gk.
etc.)
probably a modification of an
is
= *mrt6-s)
older *morto-s (Indo-G.
found
and in
it is
/acVos,
(=*cers-tio-uo-s,
headlong,' menstr-uo-s
monthly.'
In Latin
stem *nienes-, Gk.

cernuos
as
and
wpaK-reo-s etc., and possibly
in adjectives in -aXco-: pwyraXcVs^

in Miner-txo from the
(cp. Kci/e-ds)
found in the Greek
after the analogy of
the suffix in m-vo-s, opposites very often influencing one
another in this way.

404.
more
so.
In Latin the suffix
The long
borrowed in the
The value
first
instance from -i-stems.
ef the suffix
found from the same
is
405.
certain
(late)
mc-wo-s (and vac-wo-s)

with occid-uo-s,
sta-flvo-s
^.
In Greek the
number
nom. in -
Latin-joo-and
'*'^"'-
identical with -mo-, both being
root, cp.
with vac-uo-s, cad-tvo-s

with sta-tua
-Ico- is frequent, -tlvo- still
seems to have been
-J-
is
The word
.suffix
-w or
-<o
is
found in a
of words, especially proper names.
apparently the older of the two.
The
Since
in fallow-deer a,nd falloiv -field is the same, being in
both cases an epithet of colour.

2 Brugmann, Grundr. 11. 64.
Another explanation is given by Thurneyaen (K.Z. 28 p.

and von Planta (Grammatik d. osk-umb. Dialekte 86), who
hold that the forms in -ivo- are secondary formations with -io- from
-ii-stems; the combination -lii- becoming in primitive Italic -m-;
^
155
f.)
Gains from * Gaiuos =^* Gauws, divos = *dinios or *deiuios
( 208).
A SHORT MANUAL OF
342
405
Greek proper names originally always consisted of two

words, as îXoo-Tparos,
really pet
names
^rjiioa-Oivrj's,
like the
this nature therefore are female
Common nouns
are rare,
of the forms
disputed.
is
shorter
forms are
English Tom, Dick
'?x'"'>
names
'''^", ""eu^w.
The most
Of
etc.
like *tA.a),
'B.o.vdw.
The
origin
plausible explana-
tion' is that they are diphthongal stems in
-oi, final
-i
being lost phonetically in the nom. and restored later
from the voc. in
a case which in proper names
-oi,
On
naturally plays a large part.
identified with a few Skt.
are
'
friend
'
ace.
sakhdyam
this theory these stems
stems of which sakhd
the type.
is
The Nimierals.
xxiii.
The Indo-Germanic system of numeration is

from the outset decimal. At points it is crossed by a
406.
duodecimal system, traces of which remain in the dozen
and the gross. A combination of the decimal

o
and duodecimal S3-stem is found m the
"long hundred" (=12x10), but the material at our
disposal seems to give scarcely gTound enough for the
ingeniofis theory, propounded by Johannes Schmidt, that
the duodecimal elements in the Indo-Germanic system
of numeration were borrowed from the Babylonians, and
Decimal and
duodecimal sys-
tems.
that consequently the original seat of the former people
must have been in Asia and in the neighbourhood

of Babylonl
Pronouns and numerals are amongst the
most stable elements of language, and the Indo-Germanic
peoples are more harmonious in their use of numerals
Given by Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 27. p. 374 ff. and by others.
Die Urheimath der Indogermanen mid das europdische Zahlsystem (1890), cp. H. Hirt, Die TJrheimath der Indogermanen I.F.
1
I.
p.
464
ff.
:
;
409]
343
But the forms
than in their use of pronouns.
for
individual numbers in the separate languages often are

different from those
which by a comparison of other
languages we should theoretically expect.
much
that the numerals are as
The truth
is
a series as forms in the
in
paradigm of a noun or a verb, and that consequently

analogical changes are continually arising. For example,
the series in the Latin names of months, September,
November, December, naturally leads to the

Octember, which is actually found,
although it did not permanently survive.
,
formation of an
Cardinal Numbers.
A.
One.
407.
root
*oi-
with various sufltxes
used for this numeral by most languages

(=*oi-7io-s)
ol-vT]
'
one on
ordinary use by eh, /wa,

'
alone
Greek preserves
Eng. one (0. E. an).
in ot-vo-?,
iv
is
Lat. u-nu-s
this
but has replaced
it in
(=*sem-s, *sm-ia, *sem).
ol-os
dice,'
represents original *oi-uo-s.
'
Two.
408.
Indo-G. (1) *dud SAii dudu,
*dm-
(2)
^duuu; in
Gk. (2) Svui (1) Su-StKa (8f w-)

Eng. (1) two (0. E. twd fem. and neut.
Lat. (2) duo
twegen masc. with a further sufhx hence twain). 8vo,
compounds,
(3)
the only form for which there

in Attic,
is
not
Brugmann
clear.
the original neuter^
is
*dui-
is
inscriptional authority
conjectures that
found in Greek
Lat. bis bi-den-s {=*dui-s, cp. bomos

(O.E. twi-es), twi-s-t,
Three.
409.
(cp.
1
317
b),
Grundr.
that Sio
is
'
Indo-G.
166.
397)
*trei-es,
strands.'
neuter probably *tn
Gk. rpeis (=*trei-
Kretsohmer (K.Z. 31
simply the uninfleeted stem.
was
Eng. twice
something made of two
the plural of an -2-stem.
11.
it
8t-s Si-irovs,
p.
451
n.)
holds
A SHORT MANUAL OF
344
es), rpl-a
409
Lat. tres (cp. oves, 317 a), tri-a, Eng. three
(0. E. Sri
masc, Sreo
fern,
stem *qetuor- with
all
From the
syllables.
and
neut.).
Original form not certain, probably a
Four.
410.
gradations
possible
stronger grades
in
both
come the various
forms of the numeral in Greek rcVopes, rcWapts etc.

rpd-ireâ is said to be derived from a
( 139, Bxc. 1).
weak form
*qtur-, which,
in that
existed
it
may
be safely averred, never
This like the preceding three
form.
numerals was originally
Latin has dropped
inflected.
the inflexion and changed the vowel sound of the
from
syllable
-e- to
-a-,
first
according to most authorities
on the analogy of the ordinal quartus, which obtains its

-ar- according to the received explanation from a long
sonant r
For the change in the
(-r-).
initial
sound
in
the English numeral (/- where wh- might be expected)

cp. 139,
411.
Exc.
3.
IwAo-Qi. *pe7iqe
Five.
Greek
Trevrc ( 139, 16),
Lat. quinque with assimilation of initial sound
Exc. 2) and -e- changing to
-i-
139,
before a guttural nasal
161) Eng. five (0. E. flf) with assimilation of consonant in the second syllable ( 139, Exc. 3).
412.
late
explain
Here
Six.
different
the
different languages
forms
original
forms
in
all
*suek-s
Indo-G.
seem to postuand *seks will
languages
except
Armenian and Old Prussian, which require *iieks^. Gk.

ii = *.sueks, for f cf and its compounds are found in
several dialects. Lat. sex, Eng. six = *seh.
413.
septem.
Seven.
Indo-G.
The Germanic
septm
Greek
e^Ta
forms, Goth, sibun, Eng. seven
Lat.
etc.,
show the numeral without any sound corresponding to

the original -t-, a peculiarity for which several explana^
Brugmann, Grundr.
11.
170.
417]
tions have been ôffered.
It
before the action of Grimm's
of assimilation of
*septiff,
seems most likely to
Law
begins, from
arise,
some form
into *sepm, whether in the
Brugmann,
ordinal *septmo- as
345
or
the cardinal as
in
Kluge and others contend.

The accent must have
changed to the last syllable at a very early period.
414.
6k. oKTO)
Indo-Gr. *ohtou *oktu
Eight.
in form a dual.
Bng. eight (0. E. eakfa ; primitive

*aktau).
Pick conjectures that the
Lat. octo
Germanic form
word originally meant the two
'
derives from a
(of the hands)
'
Indo-G. two forms
Nine.
415.
tips
and
ok- seen in oxpis etc.
rt.
(1)
*enun and
(2)
Gk. (1) cVa-ro-s (= *y^w-To-9, cp. êVos, 403),

iv-va
explained' as "nine in all' with the original
(2)
Gk. preposition iv in the sense of the later in such
*'neun.
phrases as
rpU, e? ttcVtc vaCs etc.
after decern, for non-us
shows
Lat. (2)
-n.
novem with
Eng. nine (0. E.
nigon out of *nemm).

416.
Ten.
Indo-G. *dehn
Eng. ten (0. E. tmi).
Gk. ScKa
Lat. decern
Kluge contends that the
original
form was *dekmt^.

417.
These seem to have been

by copulative compounds
Latin throughout undecim {-im
Eleven to Nineteen.
in Indo-G. generally expressed
which are retained in
in an unaccented syllable), octodecim etc.

ev-ScKa, 8<o-SeKa.
and
Eleven and twelve in the
in
Greek in
Eleven
and
Germanic languages are expressed differently Germanic' lan^

by means of a sufiix -lif: Goth, din-lif, twa- b"^**^This suffix some connect plausibly with -lika, which
lif.
in Lithuanian makes the numerals from eleven to nineteen.
If the identification is correct,

'
both go back to a
By Wackernagel, K.
Z. 28 p. 132
Paul's Grundriss,
p. 404.
1.
ff.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
346
form
in.
disputed, but
The meaning
five ( 139, Exc. 3).
seems best to connect
it
*leiq- of AttV-w linqno, in the
That the word
over.'
which the Germanic languages have changed
*-liq- in
-q- to 'f- as
417
it
meaning
'
also
is
with the root
one over, two
ten should be omitted
is
no more
'
one and
surprising than the omission of shilling in

eight'.'
From
418.
Double
in
thirteen to nineteen Attic Greek
form ^3"
"^P"^
^""^
""'
'^^^'
^^^
^^^
âiiiing inflected on inscriptions
Attic"Greek"
numbers
^^'i
till
If the substantive precedes, the
^"
300b.c.
numerals
are in the reverse order, like the English twenty-four

avSpa'cri
SeKa
lirTo.,
etc.
a system which holds good as a general
For eighteen and nine-
rule also for larger numbers".
teen Latin employs most frequently a method of sub-
from twenty:
traction
O.E. ttvd
419.
Ices
diiodeviginti,
uiideviginti
cp.
twentig.
The
Tens.
The Greek
Sexa's
represents a very
old abstract substantive dehnt (cp. 347), from forms

of
which aU tens and

syllable is
first
also all
hundreds are made.
The
reduced in composition and disappears.

-kovt-.
The
hundred seems to have meant 'ten
^dhnt- and ~"dkomt becoming Gk. -Kar- and

original
name
for
tens.'
420.
krnt-i
Twenty.
Indo-G. probably *7-
dual form.
with a new form for
tiro,
according to Brugmann^
from a stem meaning 'apart, against,' found in English

Brugmann, Gi-undr. 11. 175, gives this explanation, but
from *leip- seen in Skt. limpami adhere '. Kluge identifies
Germ, lif and Lith. liJia, but conjectures that *liqe meant 'ten',
which seems improbable. (Paul's Gnmdriss, i. p. 404.)
'
derives
'
Meisterhans, Graminatik der attischen Innchriften" p. 126
Grmidr.
11.
177.
ff.
422]
wi-th and possibly in wi-de (a participial
347
foitn).
This
stem appears in different languages in what appear to

be different grades and case forms Gk. Doric f t-Kar-t,
:
Attic u-Ko<TL, with

tens
on the analogy of the following
-0-
Lat. m-gint-t {-g- instead of -c- probably after
septin-genti where
it
is
Eng.
phonetically correct).
from 0. E. twentig contracted from *twwm

tigum^ with crystallised dative case. The Germanic
twenty
is
substantive *tigus
421.
is
Gk.
Indo-G.
30
a modification of *dehnt-.
Thirty to Ninety are plural forms.
*tri-komt-d
40 7*qetur-komt-d
[0. Eng.2
Lat.
rpia-Kovr-a
trl-gintcl
'Sritig
TeTpii-Kovr-a.
quadrd-gintil
feowertig
(cp. TeTTapd-Kovra)
50
*penqe-kovit-d
qvinqud-gintd
rei'T'fi-KOVTa.
fiftig].
In the original language modifications seem to have
appeared in the reduced form of the numeral four (qetuf)

The latter seems
in 40 and the lengthening of -e- in 50.
certain as the lengthening occurs also in other languages
than those
a in TpLd-Kovra seems to have been
cited,
produced by the influence of the succeeding numerals.

From sixty (where the decimal and duodecimal
422.
systems cross) different languages follow different lines
of development, so that
original forms were.
and English
carries
it is
impossible to say what the
Greek and Latin remain

on the numeration as it
similar,
is
stiU
preserved.
In Greek i^-y-KOVTa,
evev-T]-KOVTa (= *evf v-)
Compare
'
oy8o-r]-KovTa
i/iSo/j.-y-Koi'Ta,
have taken
Lat. sex-ci-ginta etc.
-rj-
from
There
is
and
TrevT-rj-KOVTa.
also
a form
Sievers, Grammar of Old English (Eng. trans, p. 163).

The English forms are not identical with the Latin and
Greek forms.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
848
The
oySco-KovT-a.
for
70 and 80
is
Gk.
*dkmtd-m.
422
-yS- in the forms
explain (cp.
difficult to
432).
Indo-G. *hnto-m, a reduction of
Hundred.
423.
and
origin of -^S-
very
(apparently
I-ko-to-v
=
'
one-hundred,'
coming from the stem in tls, a- of aTraf etc.): -Lat.

centu-m : 0. E. kund and hund-teon-tig. The Gothic is
taihuntehimd, but as to the proper division of this word
there
much
is
The development
424.
is
meaning being
uncertainty, the
either
Se'ica
(.Johannes Schmidt) or SeKaSwi/ ScKa's (Brugmann).
SeKctSfs
a matter of
much
any rate are derivatives

whence in Doric -Kartoi-,
borrowed from
of the forms for the hundreds
The forms
dispute.
in
in Greek at
from the stem kmt-
-io-
in Attic -koctiol with the -0-
In Latin, the forms are com-
-Kovra.
pounds with -centum, which instead of being neuter

plurals have become adjectival, apparently by a syntacso
tical change which introduced the construction
'
many hundred things

quadringenti
things.'
-in-
'
instead
the
of
partitive
of
from septingenti.
branches have a
Attic
For this the Aryan and Greek
Thousand.
425.
x'^"-*"-)
common form represented by
Lesb.
fx-ipLoi
very plausible attempt has been

as *sm-{h)llia, literally
Xt'Aiot
'
Ionic x^^^^h
Latin milia
(= *ghes-l-).
x^'^'^-'"'
cannot be connected with
an ingenious but not
made
to connect
'
except in the suffix to Skt. sahusra-m.

phonetically before
sometimes
stands to onilia
By
ineilia
E.
W. Fay
as
oinne
to
(A. J. P. xiii. p.
with
The
f. ).
is
parallel
dropped
is
singular form then
omnia.
226
mints) and h-
in Latin (cp.
lost as in (h)anser.
it
one thousand,' sm- being
from the root of *sem- eh and the word thus
'
'
and octingenti have borrowed
The Germanic
But what
of Lucilius'
430]
349
*]>usundi, Eng. tliousand, seems to have been originally
a vague abstract substantive meaning

0. N. yiisiind
used like Gk.
is
The
many
hundreds.'
ixvpCoi^.
Ordinals.
B.
426.
'
ordinals are adjectival forms derived in
most cases from the same stem as the cardinals. The

suffixes of the numerals vary, some ending in -mo-,
others in -to- and some in -mo-.
These three suffixes
and combinations of them are found in different languages even
427.
one
"with
root.
Indo-G. root *per-, Gk.
First.
Trparos) for *7rpa)-f-a-T0-s)
394)
0. E. fyrst -with suffix
Gk.
formation.
(Doric
-isto-.
In each language an independent
Second.
428.
Trpcoros
Lat. pr'i-mu-s {=* p7'is-mu-S,
Sev-repo-^
according to some from a
strong form of the root seen in Sv-w, according to Brug-
mann from
and thus meaning coming short of

Lat. sec'undiis from seqicor has practically the same
meaning al-tpr which is often used in the same way is
Sev-o-juai
'

(0. E. (jSer
of two, second
all
arises
In al-ter as in Eng. otlwr
from the comparative
Here
from the stem
TpiT-aro-s
"Sridda
'
Third.
429.
but
al-ius.
from an Indo-G. dn-tero-s) the meaning
one
also different formations appear,

*tri- or *ter-, Gk. rpi-To-s, Horn.
Lat. ter-tms (cp. Lesbian rep-To-s)
(North,
'
suffix.
^ridda)
may
represent
0. E.
*tre-tio-s
or
*tri-tio-s.
430.
Fourth.
Formed from
different grades of the
stem of four in Greek, Latin and English with a

'
Kluge
(after Vigfusson) in Paul's Gi'undriss,
i.
p. 406.
-to-
A SHORT MANUAL OF
350
or -</eo-suffix
TerapTo-s
Lat. quartu-s
430
410)
0. E.
Fifth and Sixth have also a -to-sufifix: Indo-G.
431.
^penq-to-s, * s{u)eks-to-s
Gk.
(quin-tu-s), sex-tu-s
188)
lost
-cr-
Lat. quinc-tu-s
0. E. fif-ta, siexta.
The
Seventh.
432.
ktos with
Tre/xTrros,
phonetically between -k- and -t-
suffix in
most languages
is -1110.
There were possibly three original forms', (1) *septnio-,

The form *septm6(2) *septm-mo- and (3) *septm-t6-.
may
possibly explain the voicing of the original con-
sonants in Gk.
6y88o/i-o-s^,
confusion of two forms,
which would then
*;88/ao-
and
from a
arise
To
*li7Taft.o-.
second form Lat. septimu-s belongs.
this
English in the
ordinals from seventh onwards to twentieth shows a -tosuffix.
may
be derived with the simple suffix
the stem *oktdy/'

-yS- is
The Greek and Latin forms
Eighth.
433.
ordinal
oySoF-o-s Lat. octav-u-s.
The
-d- of octdo-u-s
closely resembling oySoo-5
is
is difficult
seen in
the
from
In oySoos
supposed to arise from the influence of
/88oyu,os.
of this
-0-
-/SS-
in
a form more
Low
Latin
octud-ginta for *octoc-d-, on the analogy of which the
more permanent form septud-ginta must have been

originally
made^
'
Brugmann, Grimdr.
According to Schmidt (K. Z. 32,
middle syllable
(Epidaurus)
is
it is
therefore to be
11.
171.
p.
325) the vowel of the
affected by the following
affected
by the preceding
el35eij.r)KOPTa,
while in
ij35eixaioy
i^So/xrfKOPTCL
ought
as in Heraclean.
Kluge, Paul's Grundriss,
Conway now holds
(1.
-0-,
e-.
F.
i.
p. 404.
iv. p.
217) the probable view that
both the Greek and the Latin form come from an original oktduo-,
whence -afo- -uvo- and through the influence of the cardinal
437]
Ninth.
434.
Latin with
-0-
Made
ci/a-ro-s
*noven- from iioim-,
in
:
cp.
Greek with
suffix
non-u-s
Lat.
nun-dinu-m,
351
out
'
-to-,
in
of *no5n-
space of nine
days'.'
Tenth.
435-
Greek
-to-,
Lat. -mo-; Gk. SeWro-s
Lat. decim-us {=*dekmmo-s).
Kluge
finds only
an
-0-
in Gk. (cp. 416).
.suffix
For the ordinals from twentieth to hundredth

-kot- comes
Greek has a suffix -to- whence with *-kmto
-Ktto-To-s, in Attic with irregular change of vowel -koctto-s.
The suffix -simtis in Latin represents -tmmo- as in some
436.
superlatives;
hence vicesimus {=*ul-lcint-tmmo-s),
tri-
ge.fimus etc.
The ordinals beyond hundredth in both Greek

437.
and Latin depend upon the forms of the cardinal numbers
in the same way as those already mentioned {-n-^vTaKoaio<TTo's,
qiiingentesimus etc.).
By the Romans
the adjectival
and in
this
manner centesimus and higher

precisely the same way Greek
ordinals are made.
In
arises phonetically in
etc.
suffix in
new
felt to
cikoctto's
be
-esi7nus,
carries
on
-o-to-,
which
to these obviously
formations.
number
Greek,
^
numerals was
-ofo-
its
-cTto-,
the quality of the final sound aiJecting the
quantity the Latin form.
Solmsen, Studien zur lateinischen Lautgeschichtp.,
p. 84.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
352
438
THE VERB.
Verb Morplwlogy.
xxiv.
In the discussion of the verb, in tracing the
438.
history of its forms and the development of
the philologist meets with
much
its
usages,
greater difficulties than
beset his path in the investigation of the noun.
noun-formation the languages
of
In
Indo-Germanic
the
group show greater uniformity than in their verb-forms.
No doubt cases have become confused and forms originally

applied in one meaning have
but in
all
come
to be used in others,
respects the verb has suffered
History of the ^^^"^

^"'''
'
also
the noun.
more
languages differing in
The syntax
more
difficult to unravel,
many
in the syntax of the noun.
materials for comparison.
severely
of the verb
is
the various
points infinitely more than
There
are,
moreover, fewer
The languages which have
retained their verb-system best are the Sanskrit, Greek
and Slavonic, the two first mentioned being closely

similar in most respects and mutually illustrating both
morphology and syntax.
Far behind these lag the
Keltic, Italic and Germanic, the last however preserving
some forms with great purity. Greek and Latin it is
especially
difficult
to
compare.
In the Latin verb-
system only a mutilated fragment of the original scheme

is
preserved, the defects of which are remedied by a
curious medley of forms pieced together from various

sources.
Although the new forms take the place
of
441]
others whicli originally existed,
it is
353
only to be expected
that the different origin of the new forms will introduce

differences
Hence, in the syntax of the
syntax.
in
verb, perhaps no two Indo-Germanic languages are
more
unlike than Greek and Latin.
439.
In the parent language of the group there
were forms corresponding to those which we

call present, imperfect, future, aorist
The
strong and weak), perfect.
(both
pluperfect
probably
is
There were also subjunctive and optative forms, at
later.
and the
least to the present
case the signification was in
that which we
now attach
at least existed.
aorists.
Perhaps in every
some respect
different from
to these forms, but the forms
There were two voices corresponding to
we call the active and the middle.

Let us see now how this original scheme has been dealt
those which in Greek
with by the classical peoples.
Greek has preserved the two original voices

440.
and constructed, out of the middle and out
in Greek,
\
of new forms which it has itself created for
the future, first and second aorist, a new voice the
,
passive.
intact
It
has preserved the types of the active almost
we may except the future and probably

although has considerably modified
pluperfect
it
dividual forms.
is
in-
has added a future optative, which
used only in indirect narration.

441.
as
It
the
Latin has recast
its
voice-system.
a separate voice disappears.
analysis will
new
show some
Possibly
The middle
.
traces of it in the
passive with -r suffixes, which the Itahc and Keltic
languages alone have developed

voice remains, but
its
forms are
much
19).
imperfect has been developed everywhere.

G. P.
The
changed.
active
A new
In three out
23

A SHORT MANUAL OF
354
441
of the four conjugations (according to the usual classification), there are traces of
a new future fully developed
amd-bo and mone-bo, and traceable in others

and 0. Lat. scl-bo. The other futures, whether of
in the types
t-bo
the type legam, leges or ero, or again the obsolete faxo,
The
dixo, probably represent earlier subjunctives.
-s-
and the perfect are inextricably confused in one

Subjunctive and optative are merged in one
paradigm.
new mood of various and, to some extent, uncertain
origin, while some original subjunctives appear in the
aorist
future or future perfect.
How
442.
and m
Germanic
do the losses and gains of the
classical
compare with those of the Germanic lan-
the
Ian-
guages
In the latter, as represented by
modem
English,
much
has been
and the
sang etc. (
We
lost.
preserve the ancient present
perfect
so-called strong verbs, sing,
31),
in the
and there
are traces of an optative in the language of such culti-
vated persons as say
were you.'
'if I
All else
is lost.
But within the historical period, Germanic languages

and English itself preserved much more than this. From
the earliest period there is no trace of a future, but
there are
a few scanty
relics
of
aorist-forms',
and
Gothic has preserved considerable remnants of the old
middle formation.
The
passive
is
now made
must
auxiliary verbs, which

to
make
the modern perfect,
future perfect.
Greek
means
aorist is
A new
made
entirely
by means
of
used in the active
also be
pluperfect,
future
and
past tense with the sense of the
in all the
Germanic languages by
of a suffix corresponding to the English -ed in
loved etc., but

'
an auxiliary must on the other hand be
Kluge in Paul's Grinidrixs,
i.
p. 375.
355
445]
employed to form the durative imperfect corresponding

to the Latin amaham (I was loving).
This tendency to analysis instead of synthesis
443.
in verb-formation is also widely developed

.
in the
modern representatives
cal languages,
Tendency
of the classi-
analysis in
ti>
mod-
thus leading to the loss of
the early future and perfect in both the Greek and the
Romance
Latin had already lost
dialects.
is
almost in the same condition
all distinction
Hellenistic Greek
between subjunctive and optative.
the optative occurs
but once in St Matthew's Gospel, and the later Atticists

use it rarely and then often wrongly, thus showing that
it
had disappeared from the language of the people.

The special characteristics of the verb
444.
(i) its
augment,
(ii) its
reduplication, which
however we have found to a small extent

in the noun,
tense,
and
passive
in
its
cases
o^fieVerb.
distinctions of voice,
mood and
endings for active and middle or
the three persons of the three numbers.
Apart from these
many
its
(iii)
(iv)
are
characteristics
peculiarities the verb-stem cannot in
be distinguished from the corresponding
noun-stem, the suffixes of the stem in both verb and
noun being frequently identical.

(i)
The augment is properly no part
445.
verb.
It
seems to have been originally an
of the
^^^ Augment.
adverbial particle, on to which the enclitic
verb threw
its
accent
( 98).
It
accompanies only forms
with secondary endings, and seems to have the power of

attaching to such forms the notion of past time, for
without this element, as we shall see
later,
forms with
secondary endings are found in other meanings than

that of past time.
language was
e- is
The augment which
in the original
found only in the Aryan group, in
232
A SHORT MANUAL OF
356
Armenian and
the augment
between
When
e.g.
445
another element besides
prefixed to the verb, the
and the verb,
it
compound
in Greek.
is
augment comes
KaT-i-fiaXov, unless
the
meaning as to be felt
In such a case the augment precedes the
as one whole.
preposition, e.g. KaOiôfiai, iKaOeôixrjv.
Sometimes the
augment in such cases is doubled, being placed before
the preposition and also before the verb, dv-exo/nai.
used in so
is
specific a
Two strata of augmented forms can be recognised in

Greek when the root begins with e-. Those in which
the vowel is the original initial sound of the root
combine with the augment into e-{rj), while those roots
which have lost an initial consonant generally make the
augmented forms in -. Thus d/xi (= *io--ixi) makes
â (1st per.
sing.) = *e + es-m, but eVoûai (rt. seq-)
makes eiTrdjuijv (= *i-crir6fjLr]v) with the rough breathing
eXko) (root in two forms in diiferent
of the present.
languages *smlq- and *uelq-) makes dXKov ; iftydôfML
makes in Attic both dpyail,6ix-qv and rjpyatpix-qv. In some
forms, however, the
vowels originally separated by a
consonant remain uncontracted even in Attic

In roots which begin with
iwBovv, iwvovjxrjv.
vowel
is
caXwv,
or v the
sometimes lengthened to indicate an augmented
This lengthening arises not by contraction with

the augment, but on the analogy of augmented forms
tense.
hence such forms as

^/neAXov,
the augment, as
is
on the analogy of
446-
(ii)
Reduplication.
iKiTiva-a, vtfrqva.
The
inferior forms
do not show a long form of

sometimes supposed, but are formed
rjPovkojx-qv
5;8iimyiir)v,
rjBeXov
from
i6i\.w.
In the verb three kinds of reduphcation
^'^^ ^^'^'^^
plication in
(1) ^^^^^ tî '^'O^^l of

--,
(2)
the redu-
with the vowel of the
446]
reduplication in
cated.
The
-e-, (3)
first
with the whole syllable redupli-
form
is
as
reduplicated present, the second

of the perfect, the third
of verbs.
357
is
a rule confined to the

is
specially characteristic
confined to a small number
In Latin the reduplicated perfect sometimes
assimilates the vowel of the reduplication to the vowel

of the root
mordeo, momordi for *memordi
totondi for *tetondi.
tondeo,
A SHORT MANUAL OF
358
446
confusion between augment and reduplication occurs in
some other instances where the root begins with two

consonants, as in e-jfiXacmj-Ka (but
fie-fiX-q-Ka), l-KT^-jxai.
as well as Ki-KTrj-fxai etc.
447.
(iii)
The
voices of the original verb, as has
been mentioned ( 439), were the

and middle. Apart from the differ-
The voices of îlready

the Verb.
active
ence in personal endings, the only distinctions between
and middle
active
in respect of form are (1) that in
n on- thematic verbs without stem- suffix the root in the
middle
frequently in the
is
in
weak grade
L-a-Trj-fii, i-a-ra-
although in the Verb, just
/aai, 8i-S-fx.i, 8i-8o-/i,ai etc.,
gradation,
Bi-^rj-ixai,
Kel-fjiai
suffixes as -neu-, -nd-,
(2) that verbs
and probably
forms of the suffix in the middle

hiLK-vv-jx-ai
cp. Trip-vrj-fii
with
(ii)
show weak
ifU-vv-fxi (
481
e),
fx-ap-va-ixai,
The passive voice not being an

The Passive in IS made by each language in
Greek.
j^^ Greek the only new forms
the middle are (i) the 2nd aorist in --qv,
480 )
with stem-
others,
448.
as
Noun, there are some forms which show no
the
the 1st aorist in
~6rjv,
original voice
its
own way.
distinct from
i-(j>dv-r]v
which seems
etc.
to be
a purely analogical formation from the secondary ending

of the
2nd person singular of the middle
the future passive, which
is
the stem found in the 1st aorist
middle has a passive sense,

449.
The Passive
^'*'"
in
-r
This formation
in Keltic,
added
is
b)
(iii)
i-rifjuq-drj-v, njxrj-dyj-a-ofjLai
e.g. rijuij-o-ojuai.
In Latin the passive

s-s
474
In some verbs the future
Xeicf)-6i]-aofji.ai.
i-XeL<f>-6riv,
a late development from
is
made
in the
by the addition of a
after the
old personal
same way
suffix in
endings.
peculiar to the languages of the ItaHc
and Keltic groups.
Its origin is still to
some extent
449]
359
upon its
The whole paradigm
uncertain, though nrach light has been thrown
by recent researches.
seems not to have originated at
history
once,
but to have begun
with the third person, like venitur in the sense of

comes,' capitur
being
left
one
'
vague,
dicitur
parallel to the
French on
lorm
IS
'
one
takes,' the subject of the sentence
thus originally exactly
is
dit.
11.
plural
1
not required, and this original state
originally only
in the 3rd per-
of things is shown in the frequent Virgilian

and Livian construction itwr ad siham and the like,
where itur may refer to any person singular or plural.
Such forms made from transitive verbs naturally required an accusative, a type which is preserved in the
Here the question arises as
so-called deponent verbs.
to whether the -u- which precedes -r is to go with -r or
with the
-t-
preceding.
As such
verbs in both the Italic
and the Keltic groups make their perfect forms with a

passive participle in -to- and the substantive verb', it
seems likely that we ought to take
the original middle ending
It is easy to see
added.
etc., is
made
-to,
how
-tu- as representing
to
which
-r is
to the original venitiir.
From
we pass
this
a fu.rther stage where the passive sense
to
then
a plural form veniuntur
is
fully
developed, and this development calls into being a complete paradigm by adding -r
and by replacing -m and
regere-r
after a vowel-ending
-s
endings by -r
regi-mu-r, rega-mu-r, regere-mu-r.
rego-r,
rega-r,
It is to
be observed that the 2nd persons of the present, both

singular and plural, are of a different
(474a) corresponding to
7r(cr)o
origin, seqiiere
(sequeris is a
is
new forma-
Thurneysen in Brugmami's Grundriss, ii. 1080 n. 1. There

no substantive verb in the Keltic passive forms; ep. Lat. ftisi
1
hostes etc.
so frequent as complete sentences in Livy.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
360
tion),
449
and sequimini being a participle. The 2nd persons

formed on this analogy. The history
in other tenses are
of these changes cannot be traced in
detail, because
they took place at a period long preceding any literature
we
and most probably before the Italic and

had separated from one another'
For the persons of the active and middle
(iv)
possess,
Keltic languages
450.
Personal end-
voiccs there are distinct series of personal
Within each series there are

if bottracSve endings.
and middle.
again two distinct groups, (1) primary and
secondary endings.
(2)
not found in
This distinction, however,
languages.
all
In Latin there
is
is
no trace
of its existence, the whole of the endings being of one

type.
These primary and secondary endings are thus

and the passive voice.
Primary present and future indicative, subjunc-
distributed in both the active

:
tive throughout.
Secondary
imperfect, aorist
and pluperfect
in-
dicative, optative throughout.
The
perfect indicative active

,
Separate endings
of perfect
had an independent
series of endings,
at least in the singular.
^
^
in the
active.
tirst
person of the present mdica-
tive active, the ending, if attached to the
root directly,
is -mi ; if attached after a thematic vowel,

the ending and this vowel appear contracted together as
-0
from the earliest period.
Hence the nature
of the
original suffix in this case cannot be determined.
451.
The
Scheme of personai endings,
following is a scheme of the endings

which existed in the original active and
middle, in both their primary and their
^ The greatest part of this

explanation comes from an article
by Zimmer in K. Z. 30, p. 224 f., but with considerable modifications from Brugmann (Gi-undriss, n. 1079
1083).
453]
The
secondary forms.
which are found

be discussed
variations
361
from this scheme,
in the languages to be dealt with, will
later.
Active
A SHORT MANUAL OF
362
is
convenient, but
,
Thematic and
non-thematic
verbs.
453
grows continually more probable
it
that the difference between thematic and
non-thematic forms
a difference rather
is
m roots than m stem-formation \

.
._
InLatm
The
the difference has practically disappeared.
sole
remnants are the forms sum and inquam, of which the

former shows traces of a thematic origin in
sum = *s-o-m from
the
weak form
Attic Greek the difference
and
(</)p-o-/xi/),
<f>ipta
is
vowel
its
of the root
preserved in the types
but the -mi type
is
In
es-.
<î?-/u.i
gradually
being displaced even in the classical period in verbs
like
0tK-W-fJLi (SetK-VV-O)).
For the second and third persons
454-
Greek 2nd and singular,

(OoniTePresent ^^ i*^
Indicative,
differs
thematic forms
type *bhere-si,
the
cêpcts, cfiepu.
These
*bJiere-ti,
which in Attic Greek could

from yeVos 142), and
*<^fp6t (cp. 7i'f(o-)i,
stem of
(cp. ytv-a-i-
best explanation of
them
is
yeVt-ert-s in 133).
to identify
them with
forms in Skt. which are called injunctives
lar
of
from other languages
cannot phonetically represent the original
become only
*<j}(pe-a-i
Greek
The corresponding forms
of the
The
simi-
( 520).
subjiinctive have
been modified under their influence by the
(ii)ofthePresent
subjunctiye.
addition of the -t-sound in <j>ipri^, 4>ipr,, and

the recasting of the original form *bkere-si, *bhere-ti.
455-
In Latin the endings throughout are second-
Secondary end- ary",

ings in Latin,
but this might arise through the
^f ^^^^
Compare
according to phonetic laws.
loss
In
remarks in his article on the accented

90 ff.), which has been already referred to,
Streitberg's
sonant nasal [IF.
i.
and his more recent
article IF. iii. 305 ff.

Thurneyseu's theory already referred to (p. 318 n.
right, the Latin endings are all primary with final -i lost,
If
-nt
becoming
-ns.
1) is
final
459]
363
the verb just cited the second and third persons are
made without thematic
vowel, fers, fert, a formation to
which Skt. supplies an exact parallel
agis and agit,
So in English
however, represent the ordinary type.

the oldest endings are
-is
and
from an
for the third -e5
or -es for the second person,
corresponding to the original

is still
found
"Thou
lifts
earlier
North of England and
in the
phonetically
-f?S,
This second person
-e-ti.
in Scotland
thy unassuming head" (Burns)
elsewhere being usurped by a new formation

original third person
literary)
form heareth.
456.
The common form
The first person of the dual is preserved only

Personal endAryan and Letto-Slavonic groups,
o
jr
ings of the Dual.

Ist Person.
Gothic.
The second person has in Skt. a

now supposed to be also preserved
the Latm -tis (m jer-tis, ag-i-tis etc.)
,
The
hears with an
suffix -thas,
457.
which
place
represented by the (now only
_._,,.
and
its
-est.
a Northumbrian new formation.
-es suffix is
in the
is
is
T
//
2nd Person,
and has therefore replaced the proper 2nd person of the
The form
plural.
certain
but
-thes,
of the
original
suffix is
with a possible variant
most probable.
458. The ending of the third person is
which may represent an original -tes. Greek
has replaced both the 2nd and the 3rd
11111
not quite
-thos,
seems
in Skt. -tas,
3rd Person.
person by the secondary form of the second person.

In the plural the 1st person seems to have
459.
ended in
originally
The former
<j>ipo-[t.t^,
is
still
-mes-{i)
found
and
in
-mos-{i).
the
Doric
ings ot the piu-
the latter in the Latin feri-mus.
The Attic
îpo-ii^v
secondary ending.
seems to be a modification of the

In neither language
is
there any

A SHORT MANUAL OF
364
trace of the longer form with
The
and elsewhere.
in Skt.
merely a deictic
appended
final
-i,
459
which
-i
found
is
may
however,
be
particle.
The form of the 2nd plural is doubtful. The

Aryan branch shows a suffix which requires
2nd Person.
mi
us to postulate -trie. The Ureek -re may
be borrowed from the secondary endings. The Latin -tis
460.
apparently a dual form
is
The ending
461.
Doric
endings of the
in the Sin-
Attic
<bipo-vTL,
'
0.
un
Bng. ber-a^
The sonant form
'ia-TavTi (IVraa-i)
is
tbeoova-t
[1
Lat. fer-unt,
for
of this
(= *iinti ; lacn whence on
comes
The secondary endings
462.
ido-i).
require but
com-
little
ment, differing as they do in most cases

from the primary only by having no final -i.
The
person in Greek has
first
consonant:
tipep-o-v, i-<f>ri-v;
In the optative
ISci^-a.
rise to la.cn etc.
the analogy of
sonant
457).
Gothic bair-and.
*ber-a'nS,
suffix gives
(i)
133),
of the 3rd person plural
doubtedly -nti
3rd Person.
r-t
One
-v for
but -a
^'ipoi-ft.L
-m
if
if -ni is
has a presen-
two secondary forms found in

Euripides, rpiôw, a/xaproiv, are formed on the analogy
tial
ending.
or
The secondary endings
of the other persons.
are illus-
by the imperfects mone-bam etc., -ham

being a secondary tense from the stem of <jivm, Lat. fui,
trated in Latin
with b for
/ regularly
in the
middle of the word.
In the 3rd person Greek loses

phonetically,
463.
(ii)
in the
The Greek
Dual
464.
its
final
consonant
-<^/3(-t).
-tov, -tijv in
the 2nd and 3rd per-
sons of the dual represent

accurately the
^
,
original forms.
'
Forms
in other languages (e.g. the
Letto-Slavonic group)
seem to render
it
Aryan and
necessary to
466]
assume a 1st person plural with no
The Doric
final consonant.
Lat. fere-bd-mus, are
c<^po-ju,s,
therefore borrowed from
the Attic
365
i<f>ipo-ixv,
the present, and
<l>ipoi.-fi.ev,
e8ei'â-/Av
have the
,
'
so-
called V <^cXkV<TTIKoV.
iif,p-Tt
*e-bkere-te
and -<j)pov correctly represent the

and *e-bheront.
Endings of
the
Here certainty
465.
Middle
is
Sanskrit indicative
diphthong
which
e,
Voice.
attainable than in the
is less
The ending of the

a matter of some difficulty.
active voice.
son
1st per-
primary end^"^'
In the
JTifvoi^.'
ist
appears simply as a
it
may
original
represent ai,
ei, oi
Person Smg.
or
9i,
while
in the subjunctive the ending is a long diphthong
Most
the same type.
diphthong as
found in
-I
is
seen in the Sanskrit indicative
is
of
same
authorities hold that the
to be
in the ending of the Latin perfect active;
These forms are then middle forms, but

though generally accepted, can hardly be
regarded in the present state of our knowledge as more
than an ingenious h3rpothesis. In Greek the ending is
always -p.a.i, which may represent either original -mai or
tutiidi
etc.
view,
this
-m9i.
If the
Skt. form
must have been
is
the
earlier,
the Greek
-fnai.
influenced by the active form of the 1st
person in the non-thematic verbs.

466.
The 2nd person
in Skt.
the same original whether -sai" or

Greek,
J-
-o--
T.
and Greek represents

-sai.
In
i"
2nd Person Sing.
disappears between vowels, and
contraction takes place.
Hence
*4>ep-(raL
becomes
seems better to explain the

an analogical insertion than to assume with Osthoff a
1
This form
ilimen.
is difficult.
It
4>^pri
-a-
as
suffix
A SHORT MANUAL OF
366
then
But
<j)ipu.
466
in the classical period the non-thematic
verbs restore the forms with
-a--
riOe-a-ai, StSo-o-ai etc.,
possibly on the analogy of forms like
yiypcuf/a-i.,
through the consonant preceding,
was phonetically
retained '.
The
-cr-
full restoration of -o-at as
where,
the ending was
accomplished by degrees, and in modern Greek
4>ipo-ii.ai
gives 4>ep(-(Tat etc.
The
467.
The
-t^t
1st person of the
parallel to
it
,,
person was -tat or

468.
ending of the 3rd
original
3rd Person Sing.
nt^c-Tat, eêpe-rat.
Greek dual has nothing
in other languages.
It occurs
altogether in the classical literature only
Homer and twice in Sojihocles").

Hence it canhardly have been used in the spoken language.
The forms of the 2nd and 3rd persons are
469.
The Greek forms are
2nd and 3rd equally obscure.
Persons Dual,
probably not old, and are possibly a modification of the 2nd person plural in -aOe, under the
three times (once in
influence of the active -tov
The
470.
ist
Person
Plural.
TiOe-a-Oov, (l>ep-t-a-dov.
1st person of the plural in
ending -mahi.
i<f>p6-ij.f0a
original than <^^p6-p.Sa, just as

is
more
original
forms in
-a-Bi or in
Greek
corre-
sponds apparently to the Skt. secondary
-fi-ea-da
than
may
4'^po-p.(.-v
arise either
imitation of the
G. Meyer, Gr.
The forms
Electra 950, and
Gr?
are
-/u-ts
is
i<f>po-p,e-v
(
459).
then more
in the active
The
poetical
under the influence
of
form in the active.
% 466.
n-epidd/j.cOov
op/iui/j-cdov
Iliad
xxiii.
Philoctetes 1079.
485,
XeXel/i/ieBov
In every case there
some authority for the 1st plural in -/ieda and in no case is

requu'ed by the metre. It is no doubt a creation on the
analogy of the 2nd person, but of what date is doubtful. Hence
it is hardly safe to attribute the form to the grammarians and
is
-/leffov
read -^fâ wherever
it
occurs (cp. Jebb's Philoctetes 1079 note).
COMPARATIVK PHILOLOGY.
474]
367
The 2nd person was no doubt originally

471.
connected with the Skt. form -dhve, but
gnd Person
seems to have been re-cast under the influ- p'"'ence of the active ending -tc
In any case
it is
probable
was originally no part of the suffix,

but came in phonetically in such forms as Tre-rrcLor-Oe,
whence it was generalised everywhere. Some think the
ending -aOov of the dual corresponds to the Skt. secondthat the
-o--
in -crdi
ary ending in -dhvam.
It
was then transferred from
plural to dual under the influence of -tov,
a new formation after
The 3rd person
472.
and
after a preceding consonant.
perfect forms yeypaâTat,
ererax-aTo
Hence the
T(.Tivya.Ta.i. etc.
represents
syllable
The
etc.).
was
ended in -ntai or
originally
-ntH, the -n- in the suffix becoming a sonant
penultimate
-o-ê
-te'.
suflfix
3rd Person
p'"*^'-
where
(Cp.
-n-.
-a- in
the
secondary
appears analogically in
/3el3X.rjaTai etc.
The
subjunctive
follows
the
indicative
closely
throughout.
473.
Jendmgs
As
in the active, the secondary

u
xi-i.ii
require but
comment.
In Greek the ending of the 1st person

-/ji.rjv,
which has no
474.
ally -so,
a.
The
'
-0--
is -/Jidv,
parallel elsewhere.
The ending
of the
Attic
ist Person.
2nd person was
origin-
which is preserved in many languages.
Latin retains
person:
Secondary
Endings of the
Middle voice.
J.
little
cp.
it
in the suffix -re of the
Epic
i-n-fo
between vowels
2nd
{=*seqe-so) with Lat. seque-re^.

is
irregularly restored in cSiSo-o-o
Brugmann, Gritndr. 11. 1063.

The other form in the Indicative
which gradually usurps the place
sequeris
is
of the -re form.
new formation

368
A SHORT MANUAL OF
etc. (cp.
474
466), but regular forms as irWov (for iTiOe-a-o)
are sometimes found in the literature.
Besides this ending there was another which
b.
seems to have been originally
Development
pii^fvl'' ^from -tkds).

suffix -a< s.
j^g ^Q
From such forms
ingenious theory of
g^jj
in -thes (Skt.
as iM-dr)^, accord-
Wackemagel
',
Greek constructed the new forms iho-O-qv, i86-6ri etc.,

thus making a complete new aorist out of a single form.
475. According to Brugmann'' the secondary end3rd Person Sing,
and Plural in
ings of the 3rd
Latin.
are
persons sing,
plural
and ^
the Lat. agi-tu-r,
m
.
to
be
seen
agu-ntu-r.
In the Greek dual,
475.
"O'^'?'')
Greek Dual
Endings.
-a-dov
and
-cr^di/
(Attic
are influenced by the active forms,
although -aOov
may be
the original form for
the 2nd person plural (471).

In the middle, the optative takes secondary endings
throughout.
Ths Perfect Endings.

Greek preserves separate endings
477.
Endings in for the perfect
feet
only in the three persons of
the singular active.

perfect
inflexion
is
In other respects the
identified with the primary forms
found in other tenses.
In Latin the perfect
is
a curious
medley of original perfect and aorist inflexion combined

in one paradigm.
1
made
A'.
Z. 30, p. 307.
the same
explains the forms in
the
-s- Aorist
2
V.
-adrjs
e7i'u)(7^7;s
Gnmdriss,
Henry
(Bull. Soc. Ling. vii. p. xxix)
suggestion independently.
11.
Henry
successfully
by supposing that the type began
= Skt.
djUdsthds.
1057, 1069.
in
478]
The ending
..
tioned,
of the
person
1st
-a
is
6k.
oT8-a,
men-
Latin, as has been already
el\T]Xov6-a.
369
1st Person.
, ,,
supposed to have taken a middle
IS
form in the 1st person
465).
The 2nd person ended

only in
ola-da.
the
perfect rjcr-6a
in
(phonetically
preserved in Greek
-t/iM,
oiS-â)
and
2nd.
old
From the
perfect.
the suffix
is
now used
as
an imperfect
later use of ^cr-6a as
extended to other imperfects,
The ending seems

where the stem
is
Person
im-
<jiria--0a etc.
to be preserved in the Latin vidis-ti,
an
The
-s- aorist.
final
long vowel
is
however possibly due to the analogy of the 1st person.
The ending
of the 3rd person
In Latin this has added to

-t- suffix
it
is
-e
the ordinary
Greek
oT8-.
srd Person.
vidi-t.
XXV.
The Present Formations.
In that part of his great work which treats of
478.
the verb,
Brugmann
divides all the forms of the Indo-
Germanic present into thirty-two classes, thirty of which

are found in Greek.
But the types represented by some
of these thirty-two classes are practically confined to a
very few words, and therefore, for the present purpose,
a somewhat simpler division
Brugmann was the
possible.
is
and
both desirable
first
to point out that
within the present formation types must be included
which we generally identify with other parts

of the
verb such as the future
aorist.
Thus
pared with
rp-e'-o)
Tp-ef/.-<o
(= *tr-es-d)
shows a
present suffixes
or the iho"e?f PutSe
when com-
suffix in -s-
"""^ Aonst.
which
is
indis-
tinguishable from the sufiix found in the Future KaXei

G. P.
24
A SHORT MANUAL OF
870
(=KaX-{<T)(i), or the Aorist ^Sea
478
Many
{=*eueidesmy.
seem to be found in simple forms from which

extensions are made by the addition of some consonant
or vowel suffix, the original signification of which it is
no longer possible to trace. These suffixes, however,
roots
are exactly parallel to the suffixes in the substantive
and
many
in
cases can be identified with them.
and verb
relation between substantive
very close
noun forms
is
The
at all times
are being constantly
made from
nouns . The details of

the theory of root-expansion are however as yet too little
worked out to be suitable for discussion in an elementary
verbs, verb forms similarly from
treatise.
The
479.
Classification
different
may
mations.
methods of forming the present
be classified under seven heads
The person
I.
suffixes are
added
di-
rectly to the root.
Subdivisions are
suffixes
roots,
made
or,
as other authorities phrase
thematic vowel.
These roots again
and may occur in

Imperfect
roots with a
be reduplicated
The
grades.
only
between the imperfect and the
...that the
,
second aorist
in Class I.
it,
may
different vowel
Second Aorist difference
and
in this class according as the
are added to monosyllabic roots, or disyllabic
is
imperfect which
belongs to the present stem has frequently a formative

suffix,
'
while the second aorist
Two forms
paradigm,
e.g.
of this sort
may
is
made
directly from the
even be combined in the same

(Danielsson in Persson's
Lat. pr-em-o, pr-es-si
Studien zur Lehre von der Wurzelerweiterung und )Vurzelvariation,

p.
217
-
is
n.).
In Persson's treatise mentioned in the last note this subject
worked out
at considerable length
determinatives " are classified

suffixes
have been
classiiied
and the suffixes or " root

same way as the noun
in the
above in chapter
xxii.
480]
root
with or without
371
Thus the
thematic vowel.
difference between imperfect
and
aorist
is
one of mean-
ing not of form, sometimes the difference
Hence there
conventional.
form or
syntactical
value
although we are accustomed to

perfect
and the
an
purely
call
the former an im-
and l-Xcy-o-v
same syntactical
On the other hand ypa<j>ov as
aorist.
e-</)i7v
have frequently the
e-XtTT-o-v)
(cp.
latter
is
no difference either in
between c-<^?jv and e-/3;v,
is
constructions as aorists.
compared with
eSpaKov, iâXov, ISpa/toi/ etc.
obviously
is
an aorist form, which has crept into the present

speak more correctly,
is
specimens survive in Greek.
and verb forms are

but elsewhere
and
In Attic Greek
alike from this
noun
all
weak form of the
ypdcôs, ypoc^crs are found, just like
8po/xeus etc.
or, to
a present of a type of which few
root,
Spo/ji.o';
This question will arise again in con-
nexion with the difference of signification between present
and
aorist
545).
Between the root and the person suffixes there

appears some form of a formative suffix in -m-.
II.
III.
Presents with a formative suffix in
-s-.
IV.
-sk-.
V.
VI.
VII.
Presents with a formative suffix in -dk- or

Classes
to VII.
II.
may have
and with reduplication, but

Class VII., are
much
480.
I.
-io-.
forms of different grades
their numbers, except in
smaller than those in the
Latin throughout shows
much
The person
-d-.
-t-.
less variety
suffixes are
first class.
than Greek.
added to the root
with or without a thematic vowel.

(a)
Roots without a thematic vowel and without
reduplication.
242
A SHORT MANUAL OF
372
480
Lat
Gk.
es-t
Doric
ipa-Ti
ep. fd-tu-r
Attic
<pri-<ri
It
el-ffi
= ê[-ti^)
be observed that as in the substantive so in
It is to
the verb the root syllable varies in grade according to
Thus
the position of the accent.
in Skt.,
which
repre-
sents the original language faithfully in this matter, the

1st person plural of the substantive verb is s-mcis
the weak form of the root.
s- is
where
Greek, however, in this
verb carries the strong form throughout the present
compare on the other hand
but plural
<^7?-/xt
(where the accent of the singular cannot be
So
also
but
il-fx-i
verbs without
gradation.
l-jxev (for ^l-fiiv).
4>a-iJ.iv
original).
In some verbs how-
^ver the vowel remains unchanged,
e.g. in
i-^p6i-v,i-liy)-v{J)0VVit-j3a-v);i-<rjir)-vA-fiaX-q-v,
which in Latin are verbs of the type flo

{fld-mus),fleo (fle-mus). These unchanging forms Brug-
parallel to
mann
supposes to be forms expanded by means of a
vowel
It is
suffix.
more
But
In aorist
root".
this does
not seem very probable.
likely that this long vowel
made
part of the
forms the principle was no doubt
extended to forms which did not originally possess

long vowel
with Lat.
ipdXrjv,
licet)
i\l.irr]v
(identified
this
by Brugmann
and others of the same kind may be
analogical formations.
'
rule
Tlie original diphtliong
is
shortened according to the Latin
whereby every long vowel preceding a
final
-t is
shortened.
admitted even by Persson, the apostle of "rootexpansion," in his Wurzelerweitcrung, p. 212.

Cp. now also
-
This
is
F. n. p. 58
ff.
FleS however, as opposed to the other
has a -jo-suiiix, if it is not itself a new formation
after the thematic series instead of an older *fle-mi.
Michels,
I.
persons_/!e-s etc.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
374
Compare
also
Tlie Latin sisto
root of xm).
belong properly to
(e)
(fxev-w),
ix.i-fx.v-ui
*Ti-TK-m {i-TK-o-v)
TL-KT-u) for
iri-nT-u>
{iriT-o-ixxu),
{=*si-zgk-d from
i-o-x-w
and
480
[|
sero (= si-s-o, 142)
(c).
Besides the forms in
and
(c)
with the
(d)
-i-
reduplication, generally called the present reduplication,

,.
there
.^,
Verbs with
reduplication in
another series of forms with
is
-e-
reduplication, generally called the perfect
Such forms are preserved
reduplication.
in Greek
to a small extent
in Latin there are few
Examples of non-thematic forms are

ri-rXa-Oi and dira {=*e-ue-uq-m); examples of
traces of them.
k-kXv-6i,
thematic forms are
e-a-ir-e-ro,
-Tre-<j>v-o-v,
In
u-rr-o-v.
Latin tendo possibly represents *ie-tn-o, a reduplicated
form from the root of Un-e-o
(/)
Verbs with intensive redupU-
m
.
rare forms ipvKaKOV,

(g)
is
generally called intensive reduplication, is
,
...
,
,
such verbs as rjv-eyK-a and the
lound
cation.
To
(cp. 194).
stronger form of reduplication, which
still
riviTraTrov,
The thematic vowel appears
this type belong the
Greek
in its
ifx.-i-m,
weak
form.
Skt. vam-i-mi,
-(.- and -i- respectively representing -9-.

In the Greek
middle voice this weakened vowel appears as a Kplfia;
/tat, a.ya-jia.1
481.
etc'
Roots with a formative
II.'
suffix
in
-n-
preceding the person-suffix.
Of these verb stems

(a)
it
The
If the
suffix
in -n- there are several varieties,
appears in
second vowel of
eixiu
was
its
-e-
in the sing,
assimilated to the
-e-
-3-
5, we should expect
The vowel however may
originally
to appear as o, just as in the middle.
have been
strong form as -nd-
in the plural, or
it
may have
been
of the root syllable according to Schmidt's
theory (K. Z. 32, p. 321
ff.).
481]
with weaker grades

syllable appears
11
11
875
IV
numbers
-nn-,
same way as the

In nearly all Greek verbs the
I.
vowel of the root appears as
but
in
suflix
in the
root varies in Class
wLX-va-iJLai
root
Verbs with
doubt originally the sumx varied in grade

in different
The
and probably -n9-.

weak form and no
-n-
in a
-t-
thus
Kip-vq-ix.i
The most
TTcXa'o) etc.
but Kepdw,
plausible explana-
tion of this curious difference, for which no phonetic
reason can be assigned,
is
parallel forms (TKiS-vrj-fJu
and
that
it
o-KcSao),
different roots, the former being the
which come from
weak form
root found also in the Latin scindo and in
form in caedo.
have their
and
vyj-jxi
-t-
mT-vrj-ixL, wIt-vui
carries the suffix
that a large
its
iriTTTui-.
keep the original vowel
through
number
of the
stronger
and im-vi-ui probably
vowel from the synonymous
irep-vfj-fXL
in the
originates
all its parts.
8a'/n-
Sv-va-/jiai
It is noticeable
of the roots which
make
their
present with the -nd- suffix have also forms with a suffix
in -neu- {-vv- e
n-travvvixi.
ii.
below)
thus
Kipavvvp-i, a-KtSavKu/xi,
In Latin these non-thematic forms disap-
peared before the thematic.

(b)
-n- stems with a thematic vowel giving the forms
-^0- -ne-.
The
root
is
(i)
sometimes strong,
some-
(ii)
times weak.
With
(i)
strong form of root.
The forms with
Middle fidp-m-nai etc.

are found in Skt., but
having
even in
like iSdâiJ-iv a
eSelâixiv
are postulated by
-n?-
This
it
is
Brugmann
for the
most probable, as forms with -mspossible to explain the Gk. forms as

is
form of the personal
the explanation of
-a- as
suffix with -mm-. But

coming by analogy from
the 1st person sing, seems preferable.

-
This
is J.
H. Moulton's explanation
{A. J. P. x. p. 284
f.).
A SHORT MANUAL OF
376
481
Lat.
Gk.
T^/i-va
tem-no
a above)
ttIt-vu (op.
[w'iK-va-(ii\
? Kpi-pii:
op. sper-no
pello
487
(cp.
c)
= *pel-no)
[cer-no
weak form]
With weak form of root.

Greek SaK-vw {=*di^k-nd from the same root as in
Bng. tongs, the original meaning of which is therefore
(ii)
= pincers),
(c)
Kd.ix.-viii
cp. Lat. tol-lo (=*tl-nd), li-no, si-no.
The verbs found
Greek verbs in
"''"
though
^^^>
non-existent
practically
developed
well
Latin,
in Greek with the suffix -avo-
in
several
in
other
branches of the Indo-Germanic family, are probably

only a subdivision of the former class
the suffix -nno-
being a variant form of the other exactly as

the noun
larly
found
if
the root syllable
quantity or by position.
no exception to the
is
rule,
its final
(i)
in
regu-
long whether by vowel
but the verbs

(i)
fall
is
into two
belongs originally to
the result of inserting a nasal before
is
(ii)
was
is
In this series of verbs there
groups according as this length

the root or
it
This longer form of a suffix
395).
consonant.
The
syllable,
where the root
series
with long root large
is
long consists to a
extent of verbs obviously derived from
nouns and having shorter verb forms by
their side
cp. K(.v6-a.vm (kcw^-m), X-rjO-dvw {X.-qd-u>), 6-qy-a.vui
[driy-ta, cp. 6r{y-a.vo-v
and
Bajy-avri), av^-dvu)
(av^-w) where
both forms as compared with the Latin aug-e-o have

already been expanded by means of an
(ii)
The forms with an
with 'infixed'
"''^'^''
COmmon
(cp.
irv-v-O-dvo-fxai
-s- suffix.
nasal
are very
Xtt-/A-/3-avu), Xa-y-T(-av<u, Xa-v-6-ai'<jj
X-qO-dvui
(cp.
'infixed'
above), d-v-^-dvw, xa-v-S-avw,
Trtv^-o/iai),
TV-y-\-dvu),
6i-y-y-dvui,
481]
By
<^v-y--y-ai/u).
type
is
That
the side of
377
of these forms the simple
all
and
to be found in second aorists
in substantives.
shown by the
no exact parallel in any other language.
this nasal an infixed element is no explanation'.
this type of verb is not original is
fact that there is
To
call
'
'
Language
not built up on such
is
These verbs are much more
principles.
and extending as
the perfects in
e.g.
Italian from
likely to
be
beginning possibly by accident
formations,
analogical
in
we know
far as
so'
have extended
-etti
one original form, Lat.
Many
steti.
explanations of the forms have been offered, but none

are satisfactory.
A
mann
stronger form of the suffix

to be found in
supposed by Brug-
is
He
some languages.
also connects
with this series the Latin cruentus (= *cruu-n-to-s) and

runcinare by the side of the substantive
verbs like
runcina^.
(d)
The next type
verbs where a nasal
is
of -n- stem
formed of those
is
inserted in the root
but no other
This type
suinxed.
/I
week
almost non-existent in
cr<îyyw
In Latin,
fi-n-go,
ju-n-go,
ru-m-po, fi-n-do,
however,
pi-n-go,
ta-n-go,
The
nasal,
the root
1
I.
F.
>
cp.
In pre-hendo
the Greek future
Cp. Brugmaun, Grundr.

IV. p.
78
Grundr.
ff.
ii.
is
only repre-
very
pa-n-go,
617, 622.
ii.
is
common
la-m-bo,
as difficult to explain
however,
beyond the present formation

pi-n-go, la-m-bo.
inserted
and
li-n-qu-o.
In this series the formation

in the last.
as
it
^n root.
/
;
is nasal
possibly are-fx-p-ofim, pi-jx-Pofxai seem its

sentatives.
Verbs w}th
is
as
it
certainly belongs to
xiLtroiMi.
596, 2,
often carried
is
in fi-n-go, ju-n-go.
note
{2,
*x<^v8-a-o-iJ.ai)
and Thurneyaen,

A SHORT MANUAL OF
378
and
We may
e-xa.S-0-v (-xj'S-).
therefore conjecture, as
in the last series, that the nasalisation
ally
helonged origin-
a few words and was gradually extended to
to
many
481
others.
Non-thematic
{e)
suffixes in -neu, -nu-, -nu-, -nu-.
This type, though lost in Latin,

Verbs with
suffli -neu- in
various grades.
well developed
is
and Greek.
The Sanskrit forms in the singular
always
^
^
show the diphthongal form of the suffix,
elsewhere, especially in Sanskrit
^
the Greek never.
It
seems however most probable that
the Sanskrit forms are nearest the original type and

that the Greek -vv-
is
a recent formation taking the
place of earlier -vev- by the side of -vv- on the analogy

of the
collateral
forms in -fd- and
frequently appears in
its
The
-va-.
weak form.
root
In Greek the non-
thematic are disappearing before the thematic forms.

i.
Verbs with root
in
strong form
op-w-fjn,
8etK-
vv-ixi, 6-fjiopy-vv-fx.i, 6-piy-vv-fj.i.

ii.
vv-fjLai,
Verbs with root in weak form
ap-w-fiaL, vrap-
Homer, but ravvw
rd-vv-Tai (= *tn-nu-) in
is
more
frequent.
Throughout
this series the strong
form of the
suffix
found in the three persons singular of the indicative

while the dual and plural and the middle throughout
is
have the weak forms.

for *iK-avf-ii>
and
iK3.vm
*Ki-)(-avF-ui
and
kcx^vcd
Dindorf the Attic poets always wrote
Some
stand apparently
respectively.
According
ten or twelve forms occurring in classical Greek
appear with a
suffix -v-w/jli,
the previous vowel being
(a) short as in Ivw-ixi, a-ftevw-ixi, (b) long as in

ptuvvv-fx-L,
to
KiyxS-va.
or
(c)
the apparent
root
is
Kipavw-fxi, TTtTavvv-ixi, Kpiixavw-ixL, (TKihavw-jju.
Greek we should expect not
li'-vn-jui
C<iJvw-iji.l,
disyllabic as in
but
In Attic
6i-vv-/xi
from
482]
and
*ues-n-,
379
form
this
is
Homer by
found in
Bruffmann' contends that the
h-vv-ixi.
m
.
was restored analogically as
the side of
-<tei/i/Vjiit
etc.
r]ix<fnia-fj.aL
and that the new *lo--i'v-/u,t was then changed into

In the same way arose crliiv-vv-fx.1 and ^luv-m-zii
from roots ending in -s. These verbs then formed the
etc.
v-ru-/ii.
model
new
for other
are old.
mentioned not
,
rlato,
The
ap-c^tivvvixi
last of the -n-
parallel to those preceding.
appears as -neuo- and

seen in
Kop^.'i'i.ju etc.
are
o-TopenvfjiL
very late^ and are formed from
(/)
-avvvfj-i
than Xenophon and
while Kopewvixi and.
parallels to the Attic
forms in
found in Aristophanes, the others
earlier
.,
No
formations.
ircrai/cu/xt is
iKopeaa, earopea-a
and
as
y^fj-KJiUa-a.
stems are the thematic forms
Here the
suffix
The former
-7)uo-.
is
verbs with
l^wed 'Xy' the-
by the'side of E-caVw {e ii ""^ti" ^wei.

Ov-vi-<D (Hesiod) by the side of O-i-vw, and
iK-vio-iLai
above), in
in
and the
v7r-to-x-ve'o-/xai
by the
shorter
the verb thus originally resembling in
'(rx<j>,
side of lax-avta,
la-)(-avoiii>
meaning the English under-take. The shorter form -nuois found in (f>6a.vo) (= Ôavpay), <j)Oivo) (= <ji$ivfia) and TLViii
The root
(cp. Ti-vv-znei/os in Homer, Odyssey xxiv. 326).
vowel, which is long in Homer, is shortened in Attic,
exactly as in êVos (for êVfo-s). The Latin minm could
be phonetically explained as having either form of the
suffix'.
Many of the
-n- suffix:es are frequently followed
by a
-io- suffix ( 487).
482.
Verb stems in
HI.
Here there
is
-s-.
a close parallelism with noun stems,

589593.
K. Z.
Curtius, Greek Verb, p. 112
'
Brugmann, Grundr.
27, pp.
11.
f.
649.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
380
the non-thematic
^
Parallelism
between noun
ana verb stems.
-.s-
-9S-
-es-,'
,.
482
stems appearing in three forms
and
The
-s-.
verb-forms in
of thematic
series
-eso-
and
-sois better
de-
veloped than the corresponding noun stems.
Non-thematic forms except in the
{a)
Lat.
^'Sea,
videram represent an original *{e-)ueid-es-m.
and old Latin
Cp. also t-Stif-a
be discussed under the aorist
These forms
dix-ti.
502
will
ff.).
Thematic forms are found not unfrequently
(b)
They
Thematicforms Greek.
'" *"
No
distinction
nominatives like the Greek

verbs KAa-(a)-u) (cp.
in
more rare in Latin.

can be drawn between Deare
reXe'-u)
from the noun-stem
and the more primitive
*TAo-- in TeXos (cp. cTt'A.ecr-0-a)
avi-u),
aorist are
found in Greek or Latin.
Non-thematit ^ôt
forms
-s-.
Ke-KAao--Ta(.),
<jira-(o-)-(i), Tp-e'(o-)-u)
and
the suffix no doubt being the same in both noun
Denominative
verbs in Latin,
^nd
^f
verb.
In Latin the Denominative verbs
^^j^-^j^ ^^y^,^
j^
^^^
^^^
-^^
q,^^^^ j^^^g
become confused with the contracting verbs in -diohence gener-dre from the stem genes-, moder-dre from
the stem seen in modes-tu-s, decor-are, labor-are etc'
The
-s-
suffix
in Latin is
added to the verb root found elsewhere
seen according to Brugmann" in quaes-o
(*= quais-so) by the side of quaer-o, in
is
both from the root of
ced-o,
but seems rather to stand for

the,
'
-a-
in iuces-so,
cls-o,
and in accers-o which

confused through identity of meaning with arcesso,
arces-so,
same root as
The cause
is
of the confusion
stems developed from
which
later disappeared
ad-cers-s-o,
found in Greek
-s-
with possibly
c-Tn'-Koup-o-s^
must have been the
stems
(cp. yfvf-fi
by the
'
one
existence of
side of yivos)
from Latin except in a few words
like
auror-a, fior-a.
'
Grundr.
ii.
662.
>
Solmsen, K. Z. 30,
p.
600
f.
483]
who runs up
'
381
Enghsh
horse, literally
and
(to help),'
in the
courser.'
The reduplicated forms of this class, which in Skt.

make the desiderative verbs, are not found elsewhere
except in Keltic'.
Verb stems
IV.
483.
in -sko-.
These are the verbs generally called Inceptive verbs.

Thev are formed with a suffix which we
Inceptive verbs.
have already lound used scantily as a noun
Brugmann treats this class as a comsuffix ( 381).
'
bination of the
-s-
and
suffixes -Ao-
{-es-) of
He
-qo-^.
the previous class and the

holds that besides the forms
with -h- there were also in the original language forms
with
But
-kh-.
this requires further investigation.
In this class there are two types,

the suffix
is
added to the simple
{a) those in
which
root, (b) those in
which
found
The second type
the root has reduplication.
is
only in Greek and Latin.
This
(a)
Gk.
t3rpe is
common
both Greek and Latin.
in
pd-aKUi, (pd-cTKui, p6-(TKia, Xa-crKco (for
l-AttK-o-v), Ovrj-fTKia
a suihx
from
found in
-lo-Ko-
bye-form
not
is
etc.
(= *porc-sco
found
Latin
The
evp-la-Kw etc.
It cannot,
clear.
ending
the
TTaiS-la-K-r]
*A.aK-crK(i)
in
hi-sco,
origin of this
however, be separated
substantives
oik-6o-ko-5,
sci-sco, pa-sco-r,
-or- representing -r-
po-sco
and the root being
the weak grade of that found in prec-o-r, proc-u-s
German
fjiia-yu)
of
for-schen).
misceo stands for *mic-sc-eio
for */aik-o-k(u, -y- appearing
iji.ty-vv-ij.1.
in water)
cp.
cp.
through the influence
In English wash (= *uat-skd from the root
and wish
381) are examples of this for-
11.
668.
mation.
1
cp.
better authenticated as dvya-Kw with
Brugmann, Grundr.
"
Gnmdr.
11.
669.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
382
483
In both languages a number of inceptive forms are

..
found by the side of simpler verb forms, in
which case the inceptive surnx is generally

rr
c
added to the suffix found in the simple
Inceptive by
of
side
the
simple verbs.
'
Specially noticeable in this connexion are the
verb.
and
inceptive imperfect
found in Homer
aorist forms
and Herodotus.
'
i(jKi
he was,'
0. Lat. escit (= est) in the Frag-
cp.
Sta(f>6upea-Kov, <f>evyta-KOv,
ments of the Xn. Tables
XdfSio-Kov.
These forms are never augmented. In Latin
we have forms like albe-sc-ere by the side of albe-re,
turge-sc-ere by the side of turge-re, obdormi-sc-ere by the
;
of dorml-re.
side
came
The vowel preceding
to be felt as part of the suffix,
new form
extended
in this
with the
-sko- suffix in
noun-stems
(h)
to other stems.
speedily
is
then
Many
verbs
Latin are formed directly from
arbor-esc-ere, flamm-esc-ere etc.
The reduplicated form
Reduplicated in Latin
inceptives.
-.<c-
which
o.^f^_
found in only one verb
is
disco (=*di-dc-scd)
^ fg^ other verbs
Gk.
Bi-Sa{K)-
are found in Greek,
some of them common yi-yvm- o-kw, ixL-iximj-a-Kw, Pi-Ppwothers are Homeric ti-tu( K)-(rKo-ju,ai, cp. the byewhich is shown
form Tt-Tijo-KTo with reduplication in
{=*
uo-km
fi-fiK-aKw).
also by
:
<TKUi
<?,
484.
V.
Verb stems
in -to- (-t-).
Persson' finds this suffix in nineteen original forms
amongst which he includes Lat. ver-to (Eng. worth in

" Woe worth the day
") where -t- is ordinarily recog!
nised as part of the root

Sa-i-co),
others.
Gk.
iraTiop.a.i.
As
(cp.
Lat.
a present suffix
TTiK-TMj Lat. pec-to,

'
Gk.
Sarco/iai
pd-sco)
'
divide
(cp.
and
found in a few words
it is
Eng. fight (Scotch feckt)
WurzeUrweiterung
'
Lat. fateor
p.
28
ff.
Lat.
487]
Germa.n Jlechten.
plec-to,
Forms with
383
but without the
-t-
thematic vowel are found only in Aryan'.
Verb stems in -dh- and
VI.
485.
These
Thus from the root found

insatiable
come
iX-d-aivm and aX-8-o-/xai,
expansions of simpler roots.

in
Latin
the
expanded
'
dX-B-mvia
Gk.
al-o,
forms
'
ar-aX-ro-s
aX-d-o-fiai,
compare
-d-.
sometimes appear side by side as
suffixes
'
'
Eng. mild, with d/xaX-
/xaX-^-ttKo-s,
In Greek the suffix -dh- of the present (which
8-v'viu^
includes
morphologically the second aorist
specially
common
hr-dio
(and
i-o-)(i-6o-v,
l(T-6iu>
jipi-Bui,
ixi-vv-6ia,
root ed- in Lat.
479)
is
Tvprj-dm,
Eng. eat)
ed-o,
In Latin gaud-e-o
i-Kia-Oo-v.
<l>\ey-e-6w,
is
apparently
the same as yq-Bi-w
{=*yaf-i-0-eui''').
In Greek e\-8-ofMi
compared with iX-ir-i^w shows a -d- suffix (cp. iiXSwp
hope '). In Latin sallo salt represents *saldu and
'
'
'
corresponds exactly to the English word.
486.
number
of other consonant suffixes might
be postulated, as for example in Gk. gh

Tpv-xu>, cp. Tpv-u),
i/'i;-x<",
(x) in a-Trep-x-o-fj-ai
But none occupy
cp. \j/dw etc.
such an important position as those already mentioned,

nor as a rule
some
verbs,
the suffix confined to the present, though
is
on the
show nothing
other hand,
but
presential forms.
This
Verb stems in
VII.
487.
is
-io-.
a wide-reaching series including a considerable
variety of types.
,
As
in the
noun formation
we saw
that
forming
suffix, so in
-to-
was the great adjectivethe verb
denominative-forming
suffix.
it is
It
the great
thus
is
pre-eminently a
'
Brugmann, Grundr.
Persson, Wurzelerweiterung, p. 46
Persson,
loc. cit.
11.
Verbs with -jU}mainly
suffix
679.
f.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
384
secondary suffix in both noun and verb.
In the noun
however there were primary forms which contained

suffix (
402)
487
this
in the verb also it has a primary value.
In the verb as in the noun the suffix has gradation,
and
Lat. cap-iunt
(a)
Primary
The
suffix is
-io-
^1*7 appear in
stems.
form.
appended directly to the root which

(i) a strong or (ii) a weak
There are also some roots which
end in a long vowel
(iii)
(cp. Class I a).
Gk.
Xci/trcrw
(i)
ddvo!^
{b)
(ii)
x^^pw
aivw
(iii)
dpd-u
Lat.
= *Xei;/c-tw)
= *ghen-id)
= *X-i")
= *Sm-id)
cp. -spec-io
cp. fer-io
hor-ior
venio
cp. no (inf. nd-re)
There are a few forms with intensive redupli-
dt<TO-<o
Eeduplicated Catiou aS
-jo-
cp.
cap-it.
stems.
^
*Trop-<pvp-L(ii)
(=*fai-f tK-to)) and
Trop-(î}p-(o
with which Brugmann com-
pares in Latin tin-tinnio, an obviously onomatopoetic
word.
(c)
The
Secondary
-io-
stems.
-io- suffix is
secondary, being added after
another suffix as
(i)
--, (ii)
-s-,
or
(iii)
to
^^ actually existing noun stem.
According to Brugmann^ the verbs in Greek

(i)
which have a long vowel preceding -v- are of this origin
The suflfix YD. the form -i^-wKpivw, kXiVo), opivo), oTpwQ).
;
very common in Greek, -aivo- making many new verbs.

Hence comes Kp-aivut (cp. Kp-o'vo-s), but most of these
forms come from noun stems in -n- ( 356 ff.). Someis
According to the old theory revived by Conway that
becomes -nd- in Latin, -fendo is the exact equivalent of

But this theory is at present not proven.
"
Grundr.
ii.
743.
-ni-
delvu}.
487]
times
-71-
is
'
infixed
in tlie root
'
385
(=
n-Tio-o-w
*7rTiv<T-tio),
Lat. pins-o.
Nearly
(ii)
ing
all
forms in
pru-ina with this double
491
-s
io-
mean-
are future in
Lat. pru-r-io seems to be a present from the root
For the futures see
suffix.
fif.
The noun stem may be
(iii)
of any of the types
which have been already discussed ( 344 fif .).

Thus we find from a labial stem x'^XiirTii)
(= *xaA,7r-iM), from a dental stem
from a guttural stem
(Kopvd-)j
(/xao-Tiy-),
Denominatives
i^ Greek.
Se/caîo (StxaS-), Kopva-a-oi
K-qpva-a-io (ktjpvk-), pMo-Tiôi
from an -s-stem TeXeiw (Homer), tcXcw
from ^-stems
(tcAco--)
;
iriaivm, TCKTatVo), 7roi/x.atV(0, ovo/xaiVu)j after
which many analogical formations are produced, XtwKaiVo),

TTiKpaiVo) etc.
from -r-stems rcK/xatpu), and parallel to
;
forms with thematic vowel

(ycpapo-) etc.
a\\v,
p,i6vu>
from --stems
y8acriA.iJU),
{kyOpo-),
l)(Oaip<ji
kovcw
p-riviut,
vop,V(i>
from -0-stems
yepaipm
from -z^stems
<^tA.-a),
and many corresponding forms from -a-stems

TTupd-o), Tipd-ia and a large number of others.
As in the
noun, so in the verb, analogy plays a large part, and most
KuKAe'-u)
even frequently attached to
suffixes are occasionally or
The
by the side of -e-verbs in such double forms as
and TToAe/io'o), with a distinction of meaning, seem
stems, to which they do

-o-verbs
TroXc/xco)
to have arisen in Greece
not originally belong.
itself.
In Latin the -w-verbs are
more
mur-io
'
siti-o,
poti-or
and therefore
less disguised
saep-io
custod-io
cry like a mouse'; aper-io
nutri-x)
(cp.
traced
easily
nutri-o
metu-o
Denominatives
""i^^'"-
albe-o
turh-o,
delir-o.
The -io- type

number of
able
G. P.
in Latin, though possessing a consider-
forms, shows but little variety
25
when
A SHORT MANUAL OF
386
487
Apart from root verbs like

compared with Greek.
of
the Latin -io-stems fall into
rapio, nearly the whole
number
of those which have
large
A
categories.
a few
the infinitive in
are denominatives from --stems,
-tre
a second large series are onomatopoetic words expressing
and nearly all the rest are

none of which except esurlre and partuWords corresponding to the
rire are common and old.
Greek type seen in <îXe-a) are comparatively rare. The
sounds
gloclre, blat'ire etc.,
desideratives,
root verbs in
25 in
root
syllable
The causes
which make the
-io~
number)
:
may be
it
infinitive in -ere (some
observed have always a short
mor-ior, jac-io,
fug-io,
quat-io,
sap-io.
of the difference in treatment between these
and the verbs which make the
The
to discover.
apart from
infinitive in -Ire are hard
simplest explanation seems to be that,
denominatives
from -i-stems, only those
verbs belonged originally to the so-called fourth conju-
had a long root syllable, the suffix in that

The number of verbs which
-iio-.
conform exactly to the type of audio, and yet have a
short syllable in the root, is very small, and most of them
gation, which
case
appearing as
can be easily explained as arising through the analogy

of forms akin to
488.
them
in meaning.
We come finally to
id)
a series of forms which
in all Indo-G. languages
except Sanskrit are indistin-
guishable from the
stems already mentioned
-io-
coming from
Causatives
and
intensives
-0-
stems.
These are
lorms used Sometimes as causatives, sometimes as intensives or frequentatives'-
form of the
1
as
the
suffix is -eio-
Delbriick points out
(I.
F.
with the accent on the

iv. p.
132
f.)
The
first
that in the Aryan
languages causatives have regulai-ly a long root vowel, iteratives

a short one.
488]
387
element, while in the denominatives already mentioned
the accent
is
upon the
Whether the
-io- syllable.
not connected with the
suffix
denominatives
is
or
is
hard to decide, but, at any rate, no hard and fast line
is
can be drawn between the two
suffix in
The
classes.
intensive or
frequentative meaning often shades off into the mean-
ing of the simple verb, because
it is
a constant tendency
employ emphatic forms where emphasis

is not necessary, and consequently to lower emphatic
forms to the level of the ordinary term cp. Lat. volare
and volitare etc. Apart from the original accent preserved by Sanskrit, there is no difference in form between the presents of intensives and denominatives,
although where the causative meaning exists they can
The intensives howbe distinguished by signification.
ever carried their suffix throughout in some form (cp.
Lat. mon-i-iu-s), while in the denominatives it was
purely presential.
But this distinction was soon obin language to
Examples of
meaning are in Greek
literated.
(Topiui
to
o-/3-o-/xai
(rt.
this formation with

</)o/3-co
tie(^-
to
causative
<^d;8os
<^6/8-o-/iai cp.
'keep aloof);
in Latin,
mon-eo to me-min-i; noc-eo to nec-o; doc-eo to disco

In English we have parallel forms fall,
(= *di-dc-sco).
:
fell;
set
sit,
common
(f>op-((0
cp. T/DOTTo-s
The
etc.
to
cTKoirio)
simple verb,
cp.
intensive
<îp-u>, cp. <ôpo-s
with
o-kotto'-s;
tond-eo cp. reVSto 'gnaw^.'
by the
-e- and
meaning
its
future
rpoTr-eo)
to
o-Kti/'o/iai
Latin spond-eo
equally
is
cp.
Tp7r-(D,
from the
o-ttei/Su);
Substantives are not found
side of such verbs in Latin, the interchange of

-o-
forms between verb and noun being, except
in a few instances, obliterated.
'
Brugmann, Grundr.
ii.
802.
252

A SHORT MANUAL OF
388
488
In the examples cited, the root syllable appears

with root in
weak
grade.
manu
always in the
grade, but the root
-o-
occasionally found in its
weak
cites ' Kv-iw Lat. qiieo (op. part, in-ci-ens
is
Brug-
form.
= *in-cu-
and Lat. ci-eo call, fetch,' a causative to the form

found in ki-m.
In the Greek poets it is often hard to decide between
forms in -co and forms in -ceo, e.g. between
Confused in
Greekwitliother ttltvw and ttitvuo, ptTrro) and. piimw, the
iens)
'
< /
difference in Attic being only one of accent,
or
TTITVU)
TTtTVU), TTLTVÎV
Or TriTVilv etC.
In conclusion
489.
may
it
be observed that in each
language new categories not represented in the original

language come to the front.
An
New
entirely
forma-
tions.
487
new formation
gToup of
ending in
c. ii.)
Greek desidera-
lovTf.'i)
'
is
The Latin forms
-o-eio).
in -urio
is
that of Wackernagel*
-o-etio
going for a view,' which precede in time the
fj.a6r]Tid<a
Other forms of the desiderative occur

'
long to be a disciple
founded on substantives
490.
the small
arise through the

running together of a dative case and a
participle in such forms as oi/êtoi/Tes (= o\û
present forms.
in -law,
is
cannot be directly connected with the Greek.
The most recent explanation

who holds that the verbs in
tives.
in Greek
forms Called desideratives and
the
in -id in
'
etc.
This type
first instance.
In Latin the most characteristic independent
Latin frequentatives in -to-,
development
j^ .^5 (^
times reduplicated
is
the series of frequentatives
.j^-;^-) ^j^;^,]^
îuve the suffix some-
cp. dic-o (primary), dic-io (secondary,
founded on the participle

1
Grundr.
K. Z.
dic-tti-s),
11.
791.
28, p. 141
ff.
dic-ti-to (tertiary).
492]
389
These verbs are often used merely as the emphatic form

of the simple verb, although sometimes, as in cogo and
cogito, the meaning of the simple and the secondary verb
is
In the later Imperial period, when
quite different.
the language
is
decaying, the straining after emphasis
becomes greater and the number of forms in
-to
and
-tito steadily increases.
xxvi.
How
491.
The Future.
was developed before
far a future in -sio-
the separation of the Indo-Germanic peoples,

it
is
The Aryan and
impossible to say'.
original future
'" *-"'
Letto-Slavonic groups certainly possess such a future,
but no Greek or Latin forms need be identified with
it.
The Germanic languages have no future form at all,

but, when the necessity is felt, develop the future meaning by the help of an auxiliary verb.
the number of futures in
-sio- is
In Greek there
492.
is
the conjunctive of the

future,
and
it
In Vedic Sanskrit
very small.
a close connection between
-s-aorist
and the
seems probable that in origin
The Greek
fu-
*"''''^-
they are one and the same. If so, Seifw Lat. dixo are
identical in both form and meaning.
It is, however,
phonetically possible for
Sci'^w
to represent
future *deik-sio, and as the history of

uncertain, dixo
-s- is still
be the equivalent of
futures in Greek,
appearance
of
may
Sci'^w.
KaA.(3,
intervocalic
>
-dija-ofnai
Cp. B.
The
-a--,
so-called
in
after
etc.
(X.ri<f>-6^croixat
W. Hopkins
an original
Latin after
even on this hypothesis
fSaXw, etc., arise
belonging to the root KoXi-a-w

passive in
-i- in
dis-
a vowel sound
The Greek future
etc.)
A. J. P.
syncopated
from the
is
not found in
xiii. p. 1 ff.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
390
Homer.
It is closely
are
492
connected with the development
of the passive aorist in
-Otj-v
474
The forms
peculiar to Greek.
b),
which
iSofnaL, 7rto/u.at, xe'w,
is
also
which
used as futures, are probably subjunctives of a
presential
second aorist)
(or
Greek developed
stem.
independently a future from the perfect stem in a few

instances
It occurs
ia-nj^w, TfOvijiu).
most frequently
in the middle.
In Latin, apart from old forms like dixo, faxo,
493.
^,
the future
^
fu-
The Latin
turesareofthree
is
made up of a strange medley

many sources, (i) ero is
.
of elements from
no doubt the old subjunctive of the root

es-,
Homeric
the
to
parallel
ew.
The
future perfect
forms arise from other verbs in a similar way.

videro
is
parallel to f ciSem (= *ueidesd)
ing of the future perfect
is
Thus
the special mean-
attached to the form after
the separation of the Italic group from the original stock,

(ii)
As has been
already mentioned, the derivative con-
jugations form their futures in Latin by composition
with forms from the root bhu(iii)
The
leges, leget etc.
present
is
amd-bo, mone-bo,
sci-bo.
history of the future of root verbs, legam,

,
is
more
difiS.cult.
that this future
forms with two different
is
The prevalent view at

made up of subjunctive
sufiixes,
the 1st person with
-d-
and the other persons with -e-^. An older view, more

plausible in some respects but hardly tenable on phonetic
grounds, was that the forms with -e- in Latin represented
the original optative fer-es = cêpois etc., cp. pomerium
But the change of -oi- to -e- is hardly defen( 176).
:
sible in
the verb.
'
Brugmann, Grundr.
11.
924, 926.
494]
391
The Perfect.
xxvii.
The notion of recently completed action was

494.
not attached to the perfect forms in the primitive period.
The meaning was
originally merely that of
an intensive
or iterative present, a signification which in Greek it
has frequently retained: pip-q-Ka,
memini, novi
The
perfect
is
distinguished from other presential
by its reduplication, (2) by its vowel

grade, (3) by its peculiar personal suffixes,
As we have seen ( 477), the distinction in
forms
Lat.
lin-q-Ka. etc., cp.
etc.
(1)
and the other
suffixes tends to disappear,
are not present in every case.
Thus
characteristics
characteristics
oiSa Lat. vidl Skt.
veda, Eng. wot, has at no time any trace of reduplication.

Perfects like Lat. cepi sedi with a long vowel
and no
re-
duplication seem to go back to the primitive language.

Distinctions in vowel grade also are not always present'.
Thus we have
yi-yv-o-/xai
fniv
ye-yoi/-a, ye-ya-;u,ev
fxaiv-o-ixai
fueixova, jxi-jxa-fXiv
KTctVo)
i-KTOV-a (not in
Homer),
c-Kra-
(where the augment replaces the reduplication and
confuses the forms with the strong aorist)

n-oid-a,
Tri-mO-fiev,
7ru6-u>
where such distinctions
still
-.
ttc-
remain
although the weak plurals
are, even in the Homeric

But the majority of Greek
(though not in the Homeric period)
period, being levelled out.
verbs in the classical
make
origin
Thus
the perfect .with a suffix -Ka (-xa) of uncertain
and disregard the

makes ri-ra-Ka
e-(ji6opa
TTiLKa;
'
original difference of grade.
TtVu)
;
vi/xo),
etc.
Latin
is
ve-ve/xfj-Ka
cl>Oupu>, e<j>6ap-Ka
as well as
reXiw, TeriXeKa
Tret'^w,
The Germanic forms

of
no value
for this
ire-
48) seem to show
distinction,
unaccented syllables being reduced throughout to
its
-i-.
vowels in
A SHORT MANUAL OF
392
494
that not only the plural forms but also the 2nd person,
singular was weak, but this
is
not supported by the
classical languages.
495.
The attempts
to find a satisfactory explanation
0^ """ i^ the Greek perfect have
Greek perfects
"'"'""
pected to begin with verbs whose roots end in

oXwXeK-a from oXcK-u) by the side of SXwX-a from
but there
is
Homer
In
proved
all
might most naturally be ex-
It
abortive'.
-k,
not sufficient basis for such an explanation.

the twelve simple verbs which form this
perfect all end in a vowel, a liquid or a nasal, e.g.

Ka,
e.g.
ok-Xv-fii^
Tri-fjiv-Ka,
Homer
In
(ii-Ppui-Ka.
Ki-Kjxy)-Ka,
l3i-(ii)-Ka,
condary formations
secondary verbs
is
make
Ti-Ovq-Ka,
t-o-r?;-
fii-fiXri-Ka,
the number of forms from
also very small,
the perfect in
se-
but in Attic
all
Along with
-Ka.
the perfect forms in -Ka must be considered the aorist
forms
e-6rj-Ka, e-8a)-Ka, yj-Ka^.
The Latin fe-c-l seems
to
form an exact parallel to i-6-q-Ka, and hence Brugmann

would attribute the formation to a root- determinative in
the primitive speech, the working of which developed
greatly in Greek after its separation from the original
stock ^
The
496.
Greek aspirated perfects.
aspirated perfects with
ending
in a
<^,
x,
from stems
breathed or voiced stop of the
game nature, are not found
Homer, and
and Terpoipa.
they become more common
in
in the early classical period only TreVo/iâ
In the 4th century
B.C.
Osthoff, having argued at great length in his
book on the
Perfect for the identification of the suffix with the particle
Doric
Ka,
soon gave up this explanation and connected
Latin ce in ce-do
"
ijfeyKa,
its -K3
etc. [Berliner phil.
which
is
11.
Kev,
with
col. 1610).
often mentioned along with these three, owes
to the root.
Grundr.
Wochenschrift, 1885,
it
864.
393
497]
They
KiK\o<â, pifiXatjia.
SiSrj)(a, lvi]vo)(a,
analogical formations, e.g. the perfect
that of TpcVo) and changing
it
are obviously
ofrpecfxii
influencing
from *Te-TpoTr-a to
re-rpo^-a.
Such middle forms as Ttrpaârai (3 pi.) occur even in

Homer, but must also be analogical', forms like yiypajjLjxai
from
influencing
ypd(j>u>
by
3rd plural
TiTpafx/jLai
497.
the
from
TTpa/x/x,at
rptVo)
analogy
proportional
as
vld'i, cepi,
formation,
(
The Latin per^^''
mo-mord-'i (for *me-mord-i by assimilation

first syllable to
we have remnants
etc.,
changed
In such forms
original -s-aorist.
of the vowel in the

te-tul-i
the
= yeypa<j)aTai TfTpafjârai.
The Latin perfect is an extraordinary example
of confusion between the original perfect
and the
in
yiypafifiai
although
the
that in the second),
of the original perfect
personal
ending
has
been
In dixi, scripsi etc. we have relics of
465).
the -s-aorist formation.
from two causes,
The confusion probably
(1) identity of
between the two formations,
(2)
meaning
phonetic
arose
confusion
in
^rist w?th per-
some forms of the two para- ^^'*'

digms.
Thus *vides-mos, the 1st plural from the
aorist whose conjunctive is videro, might phonetically
become similar to sedimus, a genuine perfect developed
like Skt. sedimd^.
The -s- in the 2nd person of both
singular and plural is no doubt also derived from the
aorist, while -ti, the sufiix of the 2nd person singular,
identity in
may
be a modification of the original perfect
The 3rd person
sufiix -tha.
singular vid-i-t seems to have the sufiix
by the secondary ending -t

The forms of the 3rd person plural are
extremely difiicult. The double forms vtd-erunt (the
-e-
of the perfect followed
of the aorist.
J.
Schmidt, K. Z. 27,
p.
J.
Schmidt, K. Z. 27,
p. 328.
309
ff.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
394
penult of whicli
is
497
scanned both short and long) and
have possibly different
md-ere
Forms
origins.
like
dedrot (= dederimit) on inscriptions seem to show that
the penult of the type v'lderimt was

(cp. stetermit in
the poets).
originally short
The form may
therefore be
that of the -so-aorist with the suffix -nt representing an
The type mdere is conjectured to

and to be connected with Sanskrit
forms of the 3rd plural which show -r- in both active
and middle. Many other views on this form have been
earlier *uideso-nt.
have original
-r-
propounded, but they only show that our material
is
too
scanty to warrant any dogmatic statement as to
its
origin.
The Latin
498.
Latin perfects
and -m.
in -VI-
-m and
The conjecture
perfects in
themselves.
^j^g
^j^g^^.
.^j.fQj-jj^g
-ul stand
of
by
Schulze'
arose from a combina-
tion of the old perfect participle in
-ws with the sub-
stantive verb (*seves smos giving sevimus, *seves
stes,
and the forms being then generahsed for all

persons) and Deecke's recent revival'' of the old explana-
sevistis,
tion that -vi
is
the medial form of fui have
recommend them.
Nor
little
to
are serious difS.culties absent
from Brugmann's explanation which starts from
nwv-i,
and makes plevi, flevi etc. to be formed by analogy

through the parallelism between mutus, jutus and pletus,
juv-i
while genui
AetiiiS,
is (after
Past Formations.
xxviii.
499.
detailed
Of the tenses
treatment
geni-tu-s) for *gene-iu^.
of past time only one requires
the
aorist.
The imperfect and
K. Z.
Lateinische Schul-Qrammatik^ 146
Orundr.
28, p.
11.
266
ff.
875.
ff.
Cp. Chadwick, B. B. xx. p. 273.
501]
395
the pluperfect, as far as their stems are concerned, have

already been discussed under their presential forms.
The imperfect according
500.
to our classification
Greek second or strong aorist, for,

as we have seen ( 479), there is no difference in formation between such aorists and certain present forms,
except that in the indicative they have as a rule an
will also include the
augment and secondary personal endings.

The only forms in Greek which require
new forms used as passive aorists iâX-qv,
:
irp6.-Kriv
etc.
These have already been ex-
notice are
2nd
Q,re<ik
'^"^*^ '^"'^^"^
plained as arising on the analogy of preterite forms like
and t-^fj-v. They are

members of the active voice.
therefore by origin really
In Latin
made by
e-<f>r]-v
501.
-bam.
This suffix
all
is
imperfects are
now
generally recog-
nised as being derived from the root bhu(bheu-),
although
difficulty.
It
phonetic history
its
is
seems better to recognise
Thurneysen' an old
aorist
a suffix
L^jin imper'" ''"""
^'^"^^
not without
in it with
*bh,udum which became in
the primitive period *bham, Italic
*fa,in,
whence medially
-bam, than to find with Brugmann^ the root determinative

in
-d-
the form.
infinitive are-bam,
The
first
part
of the
form
is
an
0. Lat. scl-bam, on the analogy of
which amd-bam etc. were formed, scie-bam

formation than scl-bam, on the analogy of
is
-e-
a later
verbs.
eram is not the phonetic representative of *es-m,

augmented â -am appears in er-am (= ês-em)
Gk.
on the analogy of -bam ".
Lat.
(.a.
B. B.
VIII. p.
285
ff.
But even
in this
form the
-a- is
hard
to explain.
2
2
Grundr. 11. 583.

According to Bartholomae {Studien
z. idg.
Sprachgeschichte,
A SHORT MANUAL OF
396
The
502.
The
aorists play
groups
by intermixture
The
forms originally distinct.
Group
and
indicative
(as in Latin) with
element, which appears
482).
The
in Greek
is for
present formations
augmented and
generally
is
-s-
apparently the same as exists in
-0s-, is
of the
III.
in the
in the other languages such forms
as occur are obscured
also as -es-
an important part
the Aryan, Greek and Slavonic
iî^tory of
aorists
-s-
-s-
502
the most part an historical tense.
As
in the present formations with
History of the
i^'the tnd'cl*
*''
-s-,
the aorist has
and non-thematic
owing to the weak form
both thematic
forms,
The
of the
latter
suffix in the singular of
the indicative might
be expected to show a long vowel or diphthong in the
and such forms are actually found in

make any such
root syllable,
Greek, however, has ceased to
Sanskrit.
distinction, although in Latin rexi,

relics of
the
From the
it.
singular
texi etc.
may
be
root *deik- the original forms of
and plural would on
this theory be as
follows
From
etc.,
*deilcs-m
"diks-me
*deiks-s
*diks-te
*deiks-t
*diks-6nt.
(op.
Greek has constructed
this
its
464)
paradigm
ISeiâ
losing the long diphthongs phonetically, levelling
out the weak forms of the plural and extending the

of the 1st person singular to the other persons.
for *l8i|
II.
p.
-ai-,
63
and
ff.)
eSeiê for
eram
etc. are
*iSu^ {-kst becoming -ks phonetic-
developments of original aorist forms
with a weaker grade
-a
cSetâs
-aj-
which became
-1-.
Hence
in
Lat. -has
would represent *-6ftuo/s, -bat *bhuait, -i- disappearing in long

diphthongs ( 181 note). 0. Lat. fuds, fuat etc. come from a byeform *bhuudis, *bhuuait with loss of -;'-.
505]
897
were no doubt brought into being by the influence
ally)
of the perfect forms.
In forms like
larqa-a,
iriiJi-qcTa
etc.
was retained by the force of analogy from such forms

as erpci/'a, iTrefjL\j/a etc. (cp. 322), where -cr- is phonetically retained, *e-ueidesm however having no presential
-o--
form
but olSa was isolated and the form passed into
The Homeric aorists SexTo, tfxiKTo

and represent Six-cr-To, ju.ik-o--to etc.,
phonetically disappearing between two stop con-
*c-ft8a, ^'Sea,
are
etc.
-0--
^'Sry.
-s- aorists,
sonants'.
The thematic forms
503.
the subjunctive
ota-e
'
bring
'
(cp. fut.
are regularly found in
and
Sei'fw etc.,
some imperatives
Homeric
and the like, the
in
as well as in the
oio-w),
mixed aorist Kare/JiyVsTo, iSva-^ro

meaning of which is often that of the imjierfect^.
Greek develops many aorist forms to types which
should be presential only. Thus iupwa, iSiSaâ, covo'/Ar/va,
'
'
rjpTraa-a
as well as
-rjpTraâ (dp-rray-) etc.
The stronger form
504.
mentioned above, in
in {jSea
other forms of these two
appears in
while
-9s-
t3rpes,
i(TKeSdcr-9ri'; etc. (
aorist in -Is-
505.
and
is
found
Aorist stems
'" "*'" """^
"'
474 6)^ and commonly in
Brugmann* postulates
Sanskrit.
an
of the suffix -es-
iKopia-d-qi
for
Latin mdis-tis
etc.
but this seems doubtful.
The remaining
preterite forms are
develop-
ments within the separate history of the individual

^
Mr
A new theory
F.
W. Walker
of these aorist forms has been propounded by
(Class. Rev. vii.
of a non- thematic subj.
and
-s-
infinitive
289
f.),
produced in
'
Graeco-Italian
with the personal endings of the perfect.

^
3
Monro's Homeric Grammar',

Brugmann, Grundr. 11. 836,
Orundr.
11.
841.
who holds
that -s-forms
and future combined with an
41.
840.
'
the
-s-
-s-
optative
indicative

A SHORT MANUAL OF
398
505
In the original language there was appa-
languages.
rently no such form as a pluperfect.
The Greek
506.
Greek piuperfeet forms.
pluperfect forms arise, no doubt,

through the influence of ^Sta by the side of
addition of the aorist suffix
^j^g
^^g^^^ fj-Qj^
Hence
to the perfect stem.
-es-
(the ending in good Attic
The
eircTTOtêe, 7re?roi^t(v).
*-eo--T,
-cr-av
is
in the
(as
e-7re7roi^-((r)-a, e-ireiroidr)
-rj)
eireTrot'êas, limcoWy)>;
plural should be in
aorist),
*-0--/i6i/,
but from the 3rd
new forms in -efj.ev, -ctc are made for the

persons'.
The long forms of the singular lead
plural
confusion in the later Attic, so that

are introduced in the plural,
singular
and
-eiv
other
to a
-t/xev, -eirc, -cio-av
in the 1st person
'^
The Latin
507.
Latin piuperfeet forms.
pluperfect forms are parallel to the

development
videram being an
obvious Counterpart to i^Sea.
The form of
Greek
the ending -am
The
difficult.
is
seems to be that
simplest explanation
comes by proportional analogy from
it
eram ; ero videro = erain videram^.

The future perfect forms in Latin have already been
:
discussed
493).
xxix.
From the
508.
The Moods.
primitive period there existed, apart
from the formations already considered, two

forms having separate formative
^
Brugmann, Grundr.
Cp.
Rutherford,
(K. Z. 29,
rj5eiiJ.v,
p.
11.
New
suffixes,
126) holds that the plural
*fi5e<TTe
sets
of
in the one
836.
Phi-yniohus, p.
and analogically
229
ff.
Wackernagel
became phonetically
jfSeire.
Bartholomae {Stndien, 11. p. 118) gets forms

direct from an aorist stem (cp. 501, n. 3).
^
and
like vider-d-s etc.
510]
399
paradigm generally primary, in the other secondary

endings. These two groups of forms are the subjunctive
and
easier to discern
is
than difference of
Both groups are used
meaning.
to
In them difference of forma-
optative.
tion
the future as well as
in
and the
deliberation, wishing
subjunctive
'' Op**'"'^-
in senses closely akin
other significations,
like
558
as
These
fif.).
subjunctive and optative forms exist side by side with

indicative formations from present, perfect and aorist
In most languages these forms are dying out
types.
from the
to
earliest historical period.
They
a considerable extent in Vedic
are
still
extant
Sanskrit, but
the
subjunctive as such disappears in the Sanskrit classical

period, although its 1st persons remain with
an imperaGreek is the only language which retains

subjunctive and optative distinct and with separate
tive value.
values
other languages either like Latin confuse
all
the forms together or lose one or both of the paradigms.

509.
The
(a)
distinction between indicative
subjunctive cannot always be easily drawn,
In
Homer
forms like
d/ict'i/f-e-Tai
as
tofx-ev
^j
and
Suw
''"^
indi"
are frequently not futures but,
shown by the context,
is
also
dX-yrjcr-e-Te, aytip-o-yuev,
ipjjematic
{= Attic
aorist subjunctives.
Cp.
loiêv), KiiroiO-o-fi.ev etc.
Hence we may conclude that non-thematic stems

their subjunctives originally by means of the
make
thematic vowels
make the
replaced by others,
futures
dixo
492).
etc., cp.
510.
which in other verbs are used to

In Attic these forms have been
but iS-o-fxat, iri-o-jU.at, ^m remain as
e,
indicative.
{b)
To
videro
this category belong in Latin
ero,
( 493).
The question
with a thematic vowel
is
as to the suffix for stems
more
difficult.
Brugmann

A SHOET MANUAL OF
400
such stems two suffixes -a^*^ suffixes appearing in

fgr-ds and fer-es, but -e- alone in
(*cj>pris, *4>^pr] which become, on the analogy of the
would recognise
for
("^")
theSubj.
matic stems,
of
''
tive, <l>^pyi, 4'^py etc.)
with
interchanging
-5-
510
and
-e-
Latin
Greek,
indica-
(jiip-ui-fiev.
There are however many other views, perhaps the most

prevalent being that the type
(êpijs is
the original one,
and that /eras is a form whose -d- is borrowed from

some other type such as -bam, -bds etc.' But this
analogy seems unlikely to influence the subjunctive.
In the long vowels of these forms

that
we have
it
seems as
likely^
an Indo-Germanic contraction
with the thematic vowel precisely as
to recognise
of a vowel suffix
we have seen
it in
dative singular
such case forms as the ablative and
No
310-11).
analysis of the forms
can at present claim to be final. The 3rd plural of both

active and middle keeps its long vowel through the
analogy of the other persons
(whence Attic
têpmo-i)
and
phonetically,
cj>epwvTai.
4>epoivn
should shorten the
vowel before the double consonant.
Gnmdr.
Thurneysen, B. B.
ii.
918.
viii.
269
Wackernagel [K. Z.
fi.
25, 267)
holds that the -a- forms begin with such as ster-na-nxus, si-std-mus,
d6-va.-fj.ai., Arcadian IVrd-rat.
H. Moultou (A. J. P. s. p. 285 f.) holds that there was
but one mood-sign in the subj. -a-. The formations were anterior
to contraction, and in non-thematic formations the subj. having
"which are paralleled by the Doric

3
J.
always a thematic vowel before

'*ueid-o-mos
the
(perf.),
unaccented
-a-
*leiqs-e-the (s-
mood-sign
preserved only types
aorist),
having
"tij.-niu-o-nti
vanished
like
(pres.),
altogether.
In
on the thematic vowel we have

whence *uidomos, *uidethe, fiSwfiev, fidTyre
kept its own accent, whence *bhero-a-mos,
thematic verbs with accent

*uid6-d-mos, *uide-d-the,
with accent on
*bhere-a-the
root, -a-
*bheramos, *hherdthe.
513]
(1)
many
In the Greek subjunctive
511.
Thus
forms appear.
suffix is
find
Tpa7n/-o-/x^
pXri-t-rai,
(TT-^-o-ixiv,
where the
Homer we
in
added as in
401
analogical
Analogy in
f<>sofSubj.
etc.,
e8-o-/Aat, Tri-o-ixai
instead
of contracting with the root vowel, (2) the long form of
the suffix added to the long vowel of the root

the suffix
Sa/jLijy;,
ivvw/JLai, iiri(TTwjji,aL
The
512.
forms in
(3)
-w-,
instead of Swa/ittt,
-ie- strong, -tis
""s-ie-m
non-thematic
from the root
root std-
stems
es-, *st9-ie-in
is
regular in the
Sing.
stem (Plautus) = *siiem,
pi.
a-Tairjv,
Greek
s-l-mus
pi.
pi.
&f)v
(for
Ari\i.e.v
a-raiixev
stem,
of non-
opt.
*'''='"'' '"='"^-
from the
*es-ie-m with the strong form of the root),
the analogy of the singular
two
Hence
*stdi-me:
Plural *s-'i-me,
of
types.
with the weak form of the root which

of
^^^ ovi&Uve
no thematic ^îx
(2) as -i- with thematic forms.
optative
(in Attic
tTri(TTo.jxa.i
special suffix of the optative appears in
two different forms (1) as

\veak with stems where there
vowel,
6^x1,
where owing to
vowel a different form might be expected,
yviMicn,
yvu>r)%,
pi.
on
Lat.
stemus.
seems most probable that amem, amemus etc. are

made analogically after such forms as stem, stemus.
It
dem can hardly be the phonetic
representative of the
this ought rather to be found in the

Greek Sooji/
old form du-im for *du-em, like sim for *siem, ed-im for
;
*ed-iem
etc.
513.
The forms from
-s- aorists
are preserved in
their original shape in a few instances
both Latin and Greek

tr;-v),
Lat.
mderlm.
optative, such as
1
G. P.
ciSetV (=
by
*/^ci8eo--
optative of
'""^*-
-s-
But the ordinary Greek aorist

a new formation, as is shown
Stiâi/xt, is
G. Meyer, Qr.
Gr?
580
ff.
26
A SHORT MANUAL OF
402
by
(1)
primary ending, and
its
diphthong
a (=
m)
which
at,
is
by
(2)
its
513
having the
obviously borrowed from the
of the 1st person singular of the indicative.
The
so-called Aeolic aorist forms Set^tias, Seiêie, 3 pi. hiiûav
may
be a late formation corresponding to the Skt.
aorist,
which
arises
by a reduplication of the
-s-
-sis-
element
The other persons are probably

The Old Latin dixim etc. represent more
accurately the original type.
The only Greek optatives
Selfiav
*8etKo-e(cr)mv.
analogical.
of the perfect which preserve the original type are such

as reOvairjv,
ka-Tairjv,
514.
rpj^g
formations.
of the present
(ftipoL/xi
-0- into
and
a diphthong
m),
<j>poiev (for *<j>epoivT)
are
all
Trava-oipLi.,
thematic forms
Kavfroiix.-qv etc.,
his-
and generally in the perfect when the

not formed by a periphrasis as in TreTravKuis
tory of Greek
is
-oi-.
is ctêp-o-L-a (-a for
This type occurs in

in the future
in a vowel'.
combines with the
however, formations within the separate
are,
optative
-i-
q,^^^^ original type
(jiip-oL-s, <f>e-p-oL etc.
which
tjqê
thematic vowel
Opt. of thematic' stems.
new
where the root ends
The Thematic
ur)v etc.
515.
In Latin there
still
remain two
series of forms
be discussed the imperfect subjuncLatin imper- to

tives
turbdrem, viderem, legerem, audirem
fert ""'subjunc*^^''-
etc.
and the pluperfect subjunctives
tur-
bassem (and turbavissem), cidissem, legissem, audissem
and audivissem etc. There are also some old forms tiirhassit and the like. Of the origin of these forms nothing
can be said to be definitely known, (i) Brugmann holds
that they are fragments of the
-s- aorist
with the sub-
^
Only roots ending in a vowel with the exception of one or
two forms Hke htjc, ciSeiviv preserve the unthematic forms intact.
The others change to the thematic type.
516]
junctive
theory,
In vide-re-m,
-e-suffix'.
appears
-e-
becoming
-re-
Threeviewsof
as a subjunctive suffix,
their
develop-
we have
in vidis-sem
this
sumx mOrS- and next

-se-
according to
a formative
as
first
403
the same subjunctive suffix appended to the aorist stem:
dixissem arises from a transference of the ending of

vidissem to dixim^
oifaxim
etc.
turbassim
(ii)
is
formed on the analogy
Stolz' attempts to grapple with these
forms by starting from sta-rem for the imperfect

which he identifies with {Tja-T-qa-a and takes as an
injunctive in meaning (cp. 520). Upon its analogy he
difficult
subj.,
supposes other forms to be made.
Such forms as dixissem
according to him correspond to the Skt. aorists in
-sis-
where the
But
suffix
-s-
is
apparently reduplicated.
such Skt. forms are rare and
late,
so that the Latin
forms ought to be an independent development,
(iii)
Another possible explanation of these forms is that they

are formed of a noun in the locative or instrumental,
with the optative of the substantive verb in
form *siem, whence
sem (with
-e- after leg'i)
are the original types on the
analogy of which other forms are built up

infinitive
form found in vide-bmn
less substantive
found in the
This explanation
280).
short
its
If so vide-rem, es-sem, legis-
-sem''.
vide- is the
etc., legis-
the suffix-
infinitive leger-e (= *leges-i
also,
however, has some pho-
netic difficulties.
516.
As
already mentioned
302) the original im-
was the stem

But from the primitive
perative, like the vocative,
without any
suffix.
Grundr.
Lat. Gr.^ 112.
P.
11.
Giles,
926.
Qrundr.
11.
,^^g
impera-
*''
841.
Transactions of Cambridge Philological Society,
1890, p. 126 n.
262

A SHORT MANUAL OF
404
516
period certain particles were suffixed to this stem, for
otherwise the sameness of development in widely sepa-
But
rated languages could hardly be explained.
besides
forms most languages have attached an
early
these
imperative signification to other forms not only verbal
Thus
also nominal.
Five stages of t)ut

development,
in the classical
languages we find at least five strata of
imperative formations.
517.
i.
The stem whether
(i)
a thematic vowel.
Tbe Impera-
m
11become
.
tive is the bare
have
(a)
i-crrq, KprjfJL-vrj,
(b)
almost
all
verbs
like
tWu,
thematic.
7rijj.--n-pr],
Forms
S(iK-vv.
Lat. es 'be' possibly belongs to this
thematic vowel.
category
,,
are formed on the analogy of stems with a
StSov
t,
Latin, where
applies
stem.
(a) without, or {b) with
This distinction hardly
Lat.
4>^pe,
'
go
'
= *ei.
ay, i8c" etc.
Lat. fer, age, lege etc.
In
forms like rape, cape we seem to have the reduced form
becoming e (cp. mare sea' for *mari),

and with these must be compared sarcl,farcl, audi etc.
The history of the types ama, tide is doubtful;
( 487).
of the -io- suffix
may
they
'
represent *amaie, *videie or be original non-
thematic forms from the
480
tjrpes
*amd-mi, *vide-mi
The latter seems more

(ii)
With a suffix *-d/ii.
n. 2).
518.
(cp.
probable.
Such imperatives
^^^ found in the Aryan, Greek and Lettoii. The ImperaSlavonic

gToups only, and there with none
tliemati?^ stem
+dhi.
^)^J3
non-thematic stems.
probably an adverb originally^.

1
The accent
Xa^^
IS4,
is
Brugm.
suffix
was
of the five oxytone imperatives
eiirf,
i\0i, evpi,
that wliich such imperatives originally had at the
beginning of the sentence (Brugm. Grundr.

2
This
Examples are common.
Gruiidr.
11.
11.
958).
959 after Thurneysen.
520]
k-kXv-6lj
kXv-9i.,
(Aristoph.
Zend
*cr-6L'',
ri-rXa-di,
Clotids
z-di,
second aorists like
new
yv(S-6i,
(jTrj-6t,
633'),
'IX-q-BL,
Xi<t)6rj-Ti etc.
"With the suffix
(iii)
the ablative of the
-*ô(?,
Thus
'^bhere-tod
would mean
originally 'bring
from that,
'bring here,
pronoun.
Ihis type 01 lormation
Sanskrit, Greek
and
the stem,
if it
branches.
It is
used with
but Lat.
i-tm,
l-to
{= *ei-tdd)
In the non-thematic forms

is
generally weak.
but Lat. fer-to possibly non-thematic
2nd or 3rd person
a natural result of the
is
original value of the imperative, which, having
sonal endings,
may
cally equivalent to
520.
mented
(iv)
be used for any person and
an
With
no per-
is practi-
interjection.
the use of injunctive,
forms with secondary
indicative
That these forms could be used
aye-Tw, Lat. agi-to etc.
either
the
confined to the
has stem-gradation,
<j)6p^-TU),
ih)
Lat. me-men-to.
fjn-fud-Toi,
,
is
stem +tod.
-,
^,
...
peratjve
thematic stems indifferently.
{b)
Lat. es-to
CO--TC0,
()
is
Italic
non-thematic and
for-
From
attached to the
1st aorist passive with dissimilation of -6- into -t-
519.
(a)
c^-ei
'be'
taOi.
op-w-di, etc.
rpaTr-q-Bi, (jia-yrj-Oi it is
after the preceding aspirate
rni
but
t-Oi
(=*fi8-6't),
ca-dL
Sl-8to-6i,
405
unaug-
i.e.
i^,
injunctive
making '^ imperative,

a dual and plural to the imperative.
Thus in Greek
6, 80s, s, tj^k<i seem to be the 2nd singular of such
unaugmented forms, but in the first three we should
endings,
we reach the
expect *^7s,
is
*8ais, *^s.
the conjunction
1
Doubted by some
present with
-
io--
ml
possibility of
A Latin form
of the
same type
you !'
for *riel-s, literally 'wish
critics.
Veitch {Gnak Verbs) takes
it
as a
fut. sense.
= original
z-
theory, K. Z. 30, p. 351
before
ff.
-dhi,
according
to
Thurneysen's
A SHORT MANUAL OF
406
520
According to Brugmann ', fer bring belongs to the

same category, and he supposes that on this analogy
'
'
But
due and fac are made.
die,
all
four
may
explained as ordinary imperatives with final
-e
also be
dropped,
like hie for *ki-ce, sic etc.
Corresponding middle forms are used regularly
both languages
Lat. sequere
521.
imperative
for the
thus
cTrto
*seqe-so.
Having thus obtained a complete series

2nd person we can see
(v)
of forms for the
Later deveiopments.
V.
]^q^
j^ ^^^g
possible for the imperative to
develope corresponding forms for the 3rd person.
form with
as the
-tod, 4>^pe-T0L> fer~to, engrafts itself
form for the 3rd person, and tlirough
the dual of the injunctive

<l>p-T-qv
4>fp6vTOiv
to
-Tci)
<j>pi-Tuiv
(a
is
The
permanently
its
influence
modified in Greek from
very rare type).
the only good Attic form
seems to
the
in
(iirov),
In the plural
Aristotle's time
till
from an injunctive *4>^pov, followed by

and with the ending of the 3rd plural
arise
suffix
added on again, thus making, as
it
were, a plural to the
The Latin fer-unto represents a corresponding form without final -n. The 2nd plurals ag'ito-te etc. in Latin show how the -tod suffix had become
fixed in the paradigm.
The later Attic type <îph-w-a-av
is a pluralising of the singular (jxpiru, by the suffix -a-av,
form
(f>epe-T(D.
which at
this
time began to encroach also on other
areas,
as in the Hellenistic iXdfioaav for ekalSov.
522.
'
The middle forms
Grundr.
11.
505
and
of Greek are
958
n. fer
on
somewhat more
this theory is the
regular phonetic representative of original *bher-s through the

stage fers by assimilation, while Lat. fers 2 sing. pres.
is
formation on the analogy of other 2nd persons ending in

however, Solmsen Studien z. d. lat. Sprache 5, 185.
-s.
new
Cp.
(^cpecr^w
difficult,
act.
and
ct,piT
are
pea-daia-av
same way as
seems to arise from the analogy of

producing a new
<l>pe<T6e,
form bv the side of
dx-oerta.
-s- aorist,
The Latin forms
523.
seem
Both seem noun
of the 3rd person in
to be merely the active form
with the passive sign appended

agito-1is
2nd
(infinitives).
passive
etc.
for the
both active and middle
are not yet explained.
(Seiôi/, Seliai),
^^^^^^ jj.^^,^
of the Im-
dxpia-Owv, d>- forms
made from the singular in the

(jt^povrmv.
The Greek forms
person singular of the
forms
407
525]
ferto-r,
The 2nd
ferunto-r, agunto-r.
now
generally explained as
the
J^^^^,^ Passive
imperatives.
plural legimini
being an infinitive
used in an imperative sense, as so often in Greek
if so,
and
is
Homeric infinitives in -/ierai,

not the same as the 2nd plural of the
present, which
is
a participle
legimini
is
\tyi-lj.f.vai,
identical with
Aeyo'/xcvoi.
The
singular
form in -mind {prae-famino etc.), found in old Latin,

seems an analogical formation founded on this.
XXX.
524.
Verbal Nouiif.
Although the formation of the verbal nouns
the infinitives and participles

cussed in
its
the Noun,
has
already been dis-
proper place under the stem formation of
it
will
be according to custom and at the
same time convenient
to briefly enumerate here the

forms which are found in the classical languages.
The
The
Infinitive.
merely a crystallised noun

form which, ceasing to be connected with infinitives
are
525.
infinitive is
the other noun forms of the type to which
'^^'^
'^-

A SHORT MANUAL OF
408
belongs,
it
gradually extended to
is
those which originally belonged to
525
other uses than
noun
as a
it
form.
In the various Indo-Germanic languages practically any

case including the nominative can be used as an infinitive.
The
few
languages however restrict themselves to a
classical
Greek
cases.
affects the dative
the accusative, dative and locative.

sative forms are called supines,
and
locative, Latiu
In Latin the accu-
but they
differ
from
other infinitives only in the limitation of their use to
accomjiany verbs of motion

finitive,
by
(cp.
distinction between active, middle

specialisation of particular
must be
in-
and
passive,
and the
forms to particular voices
therefore comparatively late.
The Greek dative forms
526.
which end in
Greek dative
Inflmtives.
at),
The
333, (1) d).
can have nothing to do with the
its origin,
stems like
from the
last of
-ai
(i)
are
ah
infinitives
from non-thematic
'urrd-vai, <â-i'ai, SoCvai
which
(a -iien-
the t3rpe seems to have arisen
(= So-fcv-
stem) and
when the
its like
had
disap-
peared and to have been carried on to other forms',

including the perfects yeyov-iuai, weiravK-evai etc.; (ii)
forms from
-yu,cv-
-/xvai, So/xevai
;
The middle and
SetâL etc.
to
(i)
if
stems as in the Homeric infinitives in

from -s- stems as in the first aorist
(iii)
passive aorists
passive forms belong either
chavrji'ai,
Xui^d^vai, or have a
separate form (iv) ending in -OaL or a--6aL

kemea-dai, SeiKW-a-Oai
-J
TiTpd^-Oai etc.
The
tara-cr-dai,
Xvo-a-cr-ât, XiJo-e-cr-âi
irerfxiv-Oai,
simplest explanation of the forms
in -o-Oai is Bartholomae's", that forms like Xlyca-dat are

1
as
G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.' 597. In do/evai, Cypr. evFapoi the

thinks, belong to the root.
/may,
Hoffmann
2
Rheinisches Museum,
these forme
somewhat
xlt.
differently,
p.
151 S.
Brugmann
explains
supposing that the type begins
compounds,
really
and
suffix
without
locative
being the
identical with
Ti-O-q-ni.
Homer forms of the type Zo-fxiv are

(vi) The ordinary
without
Greek locative
In
(v)
locatives
Xc-ycs-
a dative from a root noun
-6ai
the root of
527.
409
528]
suffix,
infinitive in
-eiv
It
difficult.
is
appa-
is
i"*"""^-
rently a contraction of the thematic vowel -e- with the

-e- vowel of a suffix, but whether this suffix was -mn or
-sen is
not
clear.
The
latter
is,
however, more probable,
could then be identified with the Skt.

infinitive suffix -san-i, and there is less difficulty in the
for the
suffix
early contraction of the vowels.
528.
in
The Latin present
(i)
and
-re,
is
infinitive active
the original locative of an
-s-stem, regere in the verb being exactly
âjin inftnj.
t'ês Active.
parallel to genere (= *genes-i) in the substantive,
The
history of the perfect infinitive
etc. is
Setât,
amasse and amavisse, audivisse
as obscure as that of the corresponding forms of
the pluperfect subjunctive,
forms
much
(ii)
Old
clear.
but the history of such forms as
rexisse, vidisse,
legisse,
not
may possibly represent the same type
forms such as dixe^

as the Greek
is
ends
(iii)
of the future infinitive

dispute.
was that the
With regard
Till recently the
to the
there has been
active
received explanation
so-called future participle
was a derivative
from the -tor stems found in the noun, that
e.g.
recturus
was a derivative from rector. It was however recognised

that the phonetic change of -ur into -m-- was insufficiently supported by the parallel between <l>iap and fur,
and various other attempts
at explanation were made.
with the stem
and
forms as
1
For
-crai
-e
eiSes- in
(Grundr.
(instead of
dSeir-Bai.
11.
-?)
is
then extended to other
1093, 8).
op.
now Solmsen
/.
F.
iv. p.
240
ff.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
410
Dr Postgate'
points out that the infinitive with
indeclinable form -turiim

declinable participle,
facturum
528
the
than that with the
is earlier
and argues that such a form
as
from a combination of factu with an
arises
Infinitive in -mn from the substantive verb which, though

no longer found in Latin, is still found in Oscan and
Umbrian. This infinitive *es-om becomes according to
the Latin rhotacism *er-om, *er-um, and contracts with

the preceding word (which ends in a vowel) into one
word.
529.
To
(iv)
Latin Supines,
we have a
stem,
which
is
this
hypothetical Latin
infinitive,
would be the accusative of an
wliicli
-0-
living parallel in the so-called supine,
the accusative of a -tu- stem, the locative case
of which (v)
used with adjectives of certain
is
facile dictu literally
'
easy in the telling
case of the other infinitives, the
'
etc.
classes,
As
in the
supine in -urn has
nothing characteristic of the active voice, the supine in
Eo ambulatiim
-u nothing characteristic of the jjassive.

is
literally
difficulty
'
'
L go
from
easy to be
530.
easy in the telling
to
'
'
easy to
tell
'
and
told.'
The present
(vi)
Latin inflnitives Passive.
the same
'
walking,' facile dictu, passes without
î^
old
dative
infinitive of the passive is
case
present infinitive in
suffix,
agl
all
The
*ag-ai.
conjugations has
although in the derivative verbs
it
seems
added by analogy.
The relation between this infinitive and the passive
The most
infinitive in -ier, amariei- etc. is uncertain.
like the
active suffix in -re to be
plausible explanation
mixture of the
'
V. p.
I.
F.
IV. p.
is
that the infinitive in -ier
infinitives in -I
and
is
in -ere, the latter
252, an elaboration of earlier papers in Class. Bev.
301 and elsewhere.
"
411
533]
being curtailed to
This, which
-er.
is
the view of Stolz',
however not generally accepted. The other passive

Latin are periphrastic esse with the perfect participle passive, and for the future the accusative
supine with the present infinitive passive of eo, actum
is
infinitives in
This form, however, occurs but rarely.
iri etc.
According to most recent authorities, legimini
(vii)
the 2nd person plural of the imperative

(
is
an
infinitive
523).
531.
(viii)
Amongst the verbal nouns must also be

Whether this noun Latin Gerund,
reckoned the gerund.
form was the original from which the gerundive participle
was developed, agendum, for example, being changed

into agend-us, -a, -um, or whether the gerund
is
but the
neuter of the participle crystallised into a substantive

still
The
sub judice.
difficulties of
already been referred to
is
the formation have
194).
Participles.
Participles in the various Indo-Germanic lan-
532.
guages are made from a considerable number of different

In the formation of participles Latin and Greek
stems.
are more closely akin than usual.
533ciples
(i)
is
-lit-.
The most frequent

The stem had
suflftx for
active parti-
originally
gradation, but this has in both languages
almost disappeared
The formation
363).
Participles in
'"'"
of the pre-
sent participle in both the classical languages

(j>fpovTa
1
ferentem =
Lat. Gr." 117.
theory that
-er in
iroSa
pedem.
Brugmann holds
such forms
is
is
alike
Latin has of course

the
somewhat improbable
the unaccented preposition ar (in
ar-vorsum, ar-fuere, ar-hiter) appended to the infinitive as in the
Germanic languages
to is set
before
it.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
412
533
no aorist and no future participle of the types found in the
Greek Xwas and
formation a special
534-
The
(ii)
Perfect parti-
^g
eiSvta,
suffix of the perfect participle active
Originally
^^^^
cipie act.
ciSco's,
The Greek passive participles

and \v6u<; are like the rest of the
Greek development.
\va-wv.
of the types <âvtis
rp^g
353)^
in
with
-uos-
g^jjf
jg
but confused with a
gradation
preserved in Greek
formation in the
-t-
oblique cases of the Masc. and Neut. eiSoVa, eiSoVos
The
perfect participle active
but preserved in Oscan

535.
(iii)
Participles in
meno-, -mono-,
The
Greek
etc.
entirely lost in Latin
is
353).
suffix
of all middle participles in
is -/xti'o- (
byg.fgrm -mono-
This
400).
is
found
suffix or its
form used
in the
2nd person plural of the present passive in Latin,

on the analogy of which other forms are made ( 49).
(iv)
The forms in -to-, which survive in Latin
536.
for the
Participles in
-lo-mA-teuo-.
^s the
jiave
regular perfect participle passive,

Originally
nothing to do with the
Greek keeps many forms with the same sense

as the Latin gerundive, but in both languages some old
perfect.
forms such as
and others are purely

meaning to the -to- form in
-TiFo- ( 403), with which again
incUtus,
kXuto's,
Closely akin in
adjectival.
Greek are the forms in
the isolated form in Latin mortuus

537-
('^)
Latin participie in -titrus.
538.
The
forms
for
may
participle
active in Latin acturus etc are probably
developed from the future

(vi)
Latin eerundive participle,
be connected.
the future
The gerundive
infinitive.
in
participle
Latin in
-ndo- has been already discussed

j^-g
formation and history are
still
194).
wrapped
in the greatest obscurity".

'
An
excellent
collection of material
for the
study of the
540]
xxxi.
413
Verb forms.
Uses of the
has already been pointed out ( 438) that

the forms of the verb present more morphological diffi539.
It
They
than those of the noun.
culties
also present
more
syntactical difficulties, partly because the verb system of
the different languages has been so
comparison
is less
verb forms
is
much
recast that
easy, partly because the sense of the
more subtle than that of noun

of the case, we cannot expect to
From the nature
forms.
find in
the verb the straightforward simplicity of the local cases
we shall see, the signification of

and moods overlaps in a manner which
almost impossible to draw distinguishing lines
of the noun, but, as

different tenses
makes
it
between them.
Uses of the
1.
voices.
The passive ( 448) has been developed in

540.
each language separately and is therefore,
different
strictly
J
speaking,
at
ir
the
outside
seen, it is developed out of the
in Latin it
of methods of form]j^g
the addition of some

-6-q-,
hmits
In Greek, as we have
comparative syntax.
is
the Passive
in indo-G. lan-
middle with
new forms containing the
syllable
developed from active or middle
forms by means of a suffix
-r {-ur)
added
after the per-
sonal ending, but apparently existing originally only in
the 3rd person singular
449).
history of
Gerund and Gerundive
to Vol.
of Eoby's Latin Gravimar.
is
in
II.
some respects antiquated.
In Sanskrit the passive
will be
found in the Introduction
The commentary, however,
The most
recent of the
many
views lately propounded on these forms is that of L. Horton

Smith (A. J. P. XV. 194 ff.) and Lindsay (Latin Language, p. 544)
who
consider the
by the
first
element an aocusatival infinitive followed
suffix -do- of luci-du-s etc.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
414
a
is
540
stem, distinguishable only from the ordinary
-io-
type by the fact that the
always accented.
-io- suffix is
Some
languages, as Lithuanian, avoid passive construc-
tions.
In the rare instances where such constructions
occur, Lithuanian forms

tive verb
and a
them by means
of the substan-
participle as in English'.
Lithuanian
has also lost the original middle and replaced

reflexive
reflexive
constructed from the
forms
pronoun suffixed
active
it
by
with a
a method of formation which
the early philologists assumed for the Latin passive^.

541.
The
intransitive
distinction between the transitive and

meanings of the active voice depends upon
the nature of the root in each case.

542.
The
The middle
Middle
Voice.
possibly a later formation than
is
As
regards
voice
there
^^^ active^.
^|-^g
j;Qi(j(3^]e
better explanation than that
it
the meaning of
seems to be no
has some sort of reflexive
sense, the action of the verb being directed towards the
agent, although the agent
Thus
Xovfiai
'
rarely the direct object".
is
wash myself
is
really rather the excep-
than the typical example.
tion
meaning
ment
it is
From
the reflexive
some cases easy to trace the develop-
in
of an intransitive sense
cp. irau'w
'
check,'
-n-avofiai
'show,' <âivo/iat 'show
'check myself,
cease';
myself, appear.'
both Greek and

and feeling are mostly in the
from the definition, might be expected.
<âtV(D
It is noticeable that iu
Sanskrit, verbs of thought
middle voice,
as,
Eurschat, Lit. Gravim.
This assumption
Keltic
and
Italic passive
does not pass into

3
*
fell to
1131.
the ground
r.
Brugmann, Gr. Gr?

Monro, H. G? 8.
when
it
was proved that
formations were identical, for in Keltic

150.
543]
2.
It
543.
415
Verb-types.
seems that in the original Indo-Germanic
language there were two types

clearly distinguishable
point of view.
of
verb
from the syntactical
In the one
series,
pâtive and
peri ^'b^-
the idea expressed by
the root implied duration over a perceptible period of

time, in the other the idea was that of something occur-
ring instantaneously.
Naturally a verb which expresses
continuity of action cannot be
made
in the present
from
On
a root which expresses instantaneous action.
the
hand no root expressing continuous action can

Hence arise (1) the series of defecoccur in an aorist.
other
which have presents but no
tive verbs
but no presents',
(2)
positions which have the
somewhat
form.
meaning
different signification
This series
is
aorists or aorists
the series of compounds with preof a simple verb in a
from the uncompounded
developed separately by the different
languages, the prepositional meaning being
still
unde-
veloped at the time when the primitive community
broke up
(cp. 340).
Thus
both Greek and Latin that
of the first series

</)p),
we
find in
fero begins and ends
with the present formation, the aorist (in Latin the

perfect) being
formed from a different verb
iî/cyxa, tuli.
In Greek opaui is limited to the present t&ov to the

aorist (oTSa has a different meaning), and many other
;
instances might be quoted.
It is for the
same reason that
when the present of the verb expresses a durative meaning

Thus
the aorist is made from a different form of stem.
1
In Latin, as perfect and aorist are confused, we must subSome verbs are no doubt defective for
stitute perfect for aorist.
other reasons.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
416
SiSovai
offer,'
to be giving,'
'
Sovvai
'
state), rX^vat
i.e.
to give
'
'
to dare,
Greek) 'to
(as usually in Attic
ToXjxdv
endure
to be courageous
'
'
543
'
(a
(on a particular occa-
Compare also iyiyv6f>.r^v 'I was becoming' with

(was).
eyev6i/.r]v
I became
The second series seems less widely developed
544.
in Greek, though in Attic Prose, while we have ridvi^Ka
never *a.TroTt6v7]Ka, we must always, on the other hand,
have a.Trodvrj(TKu> not dvya-Kia. The reason for the use of
sion).
'
'
the
compound
in this particular case seems to be to
counteract the inceptive force of the

(f>evyuv
'
flee,'
consequi\
and
KaTa<j>vyeiv
For the
classical
'
Cp. also
suffix.
escape,' Latin sequi
and
languages this subject
is
These double types are best
not fully worked out".

preserved in the Slavonic languages, where they are
kept apart in two separate and complete verb formations.

In these languages when the verb-idea is not accompanied by the subsidiary notion of completion the verbs
are called " Imperfective," and may be of two kinds
:
simply durative.
{a)
Old Bulgarian
hiti
'to
iterative, bivati 'to strike repeatedly.'
{h)
If
strike,'
on the
accompanied by the subverbs are called "Perof

completion,
the
notion
sidiary
two
kinds
(a) simply perfective
of
and
may
be
fective,"
other hand the verb-idea
is
u-biti 'to kill
vati 'to kill
by a blow,' (6) iterative perfective u-biby a blow repeatedly' (used of several
objects or subjects^).
Brugmann,
In the early history of the Ger-
Gr. Gr." p. 179.
Mutzbaner, starting from Curtius' comparison of the present

to a line, of the aorist to a point, has partially worked it out for
Homeric Greek in his Grundlagen der griechischen Tempuslehre
-
(Triibner, 1893).
'
Leskien,
Handbuch der aUhulgarischen Sprache",
149.
545]
417
manic languages the same phenomenon is obvious', and

we still preserve it to some extent in modern English by
making a durative present by means of a periphrasis
'
am
writing
etc.
'
while we keep a perfective sense in
the ordinary present.

perfective form
used for a future
"He
In the Slavonic languages this
momentary action
expressing
with which we
is
often
may compare
the
but went not," where / go is

equivalent to a future, and exactly parallel to the
ordinary Greek use of el/At as a future.
English
said,
Uses of the Tenses.
3.
The above
545.
upon
the
^
now
It is
aorist.
and
discussion has thrown some light
between present
and
^
relation
go,
aorist are
former
found in
â
Durative and
momentary
forms in Greek.
the durative, the latter the perfective or mo-
is
The
mentary form.
is also clear.
tS-o-ftai
when ^present
the same verb, the
clear that
and
relation between aorist
Whilfe iu-Qiw and
7rt-o-/u,ai
are
'
perfective
are utilised for the future.
we hardly
find durative
same verb by the

the bye-form
irL-vio
'
and future
are durative forms,
or aorist forms which
In Greek, unlike Slavonic,
and perfective presents from the

though ypci<l>w and
side of one another,
rpairtu for
the present are examples of the
corresponding aorist forms transferred to the present.

possible example of durative and perfective forms
making separate verbs
is
to be seen in Ipx-o-yuai and
the meanings of which are related precisely as
apX-0-ju.ai,
Cp. Streitberg, Perfective u. imperfective Actionsart im Ger-
manuchen
(reprint
G. P.
from Paul
u.
Braune's Beitrage).
27
A SHORT MANUAL OF
418
those of
and
/Sai'vw
e/3rjv
in the
[|
Homeric
/Srj S"
545
livac
'
he
started to go'.'
In the examination of tense usages, we must
546.
be careful to observe that tenses in the

Tenses are a
develop-
later
e.g.
word
whicli the
comparatively
of
that
sense
is
now used
are
development and
late
the pluperfect in Greek does not in the Homeric
period express relative time as
Latin pluperfect
the
The pluperfect sense when wanted is generally

'Apvaios S' ovo/x.' Io-ke- to
expressed by an aorist form
does.
yap BiTo
Mrrjp {Odyssey
TTOTvia
his name, for that

Tj
yap
'A6rjvairj
5) 'Arnaeus was
mother given him'
xviii.
his lady
ovT aOprjcrai ivvar dvTirj ovre
8'
(nTji/eAoTreia)
name had
The
not able... for Athene had turned....'
compound with
the same way xai
'
{Od.
226),
ii.
'
perfective
01
'
ttJ
imperfect of
meaning may be used
in
Iwv iv vrjvalv iweTpeTrev otKOv aTravra
And he had put
The Greek
charge.'
voijcrai
voov erpaTrev (OdySS. xix. 478-9) 'she waS
pluperfect
his house in his
all
is
simply an
form developed from the perfect stem.
The
aoristic
so-called
future perfect in Greek has
only the meaning of an
ordinary future", though
it
possible with the help of
the context to translate
it
The idea
future perfect.
is
occasionally like the Latin

of relative
the idea
time,
1 The variant form to Ipxa/J-a-i and

apx" is found in opx"/^"'
(Homer) a leader.'
^ Such forms of course take the same shade of meaning as the
I shall remember,'
stem from which they come
fie/u'ricroij.ai
SiaireTToXfiaiJtreTai 'the war will be over' etc., with the idea of the
'
'
state
contained in the perfect
developed after
Homer
Ti/ni) 9TJ-tro,aai
etc.
in the active
?|w
future to l-(7xoy-
549).
The
future passive
as a parallel to the passive aorist
There
is
is
l-Tiixi)6T)-v,
hardly a trace of a similar difference
the presential future to ^x"^! ax'fi'rw the aorist

Cp. Kiihner-Blass, Griech. Gram. 11. 229. 2 n. 3.
is
547]
that the time of an action
some other action whether

is
is
to
419
depend on the time of
in the past or in the future
entirely foreign to the early history of the Indo-
Germanic languages.
whether presential or
Nor can we
assert of
preterite, that
a distinct reference to time.

The present in Greek
547.
may
any forms,
they had originally

be either perfective
we have already
This
^ seen.
or
momentary
value,
which
is
perfective
^
properly expressed by the Greek aorist, must
or durative, as
"^
The present
ay
express
(i)
an
action, (n) a
process, (iii) a
not be confused with' another value that
some presents have which express a state rather than a

These presents have the same value
process or action.
many
yKu> and otxo/xai exemplify well this

perfects.
meaning in Greek. Apart from verbs like sum
it is hard to find simple perfect presents in Latin, though
compounds, as advenio, in a perfect sense are common.
In Greek there are some other verbs which express a
state whose meaning is that of a perfect: vikS, KparSi,
as
perfect
The original present seems to

have had three values', being used (i) of
that which was true at all times, (ii) as a
^TTWfjiaL.
future,
values
of
the
instead of an historical tense (the historic
(iii)
present).
(i)
Od.
OVK dpeTo. KaKo. epya.

Ill
Quod
viii.
329.
deeds ne'er prosper.

sibi volunt,
dum
id impetrant, honi sunt.

Plaut. Gapt.
As long
'
as they get
Bi'ugmann,
Berichte
Wissenschaften, 1883, p. 169
ii.
1.
37 (234).
what they want, they are good.
der
ff.,
kdnigl.
an
sdchs.
article
Gesellschaft
der
from which several of
the following Greek examples are taken.
272
A SHORT MANUAL OF
420
the future use of the present
and one or two other
veofjiat,
eT/x,i,
much
Homer
lu
(ii)
with
547
is
found
verbs, but
is
rarer than in Attic'.
ov yap
B-rjv fjivqcrTrjpe'S
dkXa. /xak'
Not
Tjpi
aVeo'o-oi'Tat /xeydpoto,
OdySS. XX. 155.
viovrai.
for long will the suitors
but they
hall,
will certainly
be absent from the
come
in the morning.
Thuc.
If this city shall be taken,
vi. 91.
the whole of Sicily
is
in
their possession.
Quam mox
imvigo in
Ephesum
Plant. Bacch.
How
qtiae volo
soon do
I sail to
simul imjMixibo
the same time
I'll
The
Homer
certainly
'
irc/xi//ai
bids
2.
40
(493).
want
imme-
found in Homer,
and verse. Why
hard to discover,
for the conis
almost
ixLV ipelTTei
avSpas k.t.X.
i.
91.
of this future is the use in oracles or prophecies,
vii.
140
oilre ri
XeiweTai, dW
irup re /cat (iî)s''Ap7;s.
"And
ThuC.
them send men.
A subdivision
Warning,
Indo-Germanic^
as in Herodotus
yap
it is
iii.
widely developed elsewhere and
is
KiXiviL
He
later in both prose
does not use
6 (775).
off.
historic present is not
though frequent
struction
Eim.
demand what
diately after that I'm

(iii)
Ephesus
poste continuo exeo.
Ter.
At
iv. 6.
al5-i]\a ir^Xei'
Kara,
Compare Campbell's LochieVs
the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight"
etc.,
the seer beholding the events of the future passing before him.
2
Brugm.
Gr. Gr.'' % 156.
421
547]
KtLVY]
Oi\e(7tV VIV S T^pOLOV T
fJLtV
aycL.
Hecuba
Eur.
She ruined him and took
(lit.
takes)
him
266,
to
Troy
{vCTTtpOV TTpOTipOv).
The example from Euripides shows that the
historical
present and a genuine past tense can be used in the
Compare with
same construction.
this the inscription
on the tomb of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, consul

B.C. 298, Taurasia{m) Cisauna{m) Samnio cepit subigit
oinne{m)
Loucanam
ad
accedo
opsidesque abdoucit.
pedisequas.
quae
sit
rogo.
sororem esse aiunt Chrysidis.

Ter.
I
go up
to the attendants.
say she
is
i.
1.
96 (123).
ask who she
They
is.
Chrysis' sister.
Homer and
(iv)
Andr.
I
later
Greek writers often use the
present with an adverb of time instead of a past tense, a

construction which has an exact parallel in Sanskrit and
which
is
therefore supposed to be Indo-Germanic.
alSoirj
(^t'Ar;
re
irapos ye p-iv ov ti 6apit,ii%.
n.
Why
house, revered and beloved
wert no frequent guest

Cp.
Kpii.
xviii.
386.
Thetis with trailing robe comest thou to our
mirov, tl
VCTUTOS
',
/xot
in former days
uiSf Sio. cnreos e(Ti7vo p.-)]\(av
ov Tl irapos ye XeXeippevo^ epical
Od.
The only
thou
difference between present
otioi'.
ix. 448.
and imperfect
in this construction is that the latter expressly "brings

A SHORT MANUAL OF
422
547
the time of the action into connexion with the speaker'."

The two are used in conjunction in Iliad xiii. 228 f.
aXKa. @6av, Ka\ yap to Troipos
OTpvvwi Si Koi a/VAov,
The imperfect
548.
,
The imperfect
narrative
the
pre-eminently the tense of

it
cannot be distin-
is
/xeviBrjiO'; rja-Oa,
jXiBiivra toijat.
In form
narration.
.
061.
guished from the strong aonst and

ing also aorist and
imperfect
m mean-
overlap to
some extent. In Greek, aorist and imperfect from the

same verb are often found in precisely the same relation
in the same passage, so that it is futile to draw any
Its relation
tK)
distinction between them'.
the aonst.
qJ'
ygj-^jg
frequently used
formation)
by
(1)
its
as
an
II.
i.
218,
they attentively give
Brugmann
imperfect
(an aorist
Homer,
as
is
is
in
shown
in os k ^cois iTmreiOrjTai, /xaA.a T

'
whoso obeys the gods, to him

and (2) by its combination
ear,'
with the aorist toC jUaXa

'
IkXvov
regularly so used in
is
gnomic use
skXvov avTov,
aorist.
The
and commanding
saying
gf
fxiv
kXvov
-^Si ttlOovto,
H.
XIV.
in the article cited above.
For example in Iliad vii. 303 Hector Su/ce fiiôs apyvpbriKov,

while in 305 Ajax ôKTTTJpa diSov. Monro, in his edition, explains
Goodwin's
Sidov as 'gave at the same time,' 'gave in return.'
remark (Moods and Tenses, 1889, 57) is worth quoting. "The
fundamental distinction of the tenses, which was inherent in the
form, remained only it happened that either of the two distinct
forms expressed the meaning which was here needed equally well...
The Greeks, like other workmen, did not care to use their finest
The truth of this is well illustrated by
tools on every occasion."
Iliad ii. 42
46, where it is said that Agamemnon ivSvve x'^wca,
and pdWero (papos, but eSrjaaTo icaXa ir^SiXa, which was presumably
a more tedious operation than those given in the imperfect.
^
Probably metrical convenience decided the usages here.
133
548]
423
'him they heard and obeyed.' The Latin immain is like the Greek.
(i)
The imperfect as an historical tense of con-
perfect in the
tinuous action.
evda Si TToXXov
t(r(l>aôv
fiidv vivfTO,
/nev
ttoWo. Si /x^\a
Trapa 6tva k.t.X.
Od.
IX.
45.
There was much wine drunk and many sheep they

slaughtered by the shore.
In
tonstrina ut sedebam,
me
infit percontarier.
Plant. Asin.
As
was
ii.
2.
sitting in the barber's shop,
76 (343).
he begins to
inquire of me.
It is
noteworthy that
changes, as here
{infit),
in narration
Plautus promptly
to the historical present.
For
long narratives in the historical present see Ampkitruo

i.
1.
it is
50 (205) ff., Ourculio ii. 3. 50 (329) ff. With these

worth while to contrast the management of a long
narrative in
(ii)
Homer,
When
a perfect as
as in Od. ix.
the present of a verb
a.p)(ii>,
vikw, Lat.
regno
has a corresponding meaning
is
the equivalent of
etc.,
the imperfect
was archon,' eviVa

'had conquered,' regnabat 'was king.' So ^/ce 'had
come,' (ux^To 'had gone.'
Contrast the aorists rjpâ etc.,
which are often inceptive
(iii)
rjpx'^
552
'
ii)'.
The imperfect frequently
expresses the attempt
to do something, a notion which arises out of the general

1
In the Attic inscriptions a date
\{avbt.ovU
iirpvTapeue,
is
given by the imperfect
ÂyOppw? KoXXurei)?
iypafifidreve,
EiJ/cXefS?;?
fpxe, KaXXias 'ilaOev iTrea-rdrei, but a reference to such matters as
past events
oi
is
in the aorist
xp^'">''t o"'"" ^Kaffros ripîv
(377
B.C.),
ôvKevral koXujs Kai dtKaidis ij3o^\GV(Tav Kal îrpvTdvexjaav {287 B.C.).
Meisterhans, Gram.
d. att. Inschr.- 86, 2.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
424
meaning of the
progressive
is
common
specially
and
tense.
in cSiSovi/
'
548
In Greek this sense
I offered, tried to give,'
persuade.'
'iirnOov 'tried to
TpiTs jxiv tXrjOov iyia Kol iirndov 'Aiâiovs.
(3s
Od. xix. 151.
Thus
for three years lay I hid
and
tried to per-
suade the Achaeans.
qiwm
in exilium
iret
reduxi domuni
nam ihat exulatum.

Plant. Merc. v. 4. 19 (980).
When he was going into exile, I brought him home
again
for
The
549.
he was trying to
perfect
was
go.
originally, as far as syntax is
Concerned, merely a special kind of present.
The perfect
intensive
present.
an
was an intensive form and had nothing

^
Jt
to do with time,
The
i.
perfect
is
distinguished from the presents of
Continuous action by expressing a state, an
Tiie perfect expresses a state,
j^jgg^
ham
which the notion of the perfect
as the tense of completed action easily developes'.

'
know
Lat.
(cp.
'
knowing,
novi),
thus distinguished from
is
'
he
1
Ovya-Ku
is
dead
'
he
oTSa
state
yiyi'Mo-KO),
coming to know.
indicates the process of
way
used only of the
of
which
In the same
dying is distinguished from TedvrjKc

(hence Tcî/aiTjs in Homer mays't thou lie
is
'
'
'
The English
perfect in have expresses the present result of a
have bought a book = I bought a book and I have

The connexion of the two ideas in one predicate gives by
it.
implication the notion of the immediate past, a notion which
past action
'
'
seems the earliest meaning of the aorist ( 552 iv). The old
English perfects satig, rang etc. have passed into an aoristio
meaning, which they share with the later past formation in -ed
while the continuous imperfect is now expressed by
loved etc.
he was singing etc.
loas and a present participle
;
'
'
549]
dead
')
compare
'
liijivda-KiD
remind,'
425
fiîixv-qiiai
reminded myself, remember' (Lat. memini),

KiKT-qfiai
acquire,'
acttim
is
est,
'
possess,'
have
o\<oXa, Lat.
'I
perii,
express the completed action which in English
expressed by a present
the
etc.
'
KTao/xai.
'
am
lost,'
'
it is all over,'
and
like.
That the diiference between perfect and present

originally one rather of root-meaning
than of tense
is
is
shown by such passages as

kXBiiv S Mtve'Aaov eyai KiXofiai xat dvuiya
Od.
I
call
iii.
317,
and command thee to come to Menelaus,
where the two are combined with a scarcely perceptible

difference of signification.
trate the parallel
Other examples which
illus-
between present and perfect are
Tpamtfii crtTov koX Kpetwv Koi oivov P^PpiOatTiv
Od. XV. 333.
The
tables are laden with bread
and
flesh
and wine.
ov Toi fyiav eppiya fjiaxqv oiSe ktvttov linriov

II. xvii. 175.
In no wise do
dread the fight or the thunder of horses.
The same meaning
is
found with the perfect middle,
but more rarely.

oiSa
cus
/ioi
oSoiSucTTOi kXvtos ei'vocrtyatos
Od. XV. 423.

I
know how the famed earthshaker hates me

(op. Lat. odi).
In very few cases can the Homeric perfect be translated
by the English perfect, and
in such cases there is

A SHORT MANUAL OF
426
549
Many
always some continuing result implied \
such
and Ippiya above, have no present
verbs, e.g. fiePpWaaiv
forms in Homer.
The
expressed by the perfect
state
very often
is
contrasted in the Attic prose writers with the process
expressed by the present.

ov fiovXevea-Oai ojpa,
dAAa
/SejiovXevcrOcu.
Plato, Orito, 46 A.
It is
ovToij
Xapfx.iSyj's,
'
What
no time
-qv
8*
Nunc
eyo),
6
C.
you planning to do
are
ilhid
(j>r]
Plato, Charmides, 176
ri fSovXiv^crdov
ctAXa l3e(3ovXiviJ.e6a.
planning
but for decision.
for deliberation
Troteii^
'
'
is
est,
quom mefidsse quam
moment when
now dead) than
nimio mavelm.
esse
I'd rather
3.
iii.
(516).
have been
(i.e.
be
be.
Homer
noticeable that in
It is
ii.
The
Nothing.
is over.'
Plant. Capt.
This
ovSev,
the perfect
is
frequently intransitive, corresponding in meaning to the
present middle, while the present

sort of causative verb
'ia-TrjjXi
'
'
I set,
cp.
cause to stand
is fixed,' opvvfxL
'
I raise,
'
cause to
rise,'
'AXe^dv&poio civcKa vtiKOS oprnpev.
For Alexander's sake the

550.
The
The Greek
pluperfect
m Greek.
narrative
pluperfect
Icr-njKa
apapLa-Kui
forms some
active
lo-Ta/iai,
'
'
opape
stand,'
fit,'
'
II. iii.
apijpe
it arises.'
87.
strife is stirred.
is
simply the augmented
P^^t to presents of the perfect type.
Homer it is used
At all times
tense.
1
In
like the imperfect as a

this is the value of the
Monro, H. G.-
28.
551]
427
oTSa, novi,
augmented tenses of present-perfects
I
know'; ^8?;, noveram, 'I knew.' As we have already
'
seen
606
f.),
the pluperfect forms are etymologicaUy
closely connected with aorist forms.
The Greek
forms,
occurring only in the 3rd person, which are sometimes
represented' as a link between the perfect itself and the

imperfect and aorist can be otherwise explained.
and
are yiytovt, avqvoOi

identified
Kov,
last
yeyoove is
xiv.
i/jt-ifi-r]-
469)
if
found four times as a perfect in form,
but always in the same phrase

aorist in the
(II.
They
two are
by Curtius^ with the reduplicated type
with which must also go iyiywve
genuine,
An
The
eirev-qvoOi.
ocro-ov re ycymi/c ySoifo-as.
same construction would be
defensible,
and no passage renders it necessary to read iyeywvet as a

pluperfect, while some passages seem to show that ye'ywvc
and iyiyu>v are the same form differing only by the
presence or absence of the augment
cp. a-ixepSaXiov
;
&' i/36r)cr(,
551.
yeywvk tc
Tratri Otolai.
The Latin
Od,
pluperfect
is
viii.
305.
etymologicaUy an
and some traces of its The pluperfect

''''*''
still to be found in the '"
interchange of perfect and pluperfect, the Latin perfect
aorist
form
507),
original value
seem
being in part also of aorist origin

pluperfect for perfect forms
earlier
is,
497).
The use
of
according to Draeger",
than the converse, being found in Plautus, while
perfect for pluperfect begins only in the classical period*.

1
As by
In his Greek Verb
Historische Syntax,
Kriiger (Dialekt. 53,
According
(p.
1.^ p.
Blase
3, 4).
429, English edition).

258.
des Plusquamperfekts im
whose views do not convince me, all such usages
of the plpf. as an absolute tense are late and begin with fueram,
which is by confusion so used, since in some instances fui and
eram are identical. This view seems tenable only if it could be
*
Lateinischen),
to
{Geschichte

A SHORT MANUAL OF
428
Nempe
Why
me
obloqui
Plaut. Cure.
iusseras.
sure you ordered
me
i.
551
1.
42.
to contradict.
Quosquefors ohtulit {=ohtulerat), irati
interfecere.
Livy XXV.
29. 9.
Those that chance had thrown in their way, they

slew in their wrath.
Compare Propertius' nan sum ego qui fueram (i. 12.

non sum qualis eram (Od. iv. i. 3).
In the passage from Livy, the pluperfect meaniog
11) with Horace's
arises
from the context as in the Greek use of the aorist
as pluperfect
546).
As we have
552.
The aorist has

two types.
already seen
two types of
^^g
j^
g^p^-^g
are, etymologically considered,
of
perfective
suffix
in
inflexion
meaning.
-,?-
presents.
500, 502), there are
The forms which end
aorist.
^l^g
(jj.gglj.
^gy|3
.^
jj^
only augmented tenses
The forms which contain
are of different
have a
origin,
and might be expected
to
show
diiferent
differences of
Investigation, however, has not yet succeeded
in discovering
any such difference of
signification be-
tween them and the strong forms.

(i)
The
Perfective ao"^'-
aorist
^0^'''
meaning best recognised, because
widely developed,
is
that of simple
But the aorist,

shows no past meaning other
occurrence in the past.
except in the indicative,
than that which
may
be derived from the context, and
the injunctive forms of Greek
((txs etc.),
Latin
{vel,
520)
and Sanskrit show that the idea of past time must be

contained in the augment and not in the verb-form
shown that the Latin
plpf. is not a
descendant from the original
language but an invention within Latin

time.
itself to
express relative
:;
552]
429
proper.
In Greek even the presence of the augment
not able
verb, for the

is
true at
all
meaning
cases to attach a past
all
is
to the
gnomic
aorist
times
generally found with an augment
is
piX^lv 8e re vt^Vios
which expresses that which
lyvu)^.
similar aorist
in almost
is
every case^ found in Homeric similes except when
is
it
desired to express duration.
When
(ii)
its
the present of a verb expresses a state,
generally expresses the idea of
aorist
ap^w,
entrance into that state,
archon
/Sao-tXtvei,
Oapcrel,
he
'
Kol t6t
'
Then
'
he
is
8rj
'
koX rjvSa jxdvTi^
ddpcrrjcTi
when the
present of which
perfect
tKTr;/xai
is
dyu,v/i(ov.
is
'
II.
and
i.
92.
spake.'
Aorist=perfect.
the
KTaofx-ai,
not found in Homer, we have the

I poSSeSS,' but iKTr](Ta./jt.r)v,
had acquired according to the
or KeKTTy/xai,
have acquired
perfect expresses a state,
a perfect or pluper-
Thus from
meaning.
'
'
at last the blameless seer took courage
feet in
'
'
'
In the same way,
inceptive ao'''^'
king
is
the aorist frequently
'
am
became archon, came into office

eftacTLXevcre,
he became king
i6a.p(Tri<Te,
brave
he took courage.'
'
-qpia,
'
'
or
'
'
'
context.
e7reo"crvTO pvjuo? dyrjvuip.,.
KTT^/xacri TtpTrecrOai,
ov yap
i/xol
to.
yepwv
iûîj? dvTaîov,
CKT'qo'aTO UrjXev^'
ouS
ocra 0ao-lv
"IXiov iKTrj(76ai, evvawiJievov iTToXUOpov
TO TTplv
fTT
flprjvrj'S
TTplv
iX.6iiV vlas
AxoLioiv.
II. ix.
'
My
lordly heart
is
eager to take
its
398.
pleasure in the
wealth which Peleus has acquired; for not equal in value

'
See Piatt, Journal of Philology, xix. p. 217

78 (2).
For exceptions see Monro, H. G.^
ff.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
430
to
my
552
Ilium once possessed etc' (to vpiv
life is all tliat
tKTrj(T6aL, cp. Trdpoi ov ti Oafiiêt^,
547
iv).
Compare
cnTOV 8c ccfuv
tveifj-e
MtcravAios, ov pa
ooiySioTijs
avTos KTijcraro olos airoiÔfxevoto avaxTos.
Od. xiv. 449

'
And among them
Mesaulius distributed food,
the swineherd himself had gotten
The
(iii)
ri
t=
nt
f.
in
aorist
U.
ix.
'
whom
etc.
398 quoted above is

present time, and
obviously used of the

this
usage
is
not uncommon.
According
to Monro', such aorists "express a culminating point,
reached in the immediate past, or rather at the
He
moment
amongst other passages II. iii. 415

Tcus 8c "' aiviydripui cos vvv tKirayX' e<^tA7ycra,
and thus
come to hate you as I now (have come to) love you
of speaking."
cites
'
exceedingly.'
In Attic poetry there

of this usage whereby
is
a considerable development
a-n-iirTva-a, cirgvco-a
and the
like are
used as presents.
dTrCTTTUO"
iÔpov <ôjt6s i)(0i<TTOV 7r\eK09.

Ai-istoph.
Peace 528.
scorn the hateful fellow's hateful shield.
Although found in Aristophanes, the construction is

absent from good prose.
In Latin such aorists as ruperunt in illiiis immensae
vuperunt horrea messes, Virg. Georg. i. 49, are not found
in early Latin and are most probably imitated from the
Greek aorist.
(iv)
The idea of something beginning in the past
1
H. G.-
78.
553]
431
and culminating in the present brings us to what is

perhaps the most primitive use of the aorist,
ôjjgt ^f i^.
""I'^-'e v^^^viz. to express that which has just happened.
This
is
the ordinary value of the aorist in Sanskrit and
is
found in Slavonic.
also
the perfect with have
549
meaning, like the Sanskrit,
The English equivalent is

.), and the Latin perfect
may have
developed directly
from this usage.

Zeis... OS irplv
fj-iv
VTreo-p^cro
/not
xai KaTcvivcrev (inde-
finite past)
.
vvv Se KaKYjv airaTrjv fJovXevcraTO, Kai
Sv(7KXea "Apyos
'At
this
ii.
HI
KcXevei
jxe
fi'.
time he hath devised' etc'
A development
(v)
//.
iKe'trâi.
time
in the direction of future
The
which Greek shares with Slavonic.
ordinary explanation that the speaker puts
himself at the future point of time
thus used,
is
when the
aorist is
hardly necessary, for as we have already
seen the perfective or aorist presents of other languages

are frequently used instead of futures.
1
fxiv
w\TO
avOi
/jLivtiiv
Tpoiior TroXtv dft<î/AaT((U/*ai
v6(TT0<;,
fiiv fxoi
arap kXcos
acj}6iTov
R
'If I remain... my chance of return
IcrTat.
ix.
412.
gone
is
(will
be
gone).'
qui
If
si
conservatus
erit,
vicimus.
he shall be saved, we
553.
The
(shall)
Cic.
Fam.
xii. 6.
have won.
passive forms of the Latin perfect and
pluperfect with fui
and fueram instead of
sum and eram, which

1
are so frequent in
Cp. Monro, i?.G.276.
L^tm
passive
'"'''*' perfect.
A SHORT MANUAL OF
432
553^
Livy and later are comparatively rare in the early

Only four examples are quoted from Plautus',
period.
miratus,
three of which are deponents and one passive
:
opinatus, vectus all with fui.
oblitus,
may
language
the
in
these
noteworthy that in Greek the
postquam
(Trei,
Note.
etc. in
(ij?
Homeric past tenses

vlbs llpidfioio
"E/CTopa
eêfi-qKet
parallel to
is
is
(fi^pov
ijj(rT'
-^X^/crwp,
^TTp.cv ddeX'p^hi',
dtol'
K x^PV^)
(Trp^TpEfrd^
vi.
odt
512
516 will help
7J
evr'
&Kp7]s
iê^r^Ket
dp ^fxeWev
ddpLê yvvaiKi.
pluperfect in form, imperfect in meaning and
the tense of durative action in past time
the aorist expressing instantaneous occurrence, while
an imperfect
after
ndpts Kara Hepydfiov
TeOx^<^t 7rafi.(paivujv,
Latin
meaning
the sense of the pluperfect.
The following passage from Iliad
to elucidate
aorist, in
are used with words
aorist-perfect
Here
No
authors.
particular
and the ordinary forms.
It is
that,
of
difference
local peculi-
meaning can be drawn between
definite distinction in
the
some extent on
possibly depend to
arities
The
in form, a pluperfect in
ir^Tp-ev
tScipife
is
meaning, the action being
already past at the time expressed in the rest of the passage.
554.
In neither Greek nor Latin can the forms
used for the future be certainly identified

with
(
491
ff.).
The
the
original
Indo-Germanic future
future forms of both languages are for
the most part subjunctives, and the discussion of them

falls
therefore under that of the moods.
555.
The future
The future per- tion.

''^'^*-
In
not a primitive forma-
perfect
is
Homer
always, and in early Latin
frequently, future perfect forms are used

Draeger, H. S.^
incomplete.
1.
p.
276.
The enumeration
is
certainly
555]
only difference
like ordinary futures, the
438
any) being
(if
that the future perfect forms have somewhat more em-
In Greek the active forms are rare at
phasis'.
TOvSe 8
iywv
Him,
he presses
CTriovra SeSe'ô/xai oêi &ovpL.

II. V.
as
times.
all
on, I will receive
on
238.
my
sharp
spear.
Si /xa\t(TTa XeXeiij/iTai.
ifioi
aXyca Xvypa.
II. xxiv. 742.
And to me
specially will grievous sorrows be (remain)
left.
Erum
in obsidione linquet,
inimicum amnios auxerit^.
Plant. Asin.
He
will leave his
ii.
2.
14 (280).
master in the siege and will increase
the courage of his
foes.
Capiam coronam ml in caput, adsimulabo me esse ebriuni

Atque illuc sursum escendero; hide optume aspellam
virum.
I'll
Plant.
put a crown on
and climb up
aloft
my
Ampk.
iii.
4.
16 (999).
head, pretend to be
yonder; from there
I'll
drunk,
best drive
the hero away.
The
common
idea of relative time

in Latin than in Greek,
however much more

and even in Plautus is
is
the usual meaning.

1
Goodwin, Moods and Tenses (1889),

f. latein. Lex. iv. p. 594
P. Cramer (Archiv
^
This paratactic construction
83,
and
for
Latin,
ff.).
is interesting,
because the future
perfect is used to indicate the result of a future action (linquet),
while in the ordinary hypothetical sentence the order

-Si
is
inverted
in obsidione erum liquerit, inimicorum animos augebit,

G. P.
28
A SHORT MANUAL OF
434
4.
Different views
regarding
already seen
tive is not properly

L
J a
L
302), the impera-
mood, while the
J
finitive consists of substantive
the
original meaning of Subj. and
^p gn the
We
556
Uses of the Moods.
As we have
556.
^.
different types
in-
forms built
of verb
stem.
are left therefore with only the sub-
The original meaning of these

moods and the history of their development is the most
junctive and optative.
the
difficult of
syntax.
many vexed
questions of comparative
Since the publication in 1871 of Delbrlick's
elaborate treatise on the uses of these
moods
in Sanskrit
and Greek', the most generally accepted view has been

This view put in the briefest
that propounded by him.
form is that the subjunctive indicates WilP, the optative
Wish. In later treatises Delbriick has to some extent
modified his view of the development of the.se moods",
and now admits that
all
it is
impossible to trace certainly
uses of the subjunctive to the original notion of will
or desire that something should or should not take place,

or all uses of the optative to the original idea of wish.
Some
oppose Delbriick's view, holding
authorities
that " the subjunctive
was
originally
and
essentially a
form for expressing future time, wliich the Greek

negatived by
and used
ov,
in-
into an absolute future
herited, with its subdivisions
and a hortatory future negatived by
ft-rj,
in independent sentences*," while the primitive
Sijntaktische Forschungen, vol.
In other words the subjunctive would correspond to the
English I
i.
will, thou shalt, he shall,
thou wilt, he
while the future
ii-ill.
115
Cp. S.F.
"
Goodwin, Moods and Tenses
iv. p.
ff.,
V. p.
302.
(1889), 375.
is
shall,
557]
485
optative also, " before it
came into the Greek language,

may go and may he go,
came its potential and its future
was a weak future form, like he

from which on one side
and on the other side its use in exhortaand wishes. These uses would naturally all be
established before there was any occasion to express
either an unreal condition or an unattained wish'."
conditional use
tions
The
557.
chief difficulties connected with the ques-
tion are these.

(1)
The only languages which keep these moods

Aryan group and Greek.
scarcity of
distinct are the
But even
in the
losing grip of
Vedic period Sanskrit
i""'^!-
is
any distinction between the moods and
the classical period the
subjunctive has
Zend and Old Persian are not in a position

sate for the shortcomings of Sanskrit.
it
retains forms of both subjunctive
entirely confused
them
and Letto-Slavonic have
in usage.
in
disappeared.
to
compen-
Latin, although
and
optative, has
Armenian, Germanic
practically lost the subjunctive
Irish has lost the optative.
Greek therefore is the only

language which retains these forms as separate moods
and
in vigorous
life.
Though Greek and Sanskrit agree in the main

the use of these moods there are some serious differ(2)
in
For example, the history of the Greek negative

with certain types of subjunctive and optative is
ences.
ov
altogether obscure, for no sure etymology of ov has as
yet been
discovered.
In corresponding sentences in
Sanskrit the old Indo-Germanic negative
Differences be-
nd
to
is used.
Greek seems therefore to have
some extent recast these moods. The
'w<n languages
wnicn Keep the
'*^^'-
Moods and
Tenses, p. 388.
The whole appendix in which
these quotations occur deserves careful study.
1
282

A SHORT MANUAL OF
436
moods with
subtle usages of these
a development within Greek

similar
is
557
and av seem
At any
itself.
to be
rate nothing
found elsewhere.
In Goodwin's theory
(3)
kcv
Close con-
nexion between
it is
a serious, though not
an insuperable difficulty that any distinct

.....
division between the moods is given up,
,
The same
objection would, however, apply
he himself points out', Will

and Wish meet in the higher conception of Desire, the
only difference between them being that while wishes
cover the whole field of the attainable and unattainable
It might also
alike, will presumes the ability to attain.
to Delbrtick's theory for, as
be urged that as both stem and person suffixes in the

two moods are different'' some important original dis-
might be
tinction
fairly
supposed to be implied by these
differences.
The shades
(4)
Difficulty of
of
meaning expressed by these
rnoods are frequently so delicate that the
fSaotm^n-
personal equation
^-
siderably the classification of the facts.
is
likely to affect
con-
seems likely that no satisfactory solution of the

problem will be arrived at until the extent and nature
It
of the development of subordinate sentences, including
Oratio Obliqua, within the primitive language has been
more
fully investigated
S.F.
i.
'
The
fact that Skt.
junctive
than
it
has yet been^.
Without being committed
558.
is
to a dogmatic state-
p. 16.
shows secondary
suffixes
in
the sub-
not conclusive evidence to the contrary, as the forms,
even in the earliest period, are tending towards decay.

'
is
Cp.
now Hermann
(K. Z. 33, p. 481
ff.),
who
holds that there
no proof of the existence of subordinate sentences in the
language.
original
559]
ment
437
as to the order of development of the usages, a
statement for which there are at present no

materials,
sufficient
it
is
possible to dis-
tive
three
has
tinguish three usages of the subjunctive in
which Sanskrit and Greek agree,
equal to the English
(i)
in the sense of will,
will, thou shall, he shall,
(ii)
interrogative sentences, whether real or rhetorical,

(iii)
in
and
as a vague future.
559.
In independent sentences the 1st person
i.
Homer can be used
sing, in
followed by
817,
In the plural
imperative sentence.
dXX' dy
or dXX' aycTc.
(877)
1st person it
usage
is
is
with a.\X aye sometimes

any introduction after an
{a)
or {b) without
it is
The negative
used only with

is
iJ-ri,
but in the
very rare, because the cases where such a
required are not more numerous than in English
such constructions as Don't
let
'
me find you there again.'
Sing.
dXA.'
(ci)
ay
ê(7r(o
iy<Dv,
6s creio ycpaiVepos
Koi TravTo, BuÔfxai.
But come now,
doLTTTe fxe
(Jj)
elvai,
U,
ix. 60.
avow myself to be more

let me speak and go through
since I
honourable than thee,

the whole
(.vyfOjxaL
tale.
OTTL To.î(TTa, TTvAtts 'AtStto Trepj/Vo) '.

II. xxiii. 71.
Bury me with
all
speed, let
me
pass the gates of
Hades.
Plural.
d\X' ay6 vvv
'
From such
Od. xvii. 190.
lo/xev.
But come, now
let
us go.
constructions the final sentence easily developed
by the addition of a deictic pronoun us, oCtms in the

and of an anaphoric iva etc. in the second.
first
clause
A SHORT MANUAL OF
438
dW
aye
Brj
<f)pat,u>fXd'
ottcos
Itrrai
rdSe epya.
Od.
But come now
let
us take thought
559
xvii. 274.
how these
things
shall be.
In
conditional
construction
this
clauses
well
is
marked.
el
ov Ti(Tov(TL /ioiov i-TTLUKe'
ifiol
Svcro/xaL ts 'AtSao
a.ixoLJ3riv,
Koi iv veKveCTcri <j>auvui,
Od.
If
they
will
382.
xii.
not pay satisfactory recompense
for
oxen, I will (subj.) sink into Hades and
among the
light
The negative form

said
my
make
dead.
of the first person as has been
is rare.
yepov, Koikyfriv iyia irapd
ere,
/XT/
vrjvtrl
Kip(t(u.
II.
Don't
let
i.
26.
me find you, old man, near the hollow ships.
The af&rmative form
of the subjunctive of will
very rare in the 2nd and 3rd persons.
That
once have existed in the 2nd person
proved by
is
ordinary negative form, the subjunctive with
3rd person
<f>p
is
0)
p.rj,
it
is
must
its
and the
quotable without doubt as to the reading.

TeKvov, vvv Kol TO
Trj';
VTjaov
fj.ddrj';.
Soph. P)ul. 300.
Come,
TO &k
TO lapov
my child,
\^d<î(rfi.a
T(o
Aiop
T<3
learn
now also the nature
to yeyovop
(xtto
'OXvp-mu) '.
rdp /SwXa/D
Elean
of the
.
isle.
avareâ
iv
inscrip. Cauer^ 264,
Collitz 1172.
Let the resolution passed by the council be dedicated

in the temple of
1
Olympian Zeus.
Delbriick, S. F. iv. p. 117,
who
gives
up the passage
in
439
560]
passages where kv or av is usually read border

upon the 2nd person of this type.
Some
closely
KV
17
t/i(3
VTTO SoVpl TV7rlS
ttTTO
OvflOV oXctrCJJS.
433.
II. xi.
my
Smitten under
The ordinary
with
can hardly be
older than the development
is
The
imperative.
aorist
It
illustration.
doubted that this usage

of the
2nd person
aorist construction of the
requires no
fj-T]
spear shalt thou lose thy life\
rule
that a present
imperative and an aorist subjunctive must be used in
commands seems
negative
Greek, ne time,
iJ-rj
têirye
to prevail in Old Latin as in
ne dixeris,
jxrj
Xe'lTjs^.
force in such
The third person has a very emphatic

passages as
ovK
ovTos avTQp ouS' tcrereTai ovoi
t(r6'
yei'ip-at.
Od. xvi. 437.
There
560.
is
not such a man, nor mil nor can there be'.
The
ii.
interrogative subjunctive
commonest
is
with the 1st person in both prose and poetry,

(u
jjLoi
Woe
Tt irdOu}
yu),
me
404,
II. Xl.
me, what shall
is
of
do
(= what
is
to
become
?)
Sophocles on the ground that the text generally is untrustworthy.

probably one of Sophocles' frequent experiments in language,
It is
on the analogy of
'
<f)4pe
/mdu.
In the context thou wilt would be hopelessly weak.
2 This was written before Elmer (^1. J. P. xv. 133 ff.) had overthrown by simple enumeration of instances the dictum of Madvig
which has been credited for fifty years. Between Terence and
Livy there are but eleven instances of the type 7ie dixeris, outside
Cicero's letters.
'
Compare Shakespeare's Nay, it will please him

sure to) please him {Henry V. v. 2. 269).
(i.e. is
well
it
shall
560
compare
tC
A SHORT MANUAL OF
440
This usage
Trd6u>
with
TTadm
Tt
future
is
is
close to that of the future
8c 8p(3
TL
ri Se
ju,ifo-(o/xat
Ti 8c ft-ria-oixai
Aesch. S.
T. 1057
c.
Soph. Track. 973.
are of course merely different
If the
and ix-qcrojiai
formations from the same
the old aorist subjunctive,
iJ-ria-Mixai
aorist stem.
The only example

struction (tms ovv It
If.
F. 1417)
into
is
2nd person in
of the
this con-
oTi <Tvv(TTa\ixai KaKois
ctTTTjs
possibly corrupt,
and
is
Eur.
generally emended
a-V ttirot?.
The 3rd person
fairly
is
common,
especially in the
orators.
Tt
eiTrr;
TL
TTorjcruicnv
Compare
yivqrai
Demosthenes xxi. 197.

Dem. xxix. 37.
also w/xot eyio, ti
Od.
t(s
V.
wdOw
Tt
KiJ
/u.ot
For the negative type compare the frequent

Tt
fi-rj
irdOu)
Trpoo-StSo)
561.
is
iii.
in
Trio
The use
If
8e K6
fxrj
Totovs
I
ov&i ev
f.
of the subjunctive as a future
avepas ov8i L&m/xaL.
1801"
such
p.ri Sojojcrti',
TrdOw
Tt
<^pa^7;, TrapafjivOia<; &i
Homer both with and without
Never yet saw

t
TroTCpov
Plato, Legg. 719
common
ov yap
and
f).rjKiiTTa.
465.
men
lyw
nor shall
I see
St Kev avTos iXiiip.ai.
they give her not to me, then
will I
particles.
II.
i.
262.
i.
137.
them.
II.
go and take
her myself.
The 2nd person hardly
occurs, for the passage //.
433 cited above has a different shade of meaning.

3rd person
is
commonest
Kat TTOTe Tt9
ft-TTTjo-t.
And some day
they
in the pln-ase
//, vi.
479 aud elsewhere.
will say.
xi.
The
441
563]
accompanied by av or Kkv, the

fine distinctions expressed by which are a matter concerning Greek grammar only, as they seem to have
In other phrases
it
is
developed within the language.
The
562.
those
the usage in wishes,
(i)
tions, a construction to
Greek,
(iii)
used with
(i)
563.
The
(i)
common with
by such
are often preceded
the usage in ques-
(ii)
which av
is
optative
generally added in
may refer
to present,
The negative in wishes is /xi;", in

The particles kIv and av are not
ov.
but are
The
has three values.
can dis-
a potential usage which
past or future time.
the potential usage
to
parallel
We
subjunctive.
the
of
tinguish
original usages of the optative in simple
seem to have run
sentences
(ii)
and
natiire of the
wish
is
Wishes
(iii).
d yap
particles as ddc,
etc.
different accord-
ing to the person used.

1st Person,
iW
(S5 TQJitaOllXl liir)
Would
that
now
were as
Cp.
f-r) jxyjv
T
I
IX.OI,
C/ATTtSoS Ul].
Ocl. xlv.
my
were young and
468.
strength
firm.
acTTTOuSi'
ye
Ktti a/cXeioSs d.iroXoi/j.rji'.
The 2nd and 3rd persons
II. xxii.
304.
are specially used as a sort
of suggestion or exhortation.
et
TLvd TTOV Tpdun/ iidX/xtvos dvSpa pdXourBa.
aXX
I
II.
XV. 571.
wish you would jump out and shoot some Trojan.

ei
Tts Ka\ ToijtrSc ixfToi)(6/j,evo^
KaXeanev.
wish somebody would go after these
U.
x. 111.
men and
call
them.
'
In Vedio Skt.
tative.
ma
is
found in only one instance with the opis nd throughout (8. F. v. p. 337).
Otherwise the negative
A SHORT MANUAL OF
442
564.
is
564
optative in Attic Greek without av
The
(ii)
so rarely used interrogatively that
many
authorities
would emend the passages where it occurs or treat

them as mere anomalies \ They preserve however an
ancient construction which has become rare in Greek.
Tcav, Ziv, Svvaa-LV Tts avSpwv v-n-ipjiaa-'ia KaTd(T\oi
Soph. Antig. 605.
Thy power what human

cr6'
trespass can limit
could reach old age
Is it possible that Alcestis
ovK
OTTOS XiâijxL
ecrO'
to.
Eur. Alc. 52.
s yr}pa<; jxokoi;
OTTcos 'AA.KTjcTTts
ij/evS'^
KaX.a.
Agam. 620.
make a false tale
Aesch.
not possible that
It is
With the
a-rj<;
ye
ever,
xwas
last
passage
Krf)aX7J's
should
we may compare
diraXdXKOi,
II. xxii.
fair.
ta-ff
0%
348, which, how-
The Homeric
has a different history.
ovk
construction,
instead of coming from the interrogative and deliberative
usage
(op.
the subjunctive,
vague future
565.
Under the vague future
(iii)
we may
also
560), arises
from
(iii)
the
use.
or potential use
rank the concessive use
compare the
English hesitating he might go, which, though referring

to the
same future time as he may go and he
will go,
expresses greater remoteness of the possibility of his going
than either of the others.
This construction
to be confused with wishes, especially in the

'
Goodwin, Moods and Tenses,
242.
The
is
so likely
2nd and 3rd
instancea of this
construction have been properly treated by A. Sidg\vick in appendices to his editions of the
fully in
an
Agamemnon and Choephori and more
article in the Classical
Review,
vii.
p.
97
ff.
Hale's
elaborate dissertation (Transactions of American Philological Association, 1893, p. 156
ff.)
does not seem to
me
convincing.
443
567]
the rule
Homeric period av and ke are

with the potential optative, though a certain
number
of the older constructions
persons, that even in the
instances
The
survive.
still
from Attic are mostly very doubtful.
cited
are, however, all optatives from verbs of saying

and seem to be related to the subjunctive type eiirg rts
They
(
561); Kcu
avTov
6S.(T(Tov
Xiyoi Tis' iirjpTVjxeva';
-q
The
566.
this type
ttojAovs Trap
Eur. Hipp. 1186.
SecriroTT/jv iiTTrjcra/jLev^
distinction
any^) between sentences of
(if
with aV and those without av
very subtle.
is
Compare
(a)
avTap Tot Kat
kclvio
y Kev
i/iv
Trj
Si]
eyoj
Trapa/xvdyjcraLfirjv
}S.e\aiV4>^s,
<tv,
r/yepiovevrj's.
II.
(6)
Kat
8'
XV. 45.
av TOis aXXotcrtv cyto TrapafJLvOrjaal/xrjv
oiKaS' aTTOTrXet'civ.
Monro, in
optative in (a)
by
am
a concession
in (b)
by
417.
J7. ix.
edition of the Iliad, translates the
his
'
ready to advise,' as expressing

'
The con-
should advise.'
struction in other clauses however shows no concessive
meaning
'
ov
KaKourcpov
aXXo
could not suffer aught worse
Svo
y avSpe
(j)ipoLv,
II.
v.
'
TrdOoi/jLi,
II.
xix.
321,
xV/^'^^''' Xa/Sc, o
302, 'which two
men
ov
could
not carry.'
567.
The
application in Attic Greek of indicative
forms to express wishes or conditions that can no longer

be
fulfilled
developed.
'
is
in
the
Forms
Homeric period not yet
fully
of wcêXoi/ are alone used for wishes
Wecklein's emendation
\6yoi.<riv,
although supported by
I.
T,
836, seems unnecessary.

^
Goodwin (M.
T. 240) treats the optatives without Ki or ac
simply as exceptions to the general rule.

A SHORT MANUAL OF
444
567
impossible of fulfilment, and in the apodosis of conditional sentences of the

K is used,
though
same nature the optative with

more common past
rarely, for the
indicative with av^.

KdC vv Kev tv6
a7roA.oiTO, ...i
/xt;
ap
o^v
B.
He would
have perished,
if
vorjaet'.
V.
311.
she had not quickly
perceived him.
The Latin Subjunctive.
5.
Latin has suffered so
568.
much
mutilation before
the beginning of the historical period that, as has been

already mentioned,
its
mood system
of little use for
is
the purposes of comparison with other languages.
members only
as lineal descendants of
are
the present and
Latin imper-
development,
Indo-Germanic forms.
the
perfect-aorist.
^sen developed within the separate history

of Latin.
Whether they be regarded
as
modifications of Original aorist types or as
compounds with the substantive verb
515), they have
no exact parallels elsewhere, even in the

languages.
These
The forms
imperfect and pluperfect must have
ordinarily called
fectt!;bj'"a"Sew
Two
of the subjunctive series can be regarded
The
Italic
group of
periphrastic forms containing a future
participle are of later origin.
569.
The
history of the present
aorist subjunctive
is
tolerably clear.
and the
The
perfect-
constructions
of both are parallel to the Greek constructions to a large

extent.
Both subjunctives show the same
ship with the future
combined with a negative precisely as the

1
close relation-
the perfect-aorist subjunctive
Goodwin, M. T.
% 440.
is
aorist subjunc-
tive is in
Greek;
Plaut. Asin. v.
570.
Sfi^jjs:
/^r/
ne dixeris; ne dixis istuc\
12 (839).
1.
The imperfect and
pluperfect present greater
Their usages in Plautus are different in
difficulties.
many
445
570]
respects from those of the best classical period,
when
while in the later period,
the forms of Latin are
passing into Romance, they undergo an important change

in
The
meaning.
pluperfect takes the place of the im-
perfect subjunctive, while the latter
by the
loss of its
endings becomes confused with the infinitive and disappears.
The names, imperfect and
But even then the imperfect
classical period.
is
in unreal conditions a present
more frequent type

Cicero
Plautus,
in
si
hand
is
so-called
possim
si velim,
vellem,
the
is
possem in
The
in signification both are identical.
perfect on the other
valent
pluperfect, are given
from one of their chief usages in the
to these forms
plu-
found used as the equi-
and perfect-aorist. But the

must be different. When the
the equivalent of an imperfect, we
of both imperfect
history of these two cases
pluperfect
are at
is
used as
once reminded of the history of
pluperfect indicative.
the same here
No
the so-called imperfect
a durative present stem,
the Greek
doubt the development was

the
formed from
is
so-called
obviously formed from a perfect stem and
pluperfect
may
is
therefore
be expected to represent not a process but a state

(
549).
Cicero's
The idea of relative time cannot be got out of

cum ilk homo audacissimus conscientia conmctus
reticuisset, patefeci {Gat.
'
It is to
ii.
6.
13)
reticuisset is
when
be remembered that etymologically dixeris and dixis
are optatives. There
is
not in Early Latin that delicate distinction
in usage between a negative with pres. imperative
with 2 pers. aorist subj. which exists in Greek,
and a negative
446
he had become
silent,
i.e.
while
he was
570
silent,
the
pluperfect of an inceptive verb being the exact equivalent
On
of the imperfect of a verb expressing a state \
the
other hand, since the Latin perfect has to discharge at
the same time the duties of an aorist, forms of the

perfect subjunctive
fore
we
may have
a past meaning, and there-
find in Plautus such constructions as audivi ut
expugnavisses regemque Pterelam occideris, Ampli.
114 (746), where the two clauses are
As
2.
this question concerns the history of Latin only,
But the developand the changes in their
cannot be further discussed here.
it
ment
of the subjunctive forms
signification within the historical period should
of the
most striking chapters
in that historical
of the Latin language which has

'
the
d.
ii.
parallel.
still
to be written.
Cp. Foth {Boehmer's Romanische Studien,

first to set this
matter in
its
form one
grammar
proper light.
ii.
p. 313)
who was
Blase (Geschichte
Plusquamperfekts, p. 82) disputes this, wrongly in
my
opinion.
APPENDIX.
A.
The Greek and Latin Alphabets.

[The chief recent authorities for this subject are Taylor, The
Kirchhoff, Studien zur Geschichte des gnechii.
Alphabet, vol.
iacheiiAlphabetn*; E. S.Eoberts, Introduction
Hinriohs in ed.
huch;
1,
Larfeld in ed.
2,
of vol.
i.
to
of
Greek Epigraphy
I.
Muller's
Hand-
Schlottmann in Riehm's Handworterbtich des Biblischen
Altertums,
s.v.
Schrift
mid Schriftzeichen ; Fauly's Beal-Bncyclo-
padie (new ed.) s.v. Alphabet; Lindsay, The Latin Language;

von Planta (for the Italic alphabets) in his Gramviatik der
oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte.]
601. The alphabet, wherever it may have originated,

undoubtedly came to the Greeks from the Phoenicians. The
Phoenician alphabet, identical with the Hebrew, consisted of
twenty-two
letters.
The
oldest specimen of this
alphabet
that we possess and that can be dated with approximate

certainty, is in the inscription
fragments of which are
now
upon the Moabite stone the

Louvre.
in the
This stone,
discovered in 1868 in the ruins of the ancient Dibon, records
the triumph of Mesha,
date
is
some years
King
of
Moab, over
after 896 B.C.
'.
The
his enemies.
tion bear a surprising resemblance to those of early

^
after
Mesha was a tributary of Ahab, King

Ahab's death
(2
Kings
iii.
4, 5).
The
letters of this inscrip-
of Israel,
and
Greek
rebelled
;;
APPENDIX.
448
inscriptions.
But the
was undoubtedly known

Western Asia many centuries before
The Greeks must have received the
art of writing
to the Semitic races of
the time of Mesha.
alphabet from the Phoenicians while the Phoenicians still

But this trade seems
carried on an active trade with Greece.
wane in the eleventh century B.C. ^

hence we may conclude that the art of writing was known to
the Greeks from at least the twelfth century.
The alphabet as borrowed from the Phoenicians was
602.
not well adapted for Greek uses. It had no vowel symbols
to have been already on the
had a superfluity of breathings and sibilants. The signs for

He and Ain- were adopted for the vowels a, e and o,
while Yod, the symbol for y (j), was utilised for the vowel i.
The Greek treatment of three of the four sibilants, Zain
(Eng. z), Samech (s), Sade {ss) and Shin (A), is less certain.
Zain was kept in the place which it had in the Phoenician
alphabet, but with the value of Greek f ( 118), and with
a name corrupted from Sade. Greek o- follows p precisely as
in the Hebrew alphabet Shin follows Resh, while, on the
other hand, if the name a-lyp.a is not merely connected with
(Tifto as the hissing letter, it looks as if borrowed from Samech.
Samech follows the symbol for N and on the Moabite stone
it
Aleph,
has a form
^ closely resembling that of the ordinary Greek
S.
In the Greek inscriptions there are two symbols which are

used in different dialects for
The form
gems and
Greek
/^
of Sade, written
coins
when, as
Such
is
viz.
M (sometimes [^) and

left
21.
on old Hebrew
bears considerable resemblance to the

is
common
written from right to
49, p.
a-,
from right to
left
in the early inscriptions,
like
the ordinary view.
the Semitic
letter.
it is
Shin
Belooh (Rheinisdies Museum,
113) puts the date of Phoenician influence on Greece as
low as the 8th century.

2 The Hebrew names of the Semitic letters are given at the
head of the different sections of the 119th Psalm, which is an
acrostic composition.
449
THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS.
appears on the Moabite stone as VV which is identified with Z,

the angle at which letters are written varying considerably in
and rude
early
603.
letters in the
Greek
inscriptions.
The Phoenician alphabet ended with
itself.
Greek alphabet
Of the new
T.
is
Thus
all
developments within
letters v is the earliest.
plausible explanation of v
Vau which
after t are
to identify
it
The most
with the ancient
occupied the sixth place in the Phoenician alpha-
bet and had the value of
(u).
On
the Moabite stone
Vau
has a form closely approaching to Y. This explanation of v

receives plausibility not merely from the resemblance in form
but also from the parallel treatment of Yod. A new symbol
known to us from
Vau with its value
its
shape as digamma
Whether
(f)
then replaced
symbol was
an adaptation of the preceding E or whether it was a modiSome
fication of the original Vau symbol, is hard to decide.
forms of Vau on ancient Hebrew gems make the latter view
possible.
The seventh and eighth letters (Cheth and Teth)
in the Phoenician alphabet were used for the rough breathing
as m ( 171).
(then written H) and for
respectively i.
Phoenician alphabet which
this
The only other
from the
forms in the Greek alphabet as ordinarily used is Koph or
Q6ph which stands before the symbol for Resh (R). This
symbol was preserved in some Greek dialects, e.g. Corinthian,
for a long time before o and v sounds; compare the Latin Q,
in the
letter
diifers
is the same letter.

The Greek symbols which still remain to be provided for
The authorities differ widely as to the origin
are 0, x, V'; <
Some writers maintain that <^ is developed
of these forms.
which
from one of the forms of Koph, x ^.nd i/c from bye-forms of

the Phoenician T and Vau respectively. Many other views
as to their origin are still held by eminent scholars and will
come up again in the next section, a is most likely merely
a modification of O which was used in Miletus to indicate
1
en,
The
first
step towards the use of Teth as
the next the use of

G. P.
was the writing of
alone.
29
APPENDIX.
450
the long o-sound by at latest 800 b.c. It must, however, be

remembered that these modifications of and additions to the
original alphabet were the work of a considerable period and
that while some remote and less progressive districts were long
PZ
content with a primitive alphabet in which
PH, KH,
did duty for the later single letters
the busy com-
mercial towns like Miletus
made
<j},
x, i^>
rapid improvements in the
down to them.
There were amongst the Greeks ^ two distinct
alphabets, resembling one another in most respects, but
alphabet as handed
604.
differing in the representation of
|,
fôd
value which they attach to the symbols
xj^
or rather in the
X and Y.
Of the
one type the Greek alphabet as usually written is the descendant, the Latin alphabet and through it the alphabets of
Western Europe^ generally are the representatives of the
These alphabets are generally distinguished as the

The Western alphabet was used
in Euboea and the whole of continental Greece except Attica,
the north-east coast of the Peloponnese and the colonies like
other.
Eastern and the Western.
Corcyra and Syracuse which sprang wholly or partly from that

The Western colonies with the exceptions mentioned
area.
above also used this alphabet. The Eastern alphabet was

employed in Asia Minor and in most of the islands of the
Aegean Crete, Melos and Thera alone retaining for a long
The
period a more primitive and less complete alphabet.
;
1 One branch of the Greek family

the Cyprian did not use
an alphabet but a syllabary of the same nature as that in which
the cuneiform inscriptiona of
many
Asiatic nations are written.
This syllabary did not distinguish between breathed stops, voiced

stops
and
aspirates; hence the two symbols to-te
may mean
rdre,
Another very primitive method

of writing has been discovered in Crete by Mr A. J. Evans
ToSc, Tu5e, Sore, SoSrj, rb
dii,
etc.
(Journal of Hellenic Studies xiv. p. 270

*
The Russian alphabet
is
ff.).
a modification of the Greek alphabet
Some symbols had to be

it appeared in the 9th century a.d.
added to the Greek alphabet owing to the greater number of
sounds in Slavonic which had to be represented.
as
451
Western alphabet, as Latin shows, placed x after V iy) and

used as its symbol X which in the Eastern alphabet was used
for X-
S'
or a local form
\i/
was used
for x-
The combination
was generally left without a symbol, although in Arcadia

and Locris a new symbol is invented by adding a perpendicular line in the middle of the symbol X.
TTo-
In the Eastern alphabet as here described there were still

variations from the present Greek alphabet. 'H was
still used to represent not r) but the spiritus asper; E represented e, rj, and the 'improper' diphthong ei which arises
some
by contraction ( 122); O after the introduction of a remained the symbol for o and for the non-diphthongal ov.
The lonians of the mainland lost the aspirate very early and
employed H, no longer necessary in this value, as the equivalent of
The complete Ionic alphabet, which is the
alphabet now in use, was first officially adopted at Athens in
403 B.C., although it is clear that the alphabet was in ordinary
t).
use at Athens considerably earlier^.
From the alphabet of the Greeks settled in Magna

came the alphabets used by the Etruscans, Romans,
Oscans, Umbrians, and the smaller tribes of the same stock.
605.
(iraeoia
There seems to be little doubt that the Etruscans were the

to adopt the ali^habet and handed it on to the Oscans
and Umbrians. The shape of the Latin letters, which is in
first
many
respects very different from the Greek to which
accustomed,
is
we
are
almost entirely an inheritance from the Greek
alphabet of the Chalcidic colonies, in which letters exactly

corresponding to those of Latin can be found except in the
'
It
may
be mentioned that, apart from the great divisions
of the alphabet which are discussed here, there were a large
number
of
minor
which enable scholars to
local peculiarities
assign with great definiteness the earlier inscriptions to their

original
home.
This becomes increasingly
difficult
after
We
the
have then to rely on the

local dialectic forms, but with the appearance of the koivî ( 64)
these tend more and more to disappear.
introduction of the Ionic alphabet.
292
APPENDIX.
452
P and
case of
In the oldest Latin, however, P is P

seems probable that G was introduced
G.
and
as in Chalcidic,
it
instead of the useless f by Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 B.C.

The borrowing of the alphabet must have been at a com-
paratively early period since in
writing
from right
is
the dialects the earliest
all
to left.
of Central Italy fall into two groups,

by the Latin and Faliscan, the other by
The main distinction
the Etruscan, Oscan and Umbrian.
between the two groups is that in the former the sound of /
The alphabets
606.
of which one is formed
is
Vau
represented by the ancient
(F),
while in the latter
it is
represented by a symbol more or less closely resembling the

The history of this diflerence is not clear. In the
figure 8.
Latin inscription, which
earliest
FH
written for the later fefacid.
show that
century
on a
is
we
Praeneste and published in 1887,
fibula
find
for the
found at
FHEFHAKED
sound
seems to
at the period of writing (probably in the sixth
B.C.)
still
retained its ancient value as
u and that
the aspirate was added to show that the sound was not
voiced but breathed as in the Corcyrean
FH
for p ( 119).
But as V was used for both the consonant u and the vowel u,
F came to be used alone with its modern value. It is
contended by many authorities that the other group made
its new symbol for / from the second member of the group
FH
at a time
when
had
still its
ancient closed form 3,
stonemason might readily alter the two

rectangles into two diamond-shaped or circular figures^.
The main argument for deriving even the Latin
607.
alphabet from the Chalcidic through the intermediate stage
of the Etruscan, is the confusion in symbols between breathed
and voiced stops, which Etruscan did not distinguish. The
balance of evidence is against this theory, though it would explain how the Greek rounded y (C) came to have in Latin
an
for
artistic
In Umbrian this closed
the shape
0.
is
retained with
its
usual value in

the same value as
and to oust
forms stereotyped in the
it
from
all
453
except a few
official style.
The Umbrian, Oscan and Faliscan alphabets show

more numerous traces of Etruscan influence.
608.
similar but
Faliscan like Etruscan has no symbol for B.
no D;
Etruscan had
and the Oscan fonn q is

obviously a restoration from the form for r with which the
form for d had become confused. A still more important
resemblance to Etruscan is that neither Oscan nor Umbrian
has a symbol for n originally, V representing both original o
and original a sounds. At a later period O.scan distinguished
forms by placing a dot between the arms of the V; V- I*
neither has Umbrian,
also distinguished i-sounds
separate symbol
by a
further symbols
used to denote a peculiar pronunciation of original d
'^
(1)
which came from original
Umbrian has two
\- 1.
is represented in Umbrian monuments written in the

Latin alphabet by rs, and (2) j, used for the palatal pro-
which
nunciation of k before
writing by
and
They
s.
are
and
now
which
is
represented in Latin
often transliterated
by
f or
ct,
f.
The symbols
609.
for the aspirates
the Italic alphabets although
Some
of the
from them;
as
i,
CD
with
were not required by
Umbrian keeps
6 in the form
Roman numeral symbols were however
M = 1000,
many
O.
derived
which appears in early inscriptions
variants produced by opening the side
curves^, there can be little doubt is 0, while half the symbol

(
d)
is
used for 500.
was the
earlier
We may
gather from Etruscan that
form out of which the Latin C = 100 developed
These symbols when they appear in small type ai'e generally

rf, I.
They are represented with greater clearness by u, 1,
the latter introduced by Mommsen, the former by Prof. E. S.
^
printed
Conway.
- The symbol M, according to Mommsen [Hermes xxii.
p. 601),
is used by the Eomans only as an abbreviation for mille, milia,
never as a number. Hence it is a mistake to write MM = 2000.
454
APPENDIX.
by assimilation to the initial letter of centum when the

original value was forgotten.
The Chalcidic Xi '^'iz- ^, had its
= 10
made horizontal J_ L and was used for 50.
found in Etruscan, Umbrian and Osoan as well as Latin;
whether it was the Chalcidic | as a letter, :c is found only in
side limbs
is
Latin and Faliscan

is
is
Whatever
uncertain.
obviously meant for the half of
it.
its origin
B.
The Greek
Dialects.
[The chief collections of materials are the volumes of the

Corpus Inscriptionum Oraecarmn, the
collection
scriptions edited by CoUitz with the help of
and
unfinished
still
Cauer's
schriften),
(Sammlung
Delectus
der
many
of
griechischen
Inscriptionum
dialect
in-
other scholars
Dialekt-In-
Graecarum propter
and Bechtel's Inschriften des

most important treatises
may be mentioned (1) Meister's Die griechischen Dialekte, of
which two volumes founded on Ahrens' treatise De Graecae
linguae Dialectis have appeared, the first (1882) containing
dialectum
memorabilium^,
ionischen
Dialehtes.
1883
Among
the
Aeolio (as defined in 621), the second (1889), Elean, Arcadian
Hoffmann's Die griechischen Dialekte (2 vols.,

more fully the same ground except
Elean and Boeotian; (3) H. W. Smyth's The Greek Dialects (Ionic
only), 1894.
A useful summarj' of the main facts of Doric
and Cyprian
(2)
1891, 1893), covering even
is
given in Boisacq's handy compilation, Les dialectes doriens,
1891.
North Greece are treated by H. W. Smyth

An excellent resumi of all the
445).
given in Pezzi's Lingua Greca Antica, 1888, to which I
The
{A. J. P.
dialects is
am much
610.
courage
dialects.
dialects of
vii.
pp.
421
indebted.]
The physical
features of Greece are such as to engrowth and maintenance of many separate

Lofty mountain ridges divide valley from valley,
the
thus rendering possible the existence of a large number of

small communities politically independent and each in fre-
quent
conflict with its nearest neighbours.
Separate societies
APPENDIX.
456
under one political government tend to become more homogeneous in language ; when a single society is broken into two
parts under different political governments the parts tend to
gTadually diverge in language as in institutions (cp. 64).
The racial origin of a people need not throw any
611.
upon the language
light
it
speaks, for
many
causes
ceptance of another.
The Norse
settlers
may
and the
in time to the loss of the ancestral language

in
lead
ac-
Normandy
adopted a dialect of French instead of their native tongue;

after their settlement in
England they gradually resigned
their French in favour of English.
English
itself is
encroach-
ing more and more upon the area in which Keltic dialects
used to be spoken. It is therefore clear that a people may

remain ethnologically almost pure and yet from political
circumstances or self-interest change its language.
But
although history will not supply a trustworthy key to the
facts
of language,
nevertheless history and language will
frequently corroborate one another.
The Greeks of the Peloponnese and of Phthiotis

who formed the expedition to Troy are known
Homer as Achaeans. The peoj^les who play a great part
612.
Thessaly
later times, Dorians, Aeolians, Ionians,-are to
more than names.
Homer
According to Greek tradition,
it
in
to
in
little
was some
eighty years after the Trojan war that the Peloponnese was
invaded and conquered by a people from the north or norththe Dorians.

The invaders, like the Normans in
west
England, established themselves as a conquering caste, but in

the countries under their authority the conquered Achaeans
still
survived partly as freemen without political rights, partly
According to Herodotus (viii. 73) the people in the

the Arcadians had remained in
their mountain fastnesses undisturbed by this invasion.
In
Arcadia then, if anywhere, we may look for the dialect of the
ancient Achaeans. Cyprus was colonised from the Peloponnese and more especially from Arcadia, and inscriptions show
the dialects to be closely akin. The branch of the race settled
in Phthiotis also spread eastward to Asia ilinor, and we find
as slaves.
centre of the Peloponnese
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
457
two great
dialect areas with a form of language very similar,

Thessaly in Northern Greece and Aeolis in the north-
viz.
west of Asia Minor.
In Boeotia a similar dialect
crossed, however, with
many
Doric peculiarities.
is
found,
Ancient
legend hints at some such mixture by a story that the
Boeotians dislodged from Arne in Thessaly poured down into

the Cadmeian land. These Boeotians must have been Dorians,
and Doris the land from which they
derive their
name
is
in
the heart of the mountainous region between Thessaly and

Boeotia.
We might therefore expect to find resemblances
between the dialects of North-west Greece and those of the
Dorians of the Peloponnese. Our documents, however, leave
us with a long gap of some centuries between the time of the

legendary separation of the Peloponnesian Dorians from the
northern Dorians and existing records. There was no direct
communication between the tribes thus separated and hence

many differences between the dialects of North-west Greece
and of the Peloponnese have had time to grow up. So great
are these difl'erences that some of the best authorities separate
these dialects into two distinct groups. The northern Eleans
according to Herodotus were Aetolians and therefore members
broken off at a later time from the main stock which remained to the north of the Gulf of Corinth.
The Athenians boasted that they and their ancestors had
lived through all time in Attica.
They were known as
lonians and identified themselves in origin with tribes living
in Euboea, in some of the islands and in a large district on
the coast of Asia Minor.
There are thus three main
613.
stocks,
(i)
the Achaean,
consisting of Arcadians and Cyprians on the one
hand and
Aeoliaus of Asia Minor and Lesbos, Thessalians and Boeotians
on the other,
(partly)
(ii)
the Dorian, originally resident north
of the Gulf of Corinth but most powerfully represented by its
warlike emigrants to Sparta, Argolis and Corinth, and (iii) the

These stocks in process of time sent out off-
Attic-Ionic.
shoots which planted the shores of the Black Sea, the north
coast of
Africa
and the western Mediterranean on the
458
APPENDIX.
European
numerous
side with
colonies,
some as Cumae
in
Italy dating back to the legendary era soon after the Trojan
war, others as Amphipolis in Thrace or Thurii in Southern

Italy belonging to the middle of the historical period.
For knowledge of any dialect we are indebted to

all of which in some cases may not be available.
These sources are (i) literature, (ii) grammarians and lexicographers, (iii) inscriptions.
Neither of the first two sources
614.
three sources,
can be trusted by
printing,
when
itself.
scribes
For
had
to
()
before the invention of
copy the works of authors,
there was a constant liability to error in matters of dialect,

since the scribe
own
his
him
was
likely to write inadvertently the forms of
dialect in place of those in the manuscript before
or to mistake the reading of forms with which he
not familiar.
When
was
a manuscript thus incorrectly written
was itself copied, the number of errors in matters of dialect

was likely to be greatly increased. Hence sometimes, as in
some works of Archimedes the Syracusan mathematician, the
almost total disappearance of the dialectical element; hence
too the occasional occurrence of two widely divergent copies
same work. For example, the treatise by Ocellus

Lucanus De Rerum Natura is preserved in Attic, although
Stobaeus quotes it in Doric. Owing to the same cause the
exact treatment of Ionic in the hands of Herodotus is still to
some extent a matter of dispute, the manuscripts varying
greatly as to the contraction of vowels and the like.
615.
(b) There is however a more subtle source of error.
Much of the Greek dialect literature is in poetry, and it is
of the
hard to tell in many cases how far corruption of dialect is

due to the poet himself or to his transcriber. A later Greek
poet might be reasonably expected to be influenced by
Homeric diction
he might use a borrowed word which

or, even though well acquainted with
the dialect, he might use a conventional form which was not
;
suited his verse better
actually spoken^.
That the
dialect
writing of Theocritus
To take a modern instance, Burns does not write pure

Scotch although born and bred a Sootohman. Even in what
'
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

was conventional
ia
admitted by every one
459
how
far the early
how far
the
no more trustworthy,
for
writers of lyrics use a conventional language and

dialect of their native cities, is a vexed question.
The grammarians
616.
are
they often worked on insufficient data and put down forms

as belonging to particular dialects without certain evidence.
The works of the ancient grammarians, moreover, are subject

same dangers in copying as works of literature. The
to the
only trustworthy evidence to be obtained with regard to any
from the records of the dialect engraved on some

permanent material, such as stone or metal, by the people
themselves and still preserved. Even here the material at
our disposal is not always to be relied on and the genuineness, authenticity and decipherment of inscriptions must be
investigated by the canons according to which such matters
dialect is
are tested in the case of literar}' works.
Arcadian.
Our information regarding
617.
this dialect is derived
from (i) inscriptions, (ii) glosses containing Arcadian words.

Most of the inscriptions in the dialect are short or consist
merely of proper names. From Tegea there are two longer
inscriptions, one dealing with a building contract first published in 1860, the other regarding the right to pasture in
the neighbourhood of the temple of Athena Alea
first pubjudge by the alphabet, which

in the transition stage between the native and the Ionic
lished in 1888.
is
alphabet,
is
The
latter to
somewhat
older, belonging
probably to the early
might be supposed his most characteristieally national poem

(Scots wha hae, of these three words wha and hae are only
conventional changes of English words, for Scotch uses not the
interrogative toho but that as the relative,
ends in
-s,
and the plural
of have
the genuine Scotch phonetically written really being
Scots 'at hiz.
APPENDIX.
460
though written
al-
more characterspace and part of it is
in the Ionic alphabet presents
of the alphabet in less
istic features
former, however,
The
part of the fourth century B.C.
therefore given here.
The main
618.
which
it
(a)
i.
characteristics
of the dialect
most of
shares with Cyprian are these

in the preposition
-K!-
following consonant
(b)
becomes
-vTi.
i^
is
reduced to
before
eirdorrjpes.
which remains
-viri.
Cp.
Kpivwvai.
iepa/i-
vapôvuL dat. pi.
Original J
(c)
tion of
which
is
uncertain
is
represented by f and 5 the pronunciaîpedpov, iaSiWoyres. Cp. Attic p6.pa.8:
pov, /SdXXovTcs.
also
before
(d)
(e)
Final
becomes
became
became
in the preposition
cnrij.
The
Iv.
old genitive ending ao
av.
-01
(/)
appears for
-at in
the 3rd sing, middle
Spitzer's explanation of -roi as influenced
etc.
flvriToi.
by ordinary secondary
ending seems most probable.
has
Some stems in -tjs show a strong form of the root

where Attic has the weak Sw-kp^tt/s, while Attic Su-k/kxt?;!
(a)
ii.
syllable
-J--.
Stems in
(6)
(
= ie/)eus),
(c)
-tjs,
The
fern. (T-stems
'
contracting
conjugation, which
()
and
and
is
iep^s
(cp. 50).
-a,
Homeric
followed through analogy by the
oidav, etc.
The
(d)
-ij
of masculine stems in
old genitive
'ArpeiSao, appears as -av
dTTi)
whether -s-stems or -eu-stems as
are inflected like stems in
is
'
verbs in
doi,
4oi,
6u are of the
/j.i.-
perhaps more original than the -w type
The locative has taken the place of the dative Ipyoi..

accompany the locative, iTr-h = i7ri^ takes the genitive,
:
c|
iros=*7roT-s
and
Iv
take both locative and accusative (cp. Latin
in).
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
av
1 K
pyoLy
TL yivrjroL rots
epyajvats vols Iv rot avrol
nepl to pyov aTTv4o-{6)<o
oa-a
Tov ddiKivra Iv dfxepais
KvpLOv
(rdoTrjpSj
fie
koI cfn &y KpLvojvo-t
fit]-
Ei
(rT(o.
o aîKr]p.vos
fie
drrv rai hv ro dhi-
Tpia-\y
vcrrepov
-KTjfia y4vJ]T0i,
ol
461
7r6\ep,os fim-
fie
-K<oAv<ri Tt Tojv epycov tcov icrdodivTwv ^ t(ov

rjpyao-fxevQyv tl (pdcpai,
TL
fiet
ei
(c*
yiveaBav
Slv
fie'arot
epyois,
ol rpiaKau-iot
7rdXe/xo? rjvat 6
o-<pLS
tl(s)
fie'
py<ovr]<Tas
TO av XeXa^TjKas Tvyxavq^
et
KOT
-TOi
el
fie
Tiva rpoirov
av
o(rat
rw
d(l>0}<Td(o
~o-vvia-TaTOi tois eVfido-etrt tcov
ol eVSoTjJpes',
e-
fj
aTrvBoas [t]6 dpyvpLOv,
&v K\fv<ovo-t ol a-doTrjpS,
Ka)Xv[a)]i'
lyKe-)(T)pr]Koi toIs
/X17
7rdXe/xo? fitaKOoXwot,
fie
Stayi'di/rco,
trrparayoi TToaoBop. 7ro4vT<o,
fie
epyOy Xa(jivpo7r<o\iov eovTos kutv ras
-<j>6opK0iis TO.
ttoKlos' el
ot
Et
epymv
(pdrjpcov^
fie'arot
trtêty
pyo>
S'
a[y] rts
rj
Xvp-alvr)-
em-
âfiLovroy
Ka\
âp.iaL,
dyKapvo-[ar6v^T(o Iv iTriKpKTLv Ka\ lvay6vT(o

Iv
8iKaa-TT]piov TO yiv6fjLvov Tol TrXrjdl rds
M17 â-T(o
âfjLiav.
TrX4ov
dvo eVi
T}
firjde
fie
Koivdvas yevia-Qai
rav epyatv
fjLrjdevl
el
fie
fXTj^
d<^Xe''ra)
Kaa-ros irevr-qKOVTa dap^fxds- 7rXaa(d)(T6(ov
be ol aXiao'Tai' lp.(f>aLVv
Tas âftiav.
r)p,'i<T(TOL
irXiov
Kar
fiuo
T)
el fie
epya
7rapeTd^(ovo-i
to.
Totv
rrXedz'a)!'
(vol.
6.irvUa$, ptc. of aorist
ace.
pi.
p4<7T
tj
Kal et k* av [rjis
Tciiv
01
daploâitov
dXiacrTa[i]
â^ta)[o-](^)a)
epyoav KaTV
p^va
peaT av
irXeova.
Hoffmann's text
II. viii. 608,
fie
Upwv
otlvi ap prj
opoOvpabov navTeSy
TrevTTjKOVTa 8ap^pals,
ra epya
ôXop-evov eVi rot
TOfi
tcov
)(r}
rtra Tporrovy
KaO cKaaTov
fie
Kara aura
av,
cp.
i.
p. 25).
Cp. Collitz' D.I. No. 1222.
from stem seen in Cypr. Sofivat. atpeis,

Thessal. ^4(nrodt, Homeric fiâip' rjoO^
where the right reading
is
possibly
/j.4cnr'.
462
APPENDIX.
Cyprian.
As already mentioned, the Cyprian inscriptions are
619.
written not in the Greek alphabet but in a cuneiform syllabary.
This syllabary was first interpreted by George Smith in 1871.
material has been collected and many
German, have advanced the reading and
interpretation of the monuments. The lack of any distinction
between breathed stops, voiced stops and aspirates, the disappearance of nasals in consonant combinations, and the
Since then
much more
scholars, mostly
difficulty
with a syllabic notation of indicating a combination
of consonants,
make the reading of Cyprian inscriptions an

Compare the following symbols and their
intricate puzzle.
interpretation
ta se te
Tas
e vii
ta se
pa pi a
f/XL
rds
Hatpial^s]
6fco
sa ta sa ho ra
mi' to sa
Sratrayopav
ifu
ta sa to ro
ra
STa<rd{u)SpQi.
The passage transcribed on the opposite page
is
on a
bronze plate engraved on both sides which was found at
Cyprian inscription.
It is the longest
Edalion.
by Meister about 389
by Hoffmann about 449
B.C.,
It is dated
B.C.
620. ! Cyprian resembles Arcadian in all characteristic

sounds except that ^ does not change to is before consonants
:
<=P-
^x{'')fi- (or
possibly
fxw('')o-i)>
(c) fas
= Attie
yijs,
(d) to{v)(n
There is no
( = *e(cr)o('Ti),
() yivoiTv and many proper names.
example of a middle optative ending in -toi.. Cyprian has however other peculiarities which are not shared by Arcadian.
(a)
glide
Between
84)
and
UaTripap,
change in eifprp-dcarv for

(6)
and a following vowel it indicates the

= u)affc. There is a converse
e/p
did not change to
interchanges with
(c)
i;
KaTcaKe{'f{
it
as in Attic, for in the glosses
it
tôxo^^/ivxo!.
Such forms as pa
ta for Trdvra
vowel was nasalised as in French.
seem
to
show that the
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

(l)''Ore Ta{v) tttoXlv 'HfiaXtoi/ KariFopyov
l{v)
463
MaSoi
kcls KeTLTJFes,
îXoKvirpoiv feVet rat 'Opaa-ay6\pavj âa-tXevs 2rao-i-
Tfot
KVTTpos KQs d TTToXis ^HSaXi^/cff civcayov Ôva(Tikov rov *Ovaa'i'

KV7r\p<ov Tov Ijarrjpav Kas rbs KaaiyvTjTos Ijaa-Oat tos d{v)0po)7ros
Tos l{v) Tat fidxat iKlfxafxevos avev p,io-6afV Kas nai cvFpr}Td<TaTv
{âa-tXevs icds
d tttoKls
rd
fiLo-Oatv Ko. d(v)TL
*0va(TL\\\(OL
Kas vols Kaa-iyvrjTOLs d{v)r\
v^r}pa)v hoFivai e^ Ton
Kas e^ rat tttoKlFl dpyvpct>{v) Td\\avTov'\

vv
dpyvpojv
TQ>
d(i/)ri
rw
rwfie
rd[Xai'roz/]*
tS>
Folkcoi tcol âcriX^Fos
BvFdvoi
rj
TdKd{v)T(i>v (SaaiXevs Kas
TTToKis Ôvaa-iXan Kas tols KaailyvrjTois aTTv rat ^di rat âo-iXrjFos
rd
l{v) tS>
Twi *AXa(/i.j7rpi/drat t6{v)
Iptovi
'
eXct t6{v) )(pav6iivov

7rio(i')ra
rj
TOS
top
rravoiviov^ vFcus ^di/, dreXT/i'*
7rtt(v)ra e)(v
|]
Ôvd(TtXov
;^w/30I'
Ka<Tiyvr}Tos
t]
l{v) tS>l
Kas rd Tp)(Pija Ta
0(y)Ka{v)TOs aXf<D
if
k4
arts
tos naldas Tai{v) Traidoiv tojv
*Ova(riKii7rp(ov
opv^T],
dpyvpov
oi'fwt,
Kas tols
dpyvp<ii{v) 7r[X4KFas]
rj
8oiKoi vv
e^ opv^rj, Ide
boFivai d{y)T\ rd
7re[Xe'Kefaff]
||||
âaiXevs Kas d tttoXis Ovac'i
(2) -Xo)i d(i')ri
ra dpyvpa>{y)
rcoBe
dnv
ray
5i[^/>a;(/ia]
rov
Kas
iFprfrdaaTV
v)(r}p(0Vj
||
a'tXayv,
o e^
Trat,
naKn
toIs
17
rd[Xai/rov]-
avev rw(i') Kaatyvrjrtov tcov
âa-tXv\\s Kas a TrroXts
Xiay
/cao'tyv)7'roi|s'
Td[XavTov^
dpyvpa){v)
rd(i/)S6'
Ovao-iXat
rwtSe
â)p(OL
ra)i
TretVet ÔvaaiX(oi
fxiaOav
*H[5d-
rat fat rdt (SatnXijFos rd
l(v) MaXai/i?*a|t rat Trebijai t6{v) )(a>pov t6{v) xp^^'^Cîxevov ÂfXT^vija
Ta 7rtd(v)ra
oXfo), Kas TdTp\)(yiJa
t6{v) p6Fo(v)
7-0(1^)
Apvfiiov Kas
Kas t6(v) KdiTOV tov

'App,dvvs
rf)(
7rd(i')ra,
l{v) '2lp.{p)ibos
aXF<Oj
top
7r6\\s
Tas *A6dvas,
dpovpa\L, t6(v) Atfet'ê/xi? o
Troeôfxevov
to(i^)
T6(r) Troeôixcvov ttos
Upr^F'ijav
ttos
Uacayopalv rov
Ôvaa-ayopavy Kas rd Tep^vija rd e7rid(i')ra 7rd(i/)ra eêv iravcovios

vlFcus Cdvf aTeX^'a l6{v)Ta'
'Ovao-iXcop i^ rdt fdt rdtSe
i^ opv^r],
TTfiVft 'Oi/atrt'Xtat
dpyvp(i3\v 7re[Xe'Kef as]

(5c Td(v)
rj
1 1 1
k4 <ns
OvdatXov
rj
ros traldas tos
i^ Tan Kdntoi rwtSf e^ opv^rjj

rj
rols
Traicrl
7re[XeKe/dff]
St'[5pa;^/ia]
ddXTOv Td{v)dj rd Fîrija rdhe IvaXaXto'p.iva,
Kds d TTToXts KaTediJav

'HlSaXtov, crvv opKOis
l{v)
fxr]
tjjSe,
tov cipyvpov rd(v)6e"

*H[5dXta]'
âaiXevs
j
Td{v) 6l6v Tav Âddvav rdv Trep'
Xvaat rds FpTjTas Tatrde vFals ^dv.

\
"Otti
(ris
K Tas Fp^Tas
rdade
Xvar),
dvocrija
Fol yivoirv Tas
464
APPENDIX.
dl\av = a\\oii'
(d)
assimilation of
Greek
The
(a)
(as
(6)
tjâTTJpav (cp.
after
the separation of the
genitive singular of -o-stems at
Edalion) was in
-p is
shows that the
correctly interpreted
if
was completed
Arcadian has dWoi.
dialects.
ii.
towns
-li-
-wi/.
The
origin of the
some Cyprian
-k is
not
clear.
added after the sonant nasal in accusatives
Hom.
iriTrip)
and
like
a.{v)Spla(v)Tav,
Aeolic.
621.
dialects,
To Aeolic used
(1)
in its widest sense
belong three
the dialect of Thessaly except Phthiotis which
through Doric influence has become since the Homeric period

akin to the dialects of North-west Greece, (2) the dialect of
Lesbos and of the coast of Asia Minor adjoining,
dialect of Boeotia.
neighbourhood
is
Of the three the
(3)
dialect of Lesbos
the
and
the purest because, like that of Cyprus,
its
it
was brought less into contact with other dialects. Thessaly

was ruled by a few noble families apparently of Dorian origin
who lived in feudal state, while the earlier inhabitants had
sunk to the level of serfs and were called Penestae. In
Boeotian there is a much larger Dorian element.
The sources for Thessaliao are inscriptions and a
622.
few statements of Grammarians. For Lesbian and Asiatic
Aeolic there
is
a large number of inscriptions,
many fragments
by Sappho and Alcaeus^ and a considerable

amount of grammatical literature. For Boeotian the most
important source is the inscriptions. There are also some
fragments of the poetess Coriuna. The grammarians frequently confuse Boeotian with the Aeolic of Lesbos. The
Boeotian of Aristophanes {Acharnians 860 ft.) and of other
comic poets was probably never correct and has been further
corrupted in transmission by the scribes.
of lyric poetry
The
Aeolic of Theocritus and of Balbilla the learned com-
panion of Hadrian's Empress
is
trustworthy evidence for the dialect.
a literary imitation
and not
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

Kf
fay
II
Kas ros Kanos roo-Se
TcicrSf
naiSav
t5>(v)
HdaKiijFi
na\'i8fs
ol
Kds = Kal.
threshing-floor (H.).
tain,
text (vol.
iK/m/iii'os (aoc. pi.)
probably
'OvamKvnpwv nalSes
eô(v)<n alFel,
'{v)
ot
lpS>vi
tS>
K.ai
rmi
i<t>{v)(TL.
Hoffmann's
Xffpou,
oi
465
perhaps
"ud
Cp. D.
p. 69).
= <l>VTd.
Trdcrei = Attic
faJ
717.
part,
forms
Trai (enclitic particle), oVi, ai.^
No. 60.
aXfoi
= ein(acc.)
meaning uncer-
vFais âv
foaXaXKr/iî-a perf.
reitrei.
from ehaklveiv 'written thereon.'
pass.
I.
ixflP'^" (gen. fern.
'hit.'
va-repos.
T^px''i-jci
for ever.'
'
op.
i.
= "!) may
The pronominal
be noticed.
Here as in other inscriptions curved brackets indicate
[N.B.
doubtful or worn letters, square brackets letters illegible or lost
and
restored by the editor.]
The
(i.
following passage from Fick's edition of the Iliad
16)
is
an attempted restoration of the Aeolio of the

Fick has now published a
(.see 650).
Homeric period
slightly diiferent recension in B. B. xxi. p. 23

yiavLv ft5e, Bia, TlriXrfiaba
oWofiivaVy &
iroWats
ol(avoia'l
tS
'A;âiota''
'
ciXye
Afidt
edrjKe,
7rpoiayj/i
avTOis de FX<opi(i tV)^ kvv<t<ti,
7Jpd>atv,
e^
fivpi
d^l(pdip.ots ylrv)(ats
Tf naifTL^ Atos 5'eVeX7;ero /3oXXa,
Ta np^ra
dr]
fiiforarai'
eplaavTe
*ATpetSas Tf Fdva^ avdpcov koI dlos

Tis
Aaras
ff.
A)(^L\rjos
rap
koi Aids vIos.
vov(T(rov
A)^lKX(vs,
cr0<ue Qecav eptbt o-vv^-que iidxêadai;
yap ârrikqi
x,oXa>6eis
dvd aTpdrov apae KaKavy oXeKovro
fie
\doit
oivveKa Tov Xpvai^v dTLna(Te aparrjpa
'ATpftdas'
XufTo/xevos re
yap rj\6e $6ais eVl vdas Aâloiv

dvyarpa (pepcov r anepeao't anoiva^
x^P^^ FeKa/3oXa) AmroWoivos

aKdnTpioi Ka\ FXltra-eTO navTas AxatoiSy
CTTfTTTraT^ e;^wv eV
Xpvo-eatt av
'Arpetda 6e p.d\i(TTa 8ia, KotrjirjTope \daiv.
G. P.
30
appendix.
466
Thessalian.
1.
The
623.
to a
document
extract given
of Philip V.
letter
a reply of the people of Larissa

king of Macedon. The original
is
published in 1882
first
of considerable length,
is
containing two letters of the king and two replies as well as a

long
The date
of signatories at the end.
list
second
Philip's
alphabet
which was written
letter,
The
is Ionic.
is
B.C.
older inscriptions are
soon after
214.
much
In this inscription the king's letters are in the
The
smaller.
koivt],
the
replies in the local dialect.

i.
In the 3rd
(a)
pi.
middle
-vto
appears as -vdo
iyhovdo
(cp. Boeotian).
[h)
Original o (w) appears as ou
[c]
Original
(d)
at
((?)
appears
{ij)
icra^<r6eiv
fi
ei
âcrtXeios,
appears
as
-ei
oiis,
XP^^'^^^^^^
îWeirci
^(reffdat).
Final a appears as
iSovKaeix (final
x^P-^f iravrovv^
as
terminations
verb
in
= /3oi5X77Tat),
in 5i4 [did)
cp. 3rd pi. ivecp^vlaaoev,
for v by assimilation before /ua-)
with Boeotian
ieiav.
k(s
(/)
= Attic
g-sound survived
like that
are
liquids
As
are declined
(c)
doubled:
Compare
'
child.'
Kpefvefiev
Kvppov
All infinitives
(a)
(6)
the Greek dialects separated with a sound
Instead of compensatory lengthening as in Attic, nasals
= d7ro(rTCiX-).
ii.
According to Hoffmann the palatalized
Tis.
beginning the English
(g)
and
till
= Kpli>eiv),
dTnxrrAXacros
= *Kvpipv.
end in
-v
a demonstrative 6-ce
-.
SedSaOav,
= Attic
Soe,
efxp.ey.
but both elements
Todi/veow.
Instead of the genitive the locative
is
used in o-stems
It seems to occur also

(d)
p.a (perhaps = ''mg) is used =5^.
with a variant grade in ixiawoSi { = lui$), which is probably to be
analysed into ixea-iroS-t, -jroi being rather the pronoun (Lat. quod)
than the same stem as in veid
etc.

THE GREEK DIALECTS.
ra ckto
TLavdfXfjLOL
^CkiTTTTOi Tol
Tayos
'AptoTWooff,
aVTOVy
âcTtXelos
rav ttoXlv,
K.a\
dr rds
ous
TTOKKL
KOi
&
nifxâvros ttot tos
ypa/J./xara
UeTpalos koI AvdyKiTTTros
St[e]Kt
TToXlS Sie TO? TToXe/XOS" TTO-
dflfliovv
fxecnrodi.
ovv koI
ap,p.
ct roT irapeovTos Kpevvifiev '\lAa(pi^do-BLv
TroXiTcvfiaTos,
dp.pi,
nap
aîos tol
7r LVOL(Tovfxev
K.a\
iyivovdoj V(f>avt(T(rov
7rpe(.o"/3[ei]as'
-TcBeero ttXclovovv tovv KaTotKeLaovTovv
iripos
iKaSt (rvvKkcLTOS
ctt
dyopapofXVTOvv tovv rayovv ndv-
yvo}XvaSy
-Tovv,
467
K Tols KaT0LKevT(TO-i TTap
o({i)?
ner^[a-]
dp-fjie
aXXovv *EX[\]avouv doOcl d TroXtreta
'Xovv Kol TOVV
Toiveos
yap (TVVTeXeorOevTos nal avvixevvavTovv ndv-Tovv
8l
Ta
(PiXdvOpovTra
Xpt(TLp.ovv
rav ôvpav jjloKXov eêpyaadeio-icrOeiv
nep Tovvveovv, <aT
TT patrae p.ev
eypaê,
-(TtXevs
kol
nal TOVV (iXXovv

-Tetav
to.
-/i6f
TToias K
KOTT
to.
ovypd-^Giv avTo
'lav
fiv
îXXcLTCf TO
iv
Tdv
dr ras = d7rd
yivOetrei
kcll
TifMLa vtrapxip-cv^
(pvXds eXofxi-
tovc Kvppov
p.d *^d<pLcrp.a
dvas Ka\
to.
owiMara
KaT6ijj.iv
p.a
rdv ovaXav^ kls kc yt-
d6p.V.
ttjs,
iT Toi
(vol.
e'7rl
ii.
yi-vv-(xai,
p. 21).
tov.
Hesychius has Adcav'
from
afxpe XleTuaXovv
TO Upov Tol 'AttXcOi/o? toI KepdoLOtj Tap.
Hoffmann's text
take, for
Trap
Xoirra
iv o-TaXXas Xidtas
ahXav iv Tav aKponoXiv

-vveiTci^
/3a-
iravTos ^povoi Kal tos Tap-las cVSd-
TOVV 7roXLToypa<l)L04vTOvv Kal

Tap,
ttoXi Kot
to,
iy^dtpto-Tst to. TroXiTcia
''EXXdvovv dedoaBctv Tav ttoXl-
Ka\ avTols Ka\ iayovois Ka\
e/A[/A]ev
KaToiK4vT(T(TL
toI^s
avTols rrdvTa, o(T<TaiTp Aao-aiotSy

-voL^ eKdcTov,
aXXa re TroXXa tovv
Tmreio-Teiv
koI e(a)uro{i koX
etrcrecrdeiv
= ylyvofia.L
tV
Cp. D.
Aacat'ois
Adpiaav,
I.
No. 345.
apparently no mis6vdXav
= dvdXo)fMt..
in meaning.
302

APPENDIX.
468
Lesbian and Aeolic of Asia Minor.
2.
None
624.
of the inscriptions are very old, the earliest of
any length the dates of which can be ascertained belonging to

the beginning of the 4th century B.C. Both inscriptions
given here probably belong to the end of the 3rd century B.C.
The two most marked characteristics of genuine Aeolic
and (b) xplKuKns. Unlike other Greek dialects
i.
are (a) âpvT6vrj(n!
Aeolic throws back the accent in all words (except prepositions
and conjunctions) as far from the last syllable as it will go.

Hence atfrotfrt, Ipos (Attic ie/>6s), eiralvriaat,, 6\iyo^, rerdy/xefos etc.,
every word being barytone, for the long monosyllables oxytone in
The
ZeCs, tttuI, etc.
other dialects are here circumflexed
:
second point 'f/lXams is the total loss of the spiritus asper, a loss
which, however, is equally certain for the Ionic of Asia Minor.
The Digamma
(c)
not found in inscriptions after the
is
adoption of the Ionic alphabet. It seems, however, to have disappeared early in the middle of words but had, to judge from the
grammarians, survived
f)6.K-n,
Pplâ = plâ etc.
initially, /appearing as (3: /SpdKeii = Attic

"When a consonant followed, f passed into
a diphthong with the previous vowel:
The grammarians
(d)
Lesbian, a statement which
5et/u
fact that the
is
= *X^P^")
Kplvvio,
assimilated: ^êvva,
hut
^pcrev
was
(pdevvos,
dfa77AXaj, x^PP^^
= *Sev<T-u),
Lesbian
difierent
by -ss- in Latin transliterations
Nasals and liquids are doubled
(e)
L,
us that f was written cr5- in

not borne out by inscriptions, and
which seems to point only to the
tr,
5ôi
tell
is
classical Attic pronunciation of f ( 118)

later value represented
= Attic
he/xfj,a,^
a.fj.fj.s,
= *'X^P!'^^^
like the
from
its
atticisso etc.
when another consonant

^(tt^Wu, x^PP^^ 'hands'
x^^^ô' (cp* Attic
x^^ô')
>
'worse'); îvvo^, irippara
(Horn. irelpaTa = -pF-).
yf
(/) The later assimilation of final -vs and non-original

produces in the preceding syllable a pseudo-diphthong ai, ei,
01
Tais 7pd0ais (ace. pi.), eis prep, very frequent
(ace.
pi.);
nom. masc. of
particiijles
=-nts:
= *>-$),
aKovuais,
ffeois
Selxffeis.
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
Decree of Mytilene
(1)
Ilfpi
oi>v
(TTporayoL ttpotlQckti
ol
tt po(TTaâi(ras
nap tw
[d]7rayyeXXota"t kol Sdy/za 7JviK.av

[7r]fpl
Tas otKT/toraros' Kal ras (ptXtas,
navra xpovov
Tov
{)ls
P''f]T
[-/xjco 7ralvT]<TaL
bdfxov TOV
firjTe
TToXtos",
wff
Atr[a>Xa>i/]
diafj.v[(ji(TL]
AirwXcot'
/î?[Te]
'^vTikr^vdav n\yrj\
dppvcnov
p-rjTe
e'/KXijfjt.a fjLrjdev
npos
[*AjLt-]
Sefio^ât
tw 8d-
K.al
kol iTrLp-iXeaBai avTcov rdv /3oX-
KOL Tols cip)(ais del Tois KadiaTap-ivais
d OLKrjLOTas d v7vdp)(OL(Ta npos AtrtoXot?
tov Trdvra ^povov^ kol
biajxivei els
Tas
ddfiov
(f)iXLa
Kar
oWo
kc
or/jorayof, otl evvocos eôitrt jrpos t6{v)
MvTLkrjvdcoVj
Kol TOV
a T
TT pos
kolvco
a>s
to koIvov twv AxTOikwv Koi ToXs irpoibpois Ka[i]
{ll)avTaK(ovTa tov
cos
firjTe
6pfidfji.vos
lJktvovlkov
-Xav
p.r)dis
kcli
KaTOLKTjVToyv iv hlrioKiai p,r)hiva
fj,7]8dfjLo6ev
[_-<!>
[ôX-]
T(a.)s
Kal ol TTpecrlSeis ol aTTOo-ToXevTcs els Airto[XiW]
[-XJas-
[rjoii/
469
eo'Tat
a'l
ke tivos fieucoirat
ovtoio'L Trdvra els to
bvvaTOV
'''(ajjjjj
7raLv{rj-)
-aai 5e Kal toIs Trpea-êis 'Evvop.ov Qijpiaov, McXe'da/iov 'A(/3)[ai/-]

-TCLov
Kal o-T(pdvccKraL avTOLs iv toIs Atovvo-loLai XP'^^Û'Î

KaT ovofiaros, on twv re 7ro[X]irai' Tivas T<tiv elôv-^
a'T(f>dvci)
(-r)ct)i'
UeXoTTOvdcw iXvTpaxravTO Kal 7rpaa{a)ov^
iv
iirl
to.
(^)K-]
-7refx(f>dv,
TrpoOvfiaiS.
To
be
tovto
\//'a0tcrjU,a
kqI
to
Trap
Atra)Xa)[i']
(y^pdyp-avTUs toI(s) iêrdo-rais
rw
ÂcKXaTrlo},
ft(s')
aToXXav
6ip.evat els to lpo\vj
tov Be Tafxlav tov eVl Tas dtoiKea-tos
So/j.-
-vaL avrotCTLy to re dvdXo}(Tav els rols alxp-aXoiTots Kal els tp[a]

hpd-)(_p-ais
TpiaKoa-lais *AXeâvbpetais,
[e'^fifMevai
els
ttoXlos o-(OT7}piav.
to de dvdXcofia
tovtIô"]
"Eypayp-e âeo-ras 'Evo-dp.eio{s).
Hoffmann's text
(vol. ii. p. 61).
470
iitl/OiS
APPENDIX.
{=
-o-VTs)
iraiira
(subj.).
participles
-ntili)
(fiaiai
= *7raj'rici),
= 0ao-f),
TporldeLdi, ôiai., ypd(ponui
(Attic iMd<Ta),
iJ.oi<Ta
and iu the
fern, of
yG\ai(Ta$, inrdpxotaa etc.
op=6.va (so too

has close relations with a and v
and in a few other words (cp.
(j-tp6tos = (7TpaT6s
Boeotian), but anv (as in Arcadian and elsewhere), om/Jia (Sj/oytta),
{g)
Thessalian),
but irpdravts
'
= Attic
irpdravis).
The 'contracting'
(a)
ii.
yi\aii
thou
smilest,'
-tjw,
The
(6)
appear
forms between the
dialects intermediate
in the types
verbs
aTe(pdvw/u.
naKripj.,
-p.i
as verbs
In
all
in
-pj.:
three Aeolic
and -a inflexion appear
-uu, which occur also in Phocian.
perfect participle is declined like the present (cp.
Homeric /ceKX^7oi'Tes)
and Boeotian.
ireirpeaîvKoiv.
This is true also of Thessalian
The 3rd person plural of the imperative in both active

(c)
and middle has a short vowel <pipovTov, iTnp.iXeaOoi'. Of this
peculiarity there is no satisfactory explanation.
:
(d)
l(TTi
and
drcri.
are both used as the 3rd plural of
Boeotian.
3.
While Boeotian
625.
it
has modified
Sp.fu.
offers great resistance to loss of F,
vowel system more than any other Greek

The Boeotian method of representing its sounds
dialect.
its
after the introduction of the Ionic alphabet enables the pro-
nunciation to be accurately ascertained.

i.
(a)
V remained u and did not as in Attic change to ii.
Hence on the introduction of the Ionic alphabet the pure u-sound
had to be represented as in French by ou (ov). it seems, as m
English, to have developed after dental stops, \ and v, a,
y (j) sound
before
it,
Ti.o&x.<^
iîxv)! IIoXioi5-|ei/os (IIoXii-).
for otherwise
The sound
(6)
(?;)
it
is
to explain
was pronounced very
sented in the Ionic alphabet by
ei
= at)
kt^,
such forms as
close
and
is
repre-
irarelp, ixeln, dvideiKc.
The diphthong ai is written at Tanagra

t),
whence ultimately ei (i.e. close e)
(c)
elsewhere
Aucraviae
difficult
'Htrxot^Xoy (AiVxi^Xos)
OeijSaos.
ae (op. Latin),
:
A-iaxpi^vSat
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

From Methymna
(2)
471
BaaiXevovTos IlToXf/iaim tm
IlToXc/iaiw Kal Bfpfvkas 6iav

fvfpyirav, dyada Tvâ, eVi TrpvTavios 'Apxâ i'Soî ra Koivm Tav
|
npcariav ewftSij npaÛXrjs iiXiva

naiaav iTTL\pCkeiav (notrja-aTO, Swcos
8fi';(l9s
al 6v(Ti.at <Tvlv]\Tf\eiTd(t(v Kai
otcri
enififXeia
Ka\l']
dfi'cof t<Sj/
$eaiv
rds
ical
narpat-
roif
eV nai<Ta yivrjrai.
rdv
e'/c
ISicov
dydda rvxa
x^^M''"''^'>s-
\xfX)<']aTvdpxasTav
5[e']|oicri
;(e'XXj;<n-vf
ravra mivra
fls
k( toIs
e';(o|pdy;o-c
e-^dcj)icr6af
|
enei Kf o-WTfXe?) d
Km
cKyovoia-i [Sipoipia]v
icat
I
tS
;;(f'XX?;(rrvs
avop.evai tS)
ailroK,
vois
on a
hihav avTia
Ipa,
a-dpKO nivrdlfivawv dw[y tS> /3]dos
Ta> 2a)[T?;pi], i'ms Kf â>a><ri, koi dva\Kapv<T<Triv
x^X^lo-rvs
crTfCpdvoi UpaîKXrjv
'iiXivw Kal eKy6-\
Kal <rdpKi Ôfia 7revTa\lp]vaia> (rvvTikia-iravTa
Sifiotpia
ipa Tols
Ai
Tols deoia-t ra
to.
BfOUTi Kar tov vopov koi ras ;(fX|X77cm;os fwtpeXrjdevTa
d^lo}S
Hoffmann
ii.
73
p.
D.
I.
No. 276.
From Orchomenus.
'
ApxovTOs eV 'Epxop.evv Swapxô
FeXaTiTj Me\voiTao
FeXaTijjv
KTj
TrdXi 'Ep|;(o/iei'i'a)i'-
TTJ
peL\v6s *AXaXKO/ievia), ev 5e
'ApxeXda peivos npara,
Trap Tas TroXtos to ddvetov dirav
nap rav
dfdoavdi
Xpovov
Trj
ttoKlv,
TrdXt
rv
dXX
e;ôi/reff
Ev/3ci)Xu TTivop.las
rds opoXoylas-
cj)cr67j
vop-oi\vav
ôvaiv
KTJ
EiJ/3ft)Xo7/
Tav lirntav
fie
ktj
tcov
|
Ka
TrXiova
ktj
(Tovv
x^^W^h^' "PX'
Qvvapxov dpxovra
Kar eviavrov
Ta t Kavpara
dnoypa(p4(T0ci3
p.t
II
'^^
nva
ktj
dcrap^
\\
rdi'
rjyaiv
kt]
'IcovOc
Tav yeypap\fXvo>v iv
imrvs
XP^^^
'Ano\ypd~
^'Epxopevlvs.
eKaoTov nap tov Tapiav
npo^drav
en
otto-
nondedopilvov
eLp.ev
nirrapa ôveaui
diaKa\TLr]s Fi-KaTi, Trpo^drvs (tovv rjyvs
6 fviavTos 6 perd
k^ ovt 6(j)fi\(T7] avTV
ndvTa nepl navTos
dir^x^
Fena
EvjiaXv
Kar rds opoXoylas rds reêtVaff
Qv\vdpxa> ripxovTos fieivos OeiXovdla,

ovoev
6/io|Xoy[i]a
eViSet KfKopUTTr] E4'j3a)||Xof
ktj
ktj
tov
Tav
to irXeldosttj
0"Ouy;â>-
pfiai.
*H 5e Ka
tis [7r|pdrTei]r7; to (vvopLov 'Ev(3<a\ov, d(êiXeV[[a)
A TrdJXty TQjv ''Epxopevlav dpyovpLa
[/xi/ay]
TrerTapaKOvra Eu^QwXv
KaS^ Kaa'\Tov iviavTov
ktj
tokov (^fperca 8pa\_xpds
Soijo]
rds pvds
472
APPENDIX.
Similarly
(d)
3rd century
= Xot7rd), f u/cias
but changed in
= Ttlau
close
(/)
{
i^cj)yj
Ko^paj-os, Aiowcroe
= oi)
of the
;
Xuira
preserved in root syllable
(oi
suffix).
ei
becomes
{=del).
-ijl
in
KifLiva^
I:
most
= KciiJ-iva%),
districts
Tiai
becomes very
did; for Beds.

is
represented by 3 initially, by 55 medially:
Sciie
subj.), ypa^fj-ariddovTos-
As
(g)
in Attic, -tt- appears
= 67r6cra)
As
ii.
suffixes;
where Ionic has -<xa-- TciTTapa.,

-tt- where Attic has -it- in
:
Boeotian however has
Attic T^TTapa.
OTrirra
and about the end
first oe
=okias), tOs /3oiwt0s
shall pay),
'
hence
becomes
The diphthong
(e)
(
oi
B.C. passes into v (u)
etc.
Thessalian
in
irapayLv^jidvdf)
-i>d-
appears instead of
= Trapayiypo:PTai),
3 pi. imperat. from fj)î6u) with the final
Doric inscriptions
626.
(a)
The
in verb
-vt-
da/xcwpdoj {=:
^7)fj.toui>Twi'
absent as frequently in
a.TroRd6ai>di (perfect).
three dialects agree in the following respects
Instead of giving the father's
name
in the genitive as
in Attic official designations (^yiixoadivrj^ Aripôirdhovs, etc.), they
frequently
it
make an
ends in -5as
adjective
from the
father's
name, except when
hence Mfaaiyeveios but AwcrKoptSao
but in Thes-
salian 'Hpa/cXe^Satos etc.

(b)
The
(c)
In the consonant stems, the dative plural ends in
perfect participle ends in
->/.
-eirin.
The Dialects of North- West Greece.

627.
Here may be distinguished
(1) Locrian, (2)
Phocian
including the dialect of Delphi, and (3) the dialect of Acarnania, of the Aenianes, of Aetolia, Epirus and Phthiotis.
628.
The
following points are characteristic of
three
all
groups
(a)
The consonant stems make
the analogy of
-o-
stems
d-ywi/ots, tlvols
(verb in -^w not -dw), ctôls TeTTdpoi^,
their dat. plural in

{
= Ti(Ti),
-ois
on
dpx^vToiSj viKedvTot^
Such datives are found
473
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

eKacTas Kara
[cKao-Jroi', ky) cfXTrpaKTOS eorco Ei'/3g)[Xu
[xe^va
II
&
TToXtff] TCOV ^'EpÔIXVL(t>V.
Cauer2, No. 298

TJyvs-=atyoLs, Attic al^t 'goats.'
D.
No. 489
I.
= ôji^rt,
t'oif^t
Attic
c.
wo-t.
From Tanagra.
apôvTos
NtKt'ao
npoêvQiS
ifxv Krj
nod
^êlas Ta>v
Ad(f)v7], avT(i>s
eTTTvao'iv
TToXejLtoj
ktj
\
\]
ky}
Tai/aypijoJi/
cVe-
ri)
Sa/nv
^LkoKpdrrjv
Â7roWo(f>dvrjvÂ0avob6TQ> AvrioeV-ydvo)?,
kt]
pKxoTcKiav
Ipdvas taxra?
KY)
Euvd/iQ) eXeê, 5e|5o;^^r^
evepyeras rds vroXto?
ZooiXo), O-qpap-ivY^v Aap-arpio},
FvKias
amovros,
fxeivos Â\a\K0fjiViQ3 fK[rT^]
\l/d(f)tdd EvKTelfxoiv, QiOTTOfXTTOS
ky)
kt} ip.v
Kara yav
kt]
avTvs yds
kt}
daovXiav
ktj
Kara BdXarrav,
kyj
d(T<âkiav
kt)
ahXa Tvdvra Kaddnep tvs oXXv? Tcpoîvvs
TO.
kyj Vpy\\TY]i.
Cauer2, No. 370

TrbS Ad(pV7)
= Trbr
A-.
^mra(nv
= ep.-.
D.
I.
No. 952.
^wcras Attic
oiicTTjs.
Locrian inscrix^tion from Naupactus (last part).

i7rifoL<)ovs iv TîavnaKTOv
Tovs
Z.
rdv hiKav Tvpoîôv kapia-
rai TTOTOvs SjiKaorepas-,
F{t)os avTap.ap6v.
{TTacrai,
Ka
Km
d6p.v
H.
tov )(pp.dTOv to
ffFa6e9dro
dvcfiOTdpots
8ia<f)dlp
fioKe'f,
TOV iTTLpotcôv
Kara
dirokLTre Trardpa Kai to
ôcrcrlris" k
TTaTplj
cTTft
K*
a'l
te^vo.
kol
aTToyivcTaij
0.
}xa-)(ava
Ka\\
p.La,
ort
Ka
fi
Hottovt'lov re îXlov 7rXe^||a Kal NaFTraKTiov
dUav
b6p,v rov dp\'x^6v, iv rptdcôvT* dp,dpais
Ka TptdqovT dfidpai \eL7rovT\ai Tas
TO ivKoKeiixivo rav diKav^ aTL{x\ov
To
eê^fiev
HocraTH Ka ra
TrXe'Ôj aTip.ov Lp.V Kal ^p\p.aTa 7rap.aT0<PayLa-Tat.
T6vKa\ip,V0 rav
yelo-rat.
'OTrdeirt
tov Aoc^pov roTrtf ||ot9o kol tov iiTLfoicfov to Ao^^q, hovrwis
d7ro\a)(lv tov iTrlfotqov iv ISlavTraKTov.
d6p.V,
iv
Aog\pnv tov IIvTroKvap.Lhlov TrpoaraTav Kara-
\77taTe(revTtjxotcr\.
piipos
hapeo-rai
elp-ev
dp-)(as'
at
Ka
fie
StSo
Kal ^pefxara Trap-arocjia-
p.ipos p.crd Fo\\tKiaTdv diofiocrai
hopqov tov
v6p.Lov'
474
APPENDIX.
and Boeotian. Phocian and the Loorian

Opus share with the Aeolic dialects a form in -ecnri KeâX-
also in Elean, Arcadian

of
The
(b)
-6|Ueô!
participles of verbs in -û
middle
in the present
substantive t4 i\eii.vov
with the dative (locative)

This usage
is,
however,
suffix -^/j.evos not
Compare the
Attic
= â\6fj.ii'ov).
The preposition
(c)
have the
KaXel/j.ei'os.
iy is
:
used with the accusative as well as

eV t6 lep6v, iv rb iSvoi.
iy Naujra/cToi',
common
to
many
other dialects.
LOCRIAN.
1.
In the district of the Ozolian Locrians there have

629.
been found two long inscriptions, one a law passed by the
Opuntian Locrians to regulate the relations between their
colonists about to settle at
Naupaotus and their native
the other a treaty between Oeanthea and Chaleion.
belong to the 5th century
but there
state,
Both
nothing to fix the

precise date. Canon Hicks {Manual of Greek Histoncal InscripB.C.
is
tions, No. 63) places the former doubtfully in 403 B.C., after the
Athenians had been expelled from Naupaotus. Most authorities,
however, place
The
characteristics of the older dialect in
in the first part of the 5th century.
it
which these
in-
scriptions are written are as follows
Change
(a)
i.
d/j.apS.v
= i]ij.epwv)
(b)
of
into
a before p:
irardpa
= dyii').
= e\iiT0a).
= TaT4pa),
compare the English Derby, sergeant.
Arbitrary use of the spiritus osper
6 i
(i)),
but liayev
represented by -err- xP^'^rai. ( = xp^"''*'"), he\4<TTii3

This characteristic is found also in Boeotian, ThessaPhocian, Elean and Messenian.
(c)
lian,
(ri)
-(t9- is
Frequent occurrence of koppa
fefaSfCjira (from avSdvui),
as a mistake for
Eo7-i
=^
pbri.,
on.
hbp<)ov.
(9)
fin
is
and f
^Trif oipoK,
regarded by some
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

ev vhpiav rav
fiiSiois AtXfpols
Kai to dedfiwv Tois JIuTrnKva-
i//'d(î||îv eljiev.
Tai\Ta TiXcov
475
elfifv XaAfit'otf Tois (Tvv
'Avn<pdra
FoLKfTois.
Cauer 2, No. 229
D.
I.
No. 1478.
There is no distinction between long and short e and sounds.

The rough breathing is still written with H. In line 5 the letters
marked with + have not yet been explained.
The
general drift
is
as follows
The
colonists in
Naupaotus
they have an action at law with an Opuntian) are to bring

the case before the home courts within a year of the offence
(if
and have the right
The magistrates
letters) are to
an Opuntian
who
to a hearing before other cases (7rpoSi9oj').
Hicks interprets the doubtful
for the year (so
appoint npoa-Tarai. in the respective countries,
for
a colonist and
vice versa.
leaves his father behind in
Opus
.shall
colonist in
N.
be entitled to his
share of the property on the death of his father.
Anyone
destroying these plaaita unless with the consent of both

parties shall be disfranchised
(cp.
and
his property confiscated
the Zulu phrase for the same thing 'to be eaten up').
magistrate, imless his office expires within 30 days,
must
give a hearing to an accusing party, or suffer the same penalties.
The party
{to jiipos)
is
to swear with imprecations on
himself and his household that he speaks the truth.
by ballot. The same regulations are

the colonists from Chaleion with Antiphates.
vote
is
to be
The
to hold for
APPENDIX.
476
Phocian including Delphian.
2.
The
630.
great majority of the inscriptions are records
at Delphi of the enfranchisement of slaves.
The
(a)
ii.
in
genitive sing, in
-o-
stems
is
in
-ov,
the ace. plur.
-oi^s.
(b)
The nom. plural is used for the aoo. in one of the oldest
Delphian inscriptions in the form SiKar^Topes {iJ-vai), a peculiarity
also found in Elean and Achaean.
Verbs in
(c)
--qijj
and -ww
avkijovrei, cnraXKorpiWoi-q, fxaan-
yuiuiv,
3.
When
631.
the Aetolian league became of importance in
the third century

official
is
B.C. it
apparently established a stereotyped
language with less pronounced characteristics than
the local speech,

Koivr;
Aetolian, etc.
obvious.
dative plural in
f has disappeared and the influence of the

Consonant stems continue to make the
-ois.
Closely connected with the dialects of North-West
632.
Greece are the dialects of Achaea and Elis in the Peloponnese.
According to Herodotus
vill.
73 the Achaeans belonged to
the same original stock as the Arcadians, but had been driven
from their original abodes by Dorians. Elis he holds for
Aetolian.
Whatever the ethnological
origin of the inhabitants
of Achaea, its dialect undoubtedly belongs to the
group.
It
rise of the
seems likely
Achaean league
formation of an
spoken
in the third century B.C. led to the
somewhat different from the

no special characteristics the most
the use of the nom. plural of consonant
the ace. it shares with Delphian (and
official style
It has
dialect.
noticeable point
North-West
that, as in the case of Aetolia, the
stems instead of
Phthiotic) and Elean.
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
From
'
ApxovTOs
Gapp[e']off(?)
477
Delphi.
firjvos
Uavayvplov ms
ayovTi, iv AeXôI? he ap)(OVTos Aafxaa-rpdrov p.r]v6s
aTTeBoTO
TO>l.(ov
AiK^ta-aeis
HoLTpOTTiov,
koI KXt^tco, avvevdoKcovlros tov vlov ^rpdrtotos,
tS IlvBico crmfxa avSpclov ta ovofia Swcros-, to

yevos KamrddoKay ripâs dp\yvplov pvdv rptwv, Ka$o>s 67rt(rreu(7f
wvdvy i(j>* <^T eXevBepos eifxev koX dv(f>a7rTos
SaJCTOs- tS Beat rav
dno TrdvTtov tov irdvTa )(p6vov, Beâitori^p koto, tov v6p.ov kcll
TO)
ÂTToXXaji/t
\\
Kajra
to
avfiôXov
7rpo\\Tpacrla oava
eV AeXôtff
6.
QplâjavKXeos
Kai dpp.iva
(tto>.
npaîasy ÂvdpovLKOS kol 6
Tav
Âvdp6\viKos
Kai
oivav
iv
wva
to.
at
Upels
UoXvKpiTos,
Awpodeos
<f>v\d(r(rovTt
Troriyeypa/i/xe'li/a,
as
Ka âxovTLy
tov ÂTroXXtoroff
Tifxaa-iov,
Upels
*A/i-
KaXXt-
AijfxrjTpLOS
TLpa^las
IIoXuKptros, [Xapi]fei'[os]
AfJi<j>LO-(r7s
5e
apxov\TOS
'AptcrroSa/xoff
ol
cttI
Âpx^Xdov koI
apx<*iv Xivp\\plas
lIo\\vKpLTOv^
'Ev6vbap,os
MovlfjLov.
to.
Âp.<})i(r(Tvs.
Te'Xcoi'a koX KXt^toj
MdpTvpot
Xapl^fvos 'EK<f>v\ov,
0t<rcreiff
K\0St
Koi
ôxrov irapa
aicr(TT 7rapafi7vai
drcXijs-
^l\6^vos AcopoBeov
yfvofieva 2&)0"ou ro) 'ATToXXwi't
/cat
'Ekc-
ll
(bvXov.
Cauer^ No. 219.
From
Delphi, which after 293 B.C. was under Aetolian

influence.
^TpaTayiovTos Tifxaiov
A\<pols
ttoXlos
(Tvvoi Kcov
Tfiiv
yeyovf
firj
UTcXia
efioê to7s
elfievj
AX(j)cov aTiXeia,
kol
et
AtrwXots* p.rj64va Ta>v ev
na
et
1|
p,^
tivols
bovTCOV TOiv ttoXltov, vrroTeXels
fio^^[tJ
irapa
eifiev
Ka6(i>S
ra?
koI ol
XoiTTol (TVVOlKOi.
Cauer^ No. 235
efiTrpoaBev are'Xeta
D.
I.
No. 1409.
APPENDIX.
478
Elis.
dialect of Elis, frequently treated as entirely
The
633.
owes
isolated,
peculiar characteristics to the
its
mixed nature
and to the fact that, with a large element

of the dialect more purely represented by Arcadian and
Cyprian, ingredients from the Doric of the North- West as well
as from the Doric of the Peloponnese have been intermingled.
of its population
The
dialect
not uniform throughout
Elis.
Original e-sounds whether (1) short or
(a)
i.
is
pronounced very open in Elean.
(2)
long were
was represented by a not
merely before p as in Loerian, but also sporadically in other

positions
e appears as a
(1) pdpyov, (pdp-qv {(p^peLv), (rK^vdctiv
;
= {rKCviiOv),
d-TrSTLvoiav,
TrKadiovra, xpct^ôt
(&)
cuaa^ôL
= xP^^0'
= evaeôlTj)
= Sfjp.oi').
On
represented in Attio
fpdrpa {~p7}Tpa.)^
Sodal {~5ody), â
Final
is
generally represented by f
fetfiis
= ei5us),
f^Ka,
fi/caia,
hand the primitive Greek sound

by f appears in Elean as in Boeotian and
the other
various Doric dialects as 5:

(c)
(2)
even at the date of the earliest inscriptions seems to
have become a spirant {#) which

though 5 is sometimes retained:
^dp.oi'
/3aa"tXaes, tpaivarat,
becomes
Si/cdSoi (SiKaôi), etc.
p.
the inevitable voicing of final
The intermediate stage was no doubt

s
before a following voiced consonant.
must be pronounced tohde. The change of final -s

to -p is found in other dialects as Laconian (Dorian).
After the
pronunciation changed -s was still occasionally written
Tolp
Thus
Tois 5^
fdXeioLs.
{d)
But
this
Medial s between vowels disappears: iwolrja ( = e7ro/i;<ra).

change though occurring also in other dialects is found
in Elean only in the

(e)
TTo-fiacfjai
-s
aorist
and there but
was apparently no longer
t'
rarely.
but
]p
75),
hence
arises out of irotrjaaadaL.
{/ ) Compensatory lengthening in the aco. plural of -o- and

-n-stems is sometimes found in -ois and -ais as in Aeolic.
It is
possible that here there
is
a confusion between dat. and ace.
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
From Olympia.
A Fparpa
TavTO,
TCI
dtrorivoL
n-\iTO
tov
FiKacrros
ixinivofovTov
fxeviroi, ^'i(^viov
[tJvi
I
[aUî <
i'oi
el 8t]
I
Z\
ixa(TTpd\ai..
ral êna^valai k
6 Triva^ lapos 'OXvvniat.
by Cauer (p.
Tis Ka6l.epevo-ei.ev appevos 'HKeiov.
reXos
p.eyi.a-Tov
176,
2nd ed.).
^parplav Bappeiv Ka\ y^veav Koi Ta
pi^Tpa Tois 'HXeiOt?.
ra 8i|Kam or
Toi
îKaia eirev-
dironveTO iv
lp.d(TKOi^ iv
It is thus transcribed into Attic
avTOV,
T^Wa
Fctôs lixda-Kor kul Trarpids o ypor^Gvs TavYT'\d Ka
e|ve;iô[trjo, al
Ai ft /xcwcdflau
Ka{T)6vTais
eWavo^LKaSf Kal
'ETrei/TTOt fe k
a âfuopyia- al fe
B.C.
Koi Toi /3a(riXacf, fexa fivais
e)ôi
At ^{fl TLS TOV alriaBevra îKalov

Kda-Koi.
than 580
Harpiav dappcv Kol yeveav xat
faXei'oir.
OXwy^TTiOi.
earlier
KaTiapava-eie Fdppfvop faXfi'o.
op fiiyitTTov reXos
fi'lKata
KU
toXs
ns
al fe
Date
479
e-)(Oi
El S
fir]
inide'iev
koi ol ârrCKris, Seica p.vds av

|
dnoTLvoi eKao-Tos ruiv

'0Xii)u||7rt(U.
prjvv\eTcii
evdvv\aLS.
heKapvala
7]
Mtjvvol
eirtnoiovvTcov KaradvTovs
pr]
d'
hv 6 eXXavodiKrjs,
8r}piovpyLa'
el
Et
tov
he
{^Tjpla)
tls
av
Se prj
diKaiaiv
e|i/e;ôtro, et
ypa(êvs Tavrd &v TTda"xoi'
pTjvvoi,
Kal ra
rw
Ait (rc5)
dWa
dtKaia
diTrXovv aTroTtverco ev
alrtaSevTa
tp.do-croij
ev
rfj
eldws Ipdo-aor Kal (pparplas 6
T^^Se els del av
e'lrj
6 nlva^ lapos {ev)
'OXu/iTTt'a.
The meaning
of
many
general drift of the whole
is
parts
is
doubtful and even the
uncertain.
Blass(i).
I.
gives as a possible interpretation the conjecture
No. 1152)
that the
inscription is a guarantee of security for Patrias a ypappareis.
The forms eVeVTrot, enevirero, evn-oi are interpreted in many

They seem to have to do with the infliction of a fine
Biicheler compares Latin inquit ; Brugmann {Orundr. ii.
ways.
737) assumes a verb *nd-ia> 'exact'
= *kua-id).
;
:
APPENDIX.
480
plural of consonant stems
The nom.
(a)
ii.
is
used for the
and Achaean irXdovep, xapinp.

Similarly the consonant stems form the dat. plural in
(h)
Similar forms are found (on one inscrip-OI.S
xP'O/^'^TOts, ayiivoip.
virabvyioloLS = viro^vyloLv but text
tion) for the gen. and dat. dual
doubtful), avToioip ( = 015x011'), -ois being added to the dual suffix.
accusative, as in Delphian
Doric.
The Doric
634.
dialects occupy all the Peloponnese (ex-
cept Arcadia, Elis and Achaia), and
some
of the islands, as
Melos and Thera, Cos, Rhodes in the Aegean. The longest

Greek inscription in existence is in the Doric dialect of Gortyn
in Crete. Doric is also represented in many colonies Gyrene
from Thera (while Thera according to the legend was colonised
from Laconia); Corcyra, Syracuse and its offshoots from
Corinth Tarentum and Heraclea, its offshoot, from Laconia
Megara Hyblaea and Selinus, its offshoot, from Megara Gela
and Agrigentum from Rhodes.
The literary records are as we have already seen untrustworthy for the dialect. The Doric in the choruses of Attic
;
tragedy
is
purely conventional, and consists mostly in keeping
original d instead of changing it as usually in Attic to
Some
635.
(i)
rj.
characteristics are universal throughout Doric
the 1st pers. plural of the active ends in
suffixes of the active are
-fj.(s;
used for the future passive
(ii)
the
(iii)
ac-
cording to the grammarians Doric had a system of accentua-
from either Attic or Aeolic. The chief variations

to have been: {a) that monosyllables were
accented with the acute where Attic had a circumflex, (b) that
final -ai, -oi, were treated as long syllables, (c) that the 3rd
pers. plural of active preterite tenses was accented on the
tion different
in accent
seem
penultimate, probably
cXva-afj-fv, eXvo-are,
same
by analogy from other persons; thus
ekva-av with the accent
syllable, {d) that in a
number
throughout on the
of cases analogy main-
tained an acute where Attic had a circumflex
naibes, yvvaUes,
while in others analogy brings in
circumflex where Attic keeps an acute on an earlier
KoKas (adverb,
the
final
syllable
cp. xaXds)
nmSSiv, navrav.
But our information, even
if cor-
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
From Olympia.
481
Date about 500
B.C.
'A Fparpa Toip Fd^flois Koi toTs Ei\Faoiois.
eKarov Ferea,
F\apyov, <Tvvf{l.)av k
al
p,a
fie
ÔXvvTTLOL
di Ka Tot.
ap-j(oi
dX(X)dXotf ra t
ToKavrov k
trvvsiTjaVj
Tol
Ka[j(8)fiaXe'jLtevot
2i)i'/ia;(ia
f(t)a
At hi Ti Scot aire Feiros aire
ak{\a) xat
dpyvpo
Xarpeiopfvov.
ylpdcfjea ral Ka(S)5aXeotTo atVe F^Tas
jroXip.o-
7rd||p
rot
At
rtp
ra
d-rroTlvoLav
Al
fie
aire rlfXford aire ddfios^
ev TiTTtdpOt k' Vx\\olTO TOt 'vTavT^ ypafl{p)VOC.
by Cauer
It is thus transcribed into Attic
*H prjTpa
(Karov
fi*
&v
rdfie.
Ei di
rt
fie'ot
2nd ed.).
^vpâ^ta av
Tols 'HXft'otff kol toIs Eu[aQ)otff.
apôt
iT7],
(p. 179,
etVe
enos
eire
(Tweifv &v dXXi7Xots rd

(Tvveiev^
TaXavTov &v
oi KaTalSrjXovpevot
V\\\oLTO Tea evravda
The name
is
aXKa
Kai
Xarpevopevov.
KaTahTjXoiro etre Tt]S
Eleans
treWpX
nokipov
dpyvpov aTTOTivoifv ra Ait (tw)
e'lre
Et
Tis to.
of the people
ttj
probably omitted by mistake.
I. vol.
pr)
y\pdppaTa rdbe
&v
yeypappivrj).
who make the
Blass [D.
i.
treaty with the
p. 336)
would read
The
final -s of T-eXeo-rd is
In the
last line Blass reads
'Hpawoty 'inhabitants of Heraia.'

rot TavTT) (yf)ypa{p)pivoi.
G. P.
fie
*0Xv/A7ri(jj
T|eXe(7"T^s etre drjpos, 4v TJj iirapa
yeypappivc^ (read
not certain.
fie'
el
et;
tpyov,
31
482
APPENDIX.
incomplete to permit of this method of accentuation
rect, is too
modem
Most
being carried out systematically.
authorities
therefore follow the Attic system even for Doric inscriptions.
by Ahrens into a
and a dialectus mitis tvirns (1) on the conrespectively in the
traction of o + o and f + e into a> and
former and ov and ei in the latter, and (2) on the compensatory
636.
The
division of Doric adopted
dialectiis severior
r)
lengthening in
<a,
q,
or
ov,
ct.
But
this distinction is not
Ahrens held, but chronological; the older

inscriptions showing the severer forms, the later inscriptions
of the same dialects when influenced by the k 011/17 the milder.
geographical, as
1.
Laconia.
we have for Laconian the fragments of Alcman, the treaty in Thucydides v. 77 and the
637.
Besides inscriptions
Laconian in Aristophanes Lysistrata 1076
number
considerable
of glosses.
ff.,
as well as a
These sources however, as
in other cases, are untrustworthy.

(a)
i.
In the earliest inscriptions intervocalic
-o--
appears as
in other Greek dialects but in the period between 450
according to Boisacq
medial
-a- are,
(h)
changes into
The
h.
and 400
inscriptions with
however, doubtfully attributed to Laconia.
The change
represented by
it
o-
of the aspirate 6 into a spirant frequently
but probably having the value of
J>,
belongs to a
we may trust the inscriptions. If this characteristic

= toC
is late it must be to the copyists that we owe tw aiCi auixaro^
diov diixaros) in Thucydides v. 77, and the same change in Alcman
and Aristophanes Lysistrata.
The -f- of Attic is represented by -55- yvfwaSdo/j.ai.
(c)
From Hesychius we may gather that Laconian Uke
(d)
Boeotian had preserved v = u: lôvyavep = tîyaves). This word
later period if
shows the rhotacism which later Laconian shares with Elean.

Many of the late Laconian inscriptions are not to be trusted to
give the genuine forms of the dialect, for under the Romans an
Foreign influence is shown still
archaising tendency set in.
by the substitution of -fiev for -fies as the ending of the

by the contraction of o + a into w not a: old
Laconian tt/jStos = TpHros and by other changes towards Attic
earlier
1st pers. plural,
forms.
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

From
Date
Tegea.
ment.
than that of the following docube not Laconian but Achaean.
earlier
Ficks holds
to
it
483
Slovdla 7rapKa(6)dKa to î\axa\lo rêrpaKarLai fxvai dpyvplo.
Et
Ka
fi\V
avTos
ôe,
dveXiirdo^ at
d4
K\a
/xe
rot
fdc,
dveXocrdo To\ yveWtTLOLf eVei Ka {')el3d(rovTt irevre feVeja*

p,
fwrt, Toi dvyarepes
be
Ka
[d]i/eXocrô raX yvea-lai' el 84
Ka
fie
v66oi dveXoo-Oo'
f[o]i'Ti, Toi
(')uto
el
Be Ka
el
fie
v66ol fovrt, roX ciaa-taTa
TToBiKWes dveX6a-6o'
de k* dv(f)ikyovT\{tj t)o\ Teyedrai 8iayv6vTO
el
Ka(T) Tov Sedfxov.
Cauer^, No. 10
The general
above
drift of the
is as follows,
b.
X. a Spartan
had deposited in the temple of Athene 400 minae of silver,

which if he lives he may recover. Failing him his legitimate
sons
may recover
it five
years after they reach puberty,
whom
failing the legitimate daughters,
sons,
whom
dispute
failing the next of kin.
is left
whom
failing the illegitimate
Arbitration in case of
to the people of Tegea.
Damonon
Dedication by
in gratitude for his unparalleled
successes in the chariot races.

dvdeKe{i') 'Aâva/a[t]
Aafiovov
JJoXiaxo
ravrd ar ovdes
viKahas
\\
ireiroKa tov vvv.

\
Tabe iviKahe
Aa/i.[ovov]*
to avTo Te6pi7nTo\i\ avTos dvioxlov

\
ev
TTpdKL\y\
VaLaF6)(o
\\
koX
Â.6dvaia
Ter[paKti']
KekevhvvLa
KoX Uohoibata Aap.6vo[v^ eviKe "ÊXet, Ka\ 6 Kk\e^
T6'r[paKii']*
flju]a,
avTOS avioxtov
|1
evheôhais
ittttoli,'
eiTTaKiv K tov avro

|
'iTTTTOv
TO av[T]b
KCK
Kal HohoLbaLa Aafxovov
t7r7r[o]*
Qevpia 0KTa[K]i[i']
avTO
iTTTTOv
|!
avTos ctvioxlov ev\hefi6hais
KeK TO avTo
avTos dvLOxlov
OKTaKiv
[ejviKe
\
LTTTTO'
lttttols
Kev ÂptovTLas iviKe
evheôhaLsiTTTTOis
II
k tov
Aafiovov
eV Tav avToiTrTrov
KeK TO avTO
Aap\6vov\
iTTTTO,
ev'iKe
KOi
||
KeXe^ eviKe \ap.a\- Ka\ ^'EXevhvvia
avTos dviO)(iov
evheôhais 'Imrois
TeTpaKtv.W
Tdbe ivUahe.
[The rest
is
fragmentary and unintelligible.]

Cauer2, No. 17
b,
312
APPENDIX.
484
2.
Heraclea.
The Heraclean tables were found in the bed of a

638.
Lucanian stream in the year 1732. They are two in number,
of bronze, and contain minute details with regard to the
They
letting of certain lands belonging to the local temple.
probably date from about the end of the fourth century B.C.
The dialect is not pure and the alphabet is Ionic although it
has a symbol for f which is not, however, used medially.

The numerals appear sometimes in Doric, sometimes in
Hellenistic, forms.
The most
noticeable points are
Arbitrary use of the spiritus asper
i.
(under the iDfluence of
The
(a)
ii.
The
(6)
IVos, o'lffofTi,
dative plural of participles in
TrpaffffbvTaaaL, ^vraaai
-fratro't:
oktw, hvia
ejrrct).
makes
perfect active
-nt
appears as
(from a variant plurallj/Tes = o^Tes).

its infinitive
in
-rj/iev
we<l>v-
In the contraction of vowels the dialect belongs to the
TevKTiixev.
dialectiis severior.
3.
From Andania
639.
Messenia.
in Messenia there is a long inscrip-
tion dealing with sacrificial rites in honom' of the Kabeiri,
but
it
is
dialect.
century
too late
The
B.C.
(first
century
B.C.) to
be of value for the
treaty from Phigalea which belongs to the third
shows Aetolian
influence.
The contraction of vowels is still true

The most characteristic features are
(a)
The 3rd
plural of subjunctives in
to the Doric type.
-tjvtl
not -upti
wpon-
Otjvti^ irpoypatpTJifTi.
(6)
The
inscription.
particles dp
and xa
are both used in the
Andanian
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

From
Toi
Be
first
Heraclean
485
table.
Kapncva-ovrai top del ^povov, Ss K.a

irpayyvMs 7roTdyo>v\Ti Kol to p.L<T0cofj,a aTrobtbwvTi nap peros
act Uavdfioi ^rjvos Trporepela' Kal (ai) k* fnrpo(rda
dnoblvoavTi,
dira^QVTi s rov dap-oawv poybv kol napp.eTpr](r6vTi rots (Tirayeprats Tois
CTrt t<ov fereoiv rto dafiotrio} ôt. êcrro)? rwc \ovs
KpiSds Kodapds doKifiaSy olas Ka d -ya (j)ipi.
IloTaôvTL 8c
irpwyyvcos rots it oKiav 6p,ois Tois del 7rt Tav Ferewv ZvraiTfTiV
Trap
nevTaeTtjplda &s Ka iOeXovres roi noXiavopot Se/ctairat,
Koi at Ttvi Ka aXXoj
napBoivri Tciv ydv^ dv Ka a\jTo\ fiefXia'dQ}'
aayvTai, rj dpTva-wvTi rj dnodoivrai rdv elniKapTrlaV) dv avrd ra
TTape^dvTai wpayyvcos ol TrapXa/Soirep rj ois k* dpTvafi rj ol
TTpt\aiJ.Voc rdv iirtKapTrlaVj dv a Kal 6 e^ dp^ds fiep-iaSoipevos.
OoTis Se Ka p.rj nordyet npMyyvlais rj prj to p.io'dcop.a dn"oSt6w
KaT Ta yypapp.va, to t piudwpa SiTrXei dTrorcto-et to eVl t5>
fejlrfos Ka\ to dp.7Td>XTjfj.a toIs re TToXiavofWLS Kal Tols a-iTayipTats
Tols del eVt rw FeTos, oo'a-a Ka
pxiovos dpp.ia-6codrj Trap nevTC
FeTtj Ta npaTa^ qti Ka reXe'êt â(î<T6kv dpa ttoi' tixaTi, Kal Ta iv Ta ya 7Te(pvTvpva Kal otKodopn^peva
TrdvTa Tag noXios eV(70Z/Tat.
yLurBuxTaiifvoi
II
Kaibel, Liscrr. Siciliae
et Italiae,
The passage given above
No. 645
Cauer^, No. 40.
from near the beginning of a

lease of the sacred lands of Dionysus granted according to
a decree of the Heracleans by the state and certain magisis
'
trates called woXiavop-oL.
'
The
lease
is
for
life.
The
lessees
are to have the crops so long as they produce sureties and

pay the rent annually on the first of Panamus (September).
If the lessees thresh out before, they are to bring to the
public granary (Lat. rogus) and measure out with the state
measure before the officials appointed for the year, the
required amount of good pure barley such as the land
produces.
The sureties must be produced every five years
before the officials to be accepted or rejected at their discretion.
If the lessees sublet, or mortgage, or sell the crop,
the new tenant or mortgagee or purchaser of the crop is to
take the responsibilities of the original tenant. If a lessee
fails to produce sureties or to pay his rent, he is fined double
a year's rent and a fine on reletting fixed by the popular vote
in proportion to the decrease in the new rent obtained (the
land being supposed to be run out and therefore at first
fetching less rent on reletting) for the first five years.
Everything planted or built upon the estate by the defaulting
lessee is to fall to the state.
486
APPENDIX.
4.
Argolis and Aegina.
Argolis included besides Argos other important

Mycenae, Troezen, Tiryns, Hermione and Epidaurus.
From the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus a large number
of interesting inscriptions have been obtained in recent years.
640.
towns
The
earliest Argolic inscriptions are too short to
value for the dialect, but

iirolFehe,
we can
see that
F was
be of
still
much
retained
a form which shows the same comparatively late
change of intervocalic
and Laconian.
-<t-
Koppa
as
we have already seen in Elean

found in some of the oldest
is also
inscriptions.
and
Final
(a)
i.
-vs is
preserved as in Cretan: tovs
Similarly medial
vaiai/!.
ayiivcravi
-vs-
is
found in
sometimes in Cretan: 'IdfiovlKa,

sound apparently being >.
(b)
At Epidaurus
(c)
From Epidaurus comes
5.
Epidaurus
(2)
by
-it-:
(1)
A171-
by
-9-
alone, as
iyKaTOTTTplfatrai, the
Verbs of the Attic type -fw make the aorist in
(a)
ii.
woj's,
from Mycenae
from Nemea.
-ad- is represented at
(6)
d-n-avdav
trvvrlBriin
-iraa
occurs as a 2nd person.

the infinitive
înffrii'
= iiriditvcLi..
MeGARA and
its colonies SeLINUS AND

Byzantium.
The inscriptions are not old, and Aristophanes'

641.
Megarian in the Acharnians 729835 is not to be trusted.
There was a close connexion between Boeotia and Megara
which has influenced the Megarian dialect at least in Aegosthena.
o-a
197
fidv;
.).
in
the Acharnians 757 shows a plural *ri-a
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

From
487
the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus.
nXav
Avrjp Tovs Tas XVP^^ duKTvXovs aKparels e;^wv
Tov Bcov LKiTas.
d\<f>\iKfTO TTol
QeMpoiv 8e TOVS iv
ivos
iapm
rail
[TrJiVaKo? aTTioret rots idfiaa-iv Koi V7robi(rvp ra e7rt'ypa/x/ia[[r]a.
EyKadevdojv Be
edoKet vtto Ta>i vami d(rTpayaXLôv\[rjos
byp-tv ecSe*
peWovTOS
avroii koi
/3aXXetv
dcrrpayaXcoL eTritjiavevTa
rcijt
[r]ov
\
rav XHP^ ^^^ iKreivai ov tovs baKTv\\X]ovs,

BokcIv o-vyKapyjfas rdv XVP^ ko^' eva iKTCiveiv
Beov iipakeo-Oai
Q)S
cttI
6* aTTOâlr},
daKTvXcoVj eVet
[r]ci)i'
Scop,
\\
Trdvras cêvdvvai^ eVepwrfyv vlv tov
fie
[ejt ert aTrio-TTjcrot rols
Tap
7riypdppa(rt toIs tt\
[KJara to [ijepov, aiiros
Tcov
ov f^dpcv
S*
on
irivaKOiv
toIvvv epTrpoo'Sev
dnLO-TfLS
o[uk] iovo-iv dnia-Tots, to Xoittov coto) rot
[a]i'To[i]s"
j
(f>dpcVj aTTLOTOs
[d
Âp^poo-ia e^
'Apepas 6e yevopivas
oi//-t?].
e^^X^c.
vyir}S
*ABavdv
Avra
[arepo]7rr[t]XXoff.
Ik4t[is^ rjkQc
\^KaTa tô \ia\p6v tcov lapdT(ov
TTol roi' Oeov.
Ti.epupirovo'a Be
Ttvd BieyiXa
dTTiOava Ka\ dbvva\â eovjra
etSc iBoKCL
ol 6
Seos inKXTas
koi Tv(f)Xovs
;â)Xoi)ff
po\vov,
ivvirviov lb6v\\Tas
ytv(T6aL
vyiLS
oyjfiv
i>s
''EyKaScvdovo'a
[etTretv], OT[i\ vyirj
Be
pev viv
TTOfqaol,
pia-dop
pdvroi vlv
dv\[dpv
Bctjo-o'l
to iapov vv
e]is
dpyvpeov, vTropvapa rds dpadias' et7rav|[ra Be (I) TavTo]
avtrpîVtrat
ov TOV otttlXXov tov voaovvTa kol (lidpp[a\\K6v tl eyX^]^'*

Be yevopevas
B.
I.
Cp. Cavvadias, Fouilles dÊpidaure^
No. 3339.
Prellwitz in D.
JitTKTTos
Caw.
I.
accents
reads
ttoI
TeXei
but
AyaQoKXrjS
Date, 3rd century
Ap^^Bapov
Botwrtos-
evepyiras tov Bdpov rov
Kttl
seems preferable.
irol
p. 25.
After
^[0/i.a].
From Megara.
'ETretfij)
'A./iepa?
[y]yi'T)S e^rjXBe.
B.C.
evvovs icav Bia-
Meyap4(ov, dyaOdt
rvpât,
BeBoWxât rat ôvXdi koI
Bdpa>i
ran.
K\y6vovs avrov rds ttoXios rds

Be avroJi koi olKias epTratriv
ols
d TToXis
TtOrjTL.
||
Trpoêvov avrov elpey koi
Meyapccoy Karrov vopov eipev
kol irpoeBpiav ep Trdcri rols dycola-iv
Ayy pa^j/-d\Ta}
Be to
Boypa roBe
TOV Bdpov iv frrdXat Xidilvai, koi dvderaj

'BaaiXevs IlacridBas'
MarpoKXeos,
ea-rpardlyovv
ÂvrL<f)tXos 2pd\xovy
els
Alovvo-ios
ro
6 ypappa\Tvs
OXvpTrieXov,
\\
UvppLBaj Aap\as
MvaalSeos Haa-'iavos,
'EpKia)[i/]
|
TeXr}ros.
Vpappa^revs^ ôvXds
\\
koi
Bdpov
"iTTTrcov
Cauer2, No. 106;
JD. I.
Uayxdpeos.
No. 3005.
488
APPENDIX.
Corinth with
its colonies Coecyra,

Syracuse, etc.
6.
The dialect of the bucohc poets Theocritus, Bion

642.
and Moschus is often said to be Doric of Syracuse, but is too
artificial and eclectic to be true to the spoken dialect of any
The
one place.
MSS.
the
dialect of Theocritus in his Doric idylls, if
tradition could be trusted, seems to resemble
the dialect spoken in the island of Cos and
than any other.
The works
its
more
neighbourhood
of Archimedes are too late to
record the dialect accurately, and here again the tradition has
been faulty.
643.
The
old inscriptions of Corinth
and her
colonies are
few and short.

In the
(a)
i.
are written
(6)
a similar
x*^, <p'^'
earlier dialect
f and g were preserved
and
i/-
^(tclpOos, ypatp(T.
Coroyrean shows an unvoiced p in phopaiai and possibly

in M/ieifios, while f is used as a glide in dpiarfvpovTa,
etc.
(c)
;-:
In Corcyrean and Sicilian X before dentals appeared as

= ^Xflii>/, Syracusan iiprla^, etc. = #iXT(or.
ivSSv (Corcyra)
(d)
etc.,
Sicilian also transposed the initial sounds of
and made 2nd
ii.
The
(T<p^:
xpi,
aorist imperatives in -ov, Xdôp for Xaî, etc.
perfects
were declined as presents in
Sicilian, as
SeSoUoi, 5re7r6v&s, SeSiKav (inf.) in Theocritus, dpayeypa.<f>ovTai. in
Archimedes.
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
From
489
Corinth.
AFeifla ToSe [o"a/ia], tov oXetre ttovtos avai\p4s].
Cauer^, No. 71
D.
I.
No. 3114.
the same root as in Attic Aeivias.
Affi/ia
Observe the
quantity of the middle syllable.
From
Corcyra.
âfia rode Âpvidda Xaponos' tov d*oK\(Tv Apes
(a)
napa vavo-\\v eV* ApdOdoio phoFaiiTL

noW6\v dptcTevlFlovTa Kara (TT0v6l-e(r{(r)av aFvrdv.
âpvdfifvov
Cauer2, No. 84
Blass in D.
fiapva/ievov, 206.
I.
D.
1.
No. 3189.
reads dpiareirovTa, sup-
posing the second t a mistake.
Date probably 4th century

(6) TJpvTavis ^Tpdroiv,
TT pofTrdras
<nov ^pvvlôv
Aiovvaiov
el
II
'^vbpevs, dpipa relrapra
|[
il
Jlp6êvov
avTov kol
'A3r]i/a7ov
efXTraiTiv.
Tav 5f
d oKla
Scko,
Aiovv-
CKyovovs, Sidart 6e Koi

\
doKTJi
KdKa>s
xoKk^v
e-)(ei.v.
Â6r)vaiov.
Cauer^, No. 89
From
ttoci
Trpoêvlav ypd-âv\Tas els
Ka TpoôvKots Koi 7vpo\hiKOLS
^pvvlxov
CTrt
TvdSios 2o>Kpareuy.
yas Koi olKias

dv6ep.ev
p.e\s
b.o.
Syracuse.
Hiapov 6 Aeivofieveos
Found
D.
I.
No. 3199.
at Olympia.
Koi Toi SvpaKocrioi
t Ai Tvp(^p)av'
OTTO Kvfias.
Cauer^, No. 95
D.
I.
No. 3228.
appendix.
490
Crete.
7.
Of
644.
all
the Doric dialects that exemplified in the

inscription is the most
early Cretan of the great Gortyn
The date
peculiar.
uncertain, but probably not later than
is
Other Cretan inscriptions are later

There are a few marked similarities
in the Gortyn dialect to the Arcado-Cyprian which may be
century
the
fifth
and
less characteristic.
B.C.
the result of dialect mixture. As early as the date of the

Odyssey (xix. 175 S.) there were different elements in the
population of Crete
aXXr; 8'
(iWav ykwa-tra
fiefiiyfiivr]-
iv
A-xcitoi,
ji.(V
eV S' 'EreoKpT/Tef /ieyaXijropfs eV Se KijScoi'fy,
AccpUes re
645.
(a)
i.
Tlfkaayot.
Tpt)^d(.Ks Siot re
represented medially by -tt- as in Attic,
-Ti- is
Thessaliau and Boeotian:
o-Trirroi {owdaoi),
dative of present participle of
But
elfxi.
-vtl-
IdrTq.
became
= *e-snt-iSi)
-y<r-
iKovaav
Attic f is represented by S initially iu 5o(5! ( = fu4!). In

(6)
the dialects of other Cretan towns t- or tt- is found in the initial
sound of Zeus,
coin by TTTjva.
(c)
fievirl
which
Medially
nfj.df!,
iiriv),
(d)
found in SUaSdev
(Siicctfeii').
was kept both medially and
-ns
finally
iwicrTrev(re (-pS<t-), i-mfiaWova-i (dat. plural),
KaraBivs (participle).
i\evd4povs,
Tas (aco. pi.) before
represented at Dreros by Trjva, on a
is
-55- is
The combination
(dat. plural of
^Kovcraf,
Tos,
Zijca
an
initial
consonant
But generally
( 248).
In the Grortyn inscription aspirates are not distinguished
from breathed stops vri/Xas, Avrpoirov, Kpe/xara. S, however, is

written except in combination with y. It seems to have become
a spirant and to have assimilated a preceding a in aTro-pairdddo
:
= etir(ia6u),
(e)
6irvU69aL
of the following
word
Tad Ovyar^pa^, tolS

(/)
and
oirvUdai, etc.
Assimilation of a final consonant to the initial consonant

is
S4, tl\
common TiariS
= ris X^) '{if) one
very
\e
tions.
= iraTiip
fiij?).
According to the grammarians X before another con-
sonant in Cretan became v. eidetv

adcros
See
wish.'
= fiXcros).
The statement
is
= i\ffeiv), avaiiova = dXKiWa),

not supported by the inscrip(
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

From Gortyn.
491
Part of Table IV, dealing with the property

of parents.
rov TTaripa rov

daltrtos,
\\
t4kvov koX tov Kpefidrov K\apTepov
rad
cfxev
Kol rav paripa rov Fov av\ras Kpepdrov.
as Ka doovTi,
pe iirdvavKOv epev 5are|^âi.
dra-
at Se rtf
d7rod\aTTd66ai t drap^vo,
êt'c,
eypdrrm.
5||
{(T)Tyavs pev rdvs eV ttoXi K\\d rt k iv rais
Tis,
dnoOdve
Se k'
(o')re'yatff eVe,
Ka p FoiKsvs fvFoiKe eVpt Kopa Folkwv, Kal
al\s
Kapral^tjiTodaj
Ka pe FoiKeos
nX|Xa Kpepara Trdvra

vivvs^ oiroTTOL
k'
Tpavs, OTTOTTat k'

at di Ka\
(lypdrrlaL.
Telpas,
eVi rot?
KaXos,
Kal
poipavs F^Kao'TOv^
dv\\o
pUiv poipav FcKdarav

\
CTTtya be,
Ka\\\
to.
rafi
5|e
6vya-
^[v|-y]are'[pa].
k' a7roâ[i'e]i, a7rc[p]

fi'le,
epevy
XavKavev ros p\^v
toi/|rt,
Kpepara pi
irpoâra
vldu-i
tovrt,
rd /xarp[o]ta, ?
at 5e
rd
XaKev rdd
[Trar/joV']
II
^[i'][(7)]c[-
d eypdrrat.
at Se
r\\d
daTeOda\i
e,
to.
Ka Xe|t 6 narep doos tov dopev Td\i dTrvtopGva, doro Kara
eypappeva, nXiova de pi.

\
OTeia 5e npodO^ eSoKe ? tra\'irV(re^ ravr^ eKev,
dXKa 5e ^
It
d7ro\av\^Kd'\vev.
Baunacks'
The
text, 7ns.
general drift of the passage
is
?>.
Gortyn, p. 102.
as follows
The
father
have control over his children and property with regard

to its division among them, the mother is to have control
over her own property. In the parents' lifetime a division is
not to be necessary, but if one (of the children) be fined he is
is
to
to receive his share according as
it is
written.
When
there
is
a death, houses in the city and all that is in them, those

houses excepted in which a, Voikeus (an adscn'phis glehae)
lives
who
is
on the
estate,
and sheep and
cattle, those be-
longing to a Voikeus excepted, shall belong to the sons
all
other property shall be divided honourably, the sons to get

If the
each two shares, the daughters one share each.
mother's property [be divided] on her death, the same rules
as for the father's
must be observed.
If there be
no other
property but a house, the daughters are to get their statutory
492
APPENDIX.
e
(g)
appears as
Cretan, as also in some other Dorian dialects,
in
before another vowel: SvoSeKaperla, o/xo\oytovTi (subj.),
KoKlov (part.), Trpa^lo/xev (fut.).
The
(a)
ii.
aoc. plural of
consonant stems
the analogy of vowel stems: /lainjpaps
is
made
= iidpTvpas),
in
-ai>s
on
evifiaXKbvTav^,
etc.
(6)
Other Cretan inscriptions sometimes show
the nom. plural aKoiKravrev,

(c)
Some subjunctives carry an
-a vowel throughout
Melos and Thera with
8.
646.
The
-ev for -es
in
afxiv ('we').
earliest inscriptions
its
divd/iai,
colony Gyrene.
from Melos and Thera are
written in an alphabet without separate symbols for
tp,
Xj
^>
which are therefore written rrh, kK or <}/, wa-, k<t. c + e and

+ are represented by r and u. The digamma seems however to have been lost. Cyrene preserved some of these
peculiarities long after its mother city Thera had changed to
I
the milder Doric.
9.
Khodes with
its
colonies Gela and
Agrigentum.
647.
(b)
(c)
648.
ii.
(a)
The present and
aorist infinitives
The infinitive of the perfect ends in -av

Some -aia verbs appear in -ew Ti/xoCvra,
:
end
in
-iieiv
ycy6veui.
etc.
Rhodes and also of Cos, Cnidus,

neighbourhood to contract to into
It is characteristic of
and other
districts in its
voitijj.fvos, Bfviikrjs, etc.
The same
fv
is
frequently found in the later Ionic.
contraction, however,
THE GREEK DIALECTS.
493
If the father chooses in his lifetime to give a portion
portion.
must not exceed
to a daughter on her marriage, such portion
the amounts already specified
sum
guaranteed any
but
is
he has given beforehand or
to a daughter, she
to
is
have that sum
not to receive a portion with the others.
From
Date probably
Melos.
irm Aiof,
(To\
From
if
first
half of 6th century B.C.

afxfvnhes ayakfia.
'E/CTr/tdi/rp 5eK0-at ro6'
yap eirevKh6iivos ror*
eVcXeo"0"6 ypoirhov.
Names from rock tombs.
Thera.
7th century
OhapvfiaKha.
Date probably in
B.C.
K/>tro7rAijXo (genitive).
IlpaK(TtXaT]p.l.
Qhapv-
[ia(}hos 7roU.
There
is also
a long and interesting inscription from Thera
^the testamentum
Epictetae
but
show strong
too late to
it is
dialectic peculiarities.
From Camirus
E8oê
Date before Alexander the Great.
in Rhodes.
rai KTolvas ras âp-ipiutv ras
Ka/itpfiJo"t'
KOt ras v ra aireipio dvaypdyj/at rrddas

Tcis
Adavaias
XoKKrjTms
II
e{y)
oraXa
Km
V ra vdfrd)
hpov
^$fieiv is to
\i6lva xa>p\s XaX/ci/f f^fjpfiv Se
dvaypacj^Tipdv, at Ka
)(^pr]âivTi.,
icai
eXeaBai 8e avSpas
Tpts avTLKa pâKa, OLTtves entfieXrjdTjo-evvTt Tav]Tas Tas irpdîos

wff
rdx'-o'Ta
kol dnodoxrevvTai
ax^LV rav ardXav

iv
TO.
iTTd\\Ka
/3oXt/3a)|(rat
as
Km
kol ras
aTaa-ai iv
exjl o}s
XPvC^^'^'-
iâxi-O'Tov
irapa-
KToivas dvaypd'âi kol iyKoKdyj/at
ra Up^ ras 'AOdvas
Koi
nept-
la-xvpoTara kol KaXXtorra* to 8e re|Xeujueva
ravTa ndvra tov raplav napex^^v.

Cauer^, No. 176 (part).
From Agrigentum.
[Geoff] Tv;â
Found
at Dodona.
dyadd,
\
['Etti n-Jpoo-rdra Av|[;(]dpov, d(jii.Kop,(vm\v 'Itr-
iroa-dcvfos, Tei|[o-io]r,
"Eppavos, 2e\l\vws, eSo-
^f
7rpo\^(viav
MoXotrcroiy
Tols
I
86pfW
Toir
'AKpayavril I""'?-
Cauer^ No. 200.
494
APPENDIX.
Ionic.
This dialect
649.
because
its
less literary dialects,
than
it is
it is
unnecessary to discuss at length

more familiar than those of
characteristics are
and because a more detailed account
possible to give here
is
literary records of this dialect far
accessible in English i.
outweigh
The
its inscriptions in
importance.
650.
It is generally said that
Homer
is
written in old
but the Epic dialect as handed down to us is certainly

the artificial product of a literary school and no exact representative of the spoken dialect of any one period.
(1) No
Ionic,
spoken dialect could have at the same time, for example,

three forms of the genitive of -o- stems in use -oio, -oo, and
-nv, which represent three different stages of development.
(2) The actual forms handed down to us frequently transgress
the rules of metre, thus showing that they are later trans:
literations of older
and obsolete forms.
Thus
eas
and reas
should be written in Homer, as the verse generally demands,

ddoîev,
Tios (cp. Doric as) and -rfjos; 8ei8ia represents Sc'Sfia
uTîofifv are erroneous forms for 6r)ojj.^v, orô/Liev.
(3) It is by
;
no means certain that the original laj'S of which Homer is

apparently a redaction were in Ionic at aU. Fick holds with
considerable show of reason that these poems were originally
in Aeolic, and that when Ionia became the literary centre the
poems were transliterated into Ionic, forms of Aeolic which
differed in quantity from the Ionic being left untouched.
A
parallel to this may be found in Old English literature where
the Northumbrian poets Caedmon and Cynewoilf are found
only in a West-Saxon transliteration.
Between Homer and the later Ionic of Herodotas,
651.
Hippocrates and their contemporaries, comes the Ionic of the
^
In
the
introduction
Herodotus, Book
to
Professor
Strachan's
edition
of
where everything necessary for the ordinary

classical student is collected.
The advanced student has now the
opportunity of referring to the elaborate treatise on this dialect by
H. W. Smyth (Clarendon Press, 1894).
vi,
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

From
(1)
Miletus.
495
fragment found in the ruins of
the ancient theatre.

VTCou, Xa/iPdveiv
Hv
7Jv
fv
ra Sepiiara <{ai]
Sf
aXKa
to.
di TrXcat dvrjTatf Xai/êrat air' CKatTTOv oa"0v[i/,
Kai KtaX^v jitav airo
y\5)fT(Tav
TOiv
navToyv.
koL
yepea.
daaeav,
6a(pvVj
yXaKrlaav,
\a[^^]rat
6\yr]'\TaLf
iSpTjv.
daarflav nal
t5>v aXXcoi/ 6eii>v
oirwv Uparat o lepioys, Xai/êrat ra yepea ra
[eV]re/iei/ta)i/,
I
avra Koi KaXrjv

8c
evo'TOv
ai'Tl||[T]^f
Bvjjt
aprjv.
*Hv êvos
a(TTS>v
ov
anep
av
Xai//'eTat
bihoi
7r[ai^|ra]
xiapXs
Beohtel explains apr] as
89
m/iOTrXai-T;
ypea
Tois
n\\riv'\
No.
I. I.
100.
and quotes a
tovs "lavas Xeycti/ (pad
rcc>\v'\{
Upei ra
bepp,a.T(ii\y\
Bechtel,
xii.
datreav,
6(T<^vVy
rai
hi
'Hv
Xapjiavrji.
y\(iifT\(Tav ^
8i8di/ai
leVof,
'AiroWmviois....
on Odyssey
M îC'Xei'S
hponotrji tSu 'An-oXXwvt, irpoupdadat
6i\r)i
TrdXiy
"q
&pV^t VF
TToXty,
7}
ttjv
scholiast
kcoXPiv
oiprjv
Kal oypalav.
From
(2)
the ancient Keos,
modern
end of 5th century

0(8e
i'd[/i]ot
Ka\
fiari
ivhvp-ari
X[d](r[(r]ocr[i
uimv.
ra
e)(<l)fpiv
8'
Kar[a](^î[^]j^(u[v
lx]pea-6lai.
8e iy Kkiviqi <T(P[e\v6\\TTohi,
Toi[r
|
Tpiwv â>v Kal eXatov
[eVt to
KlaTa [rja 7r[drpi|a-
St||a]ppaii'6i/
Tijj/
tiTro
[tov
[c]ti
II
Ta
Kai
T-Jijy
TrjlXov (TT\d]vTa-
to Krjb\os
(rlTjpaTos.
iv
pe KaXirmv,
oivov
eVt
7rX[']o[i]
cr]^/ia.
eVi
KaXXi[(rpa^\Ta
T^t 8c
a-[i)/i]a-
tia-7-fpai[7;i
kXi'Ii/]?;!/,
Ka6-
Tas yvvaiKas Tas

.
davovTt TpirjKoalria pe
Tfriy
eweiTa
cnr/v S( SiapavBrft,
a\iTUvai nporipas Tmv
Ttot
K'jaTa-
7rpo(T(jiayi(oi
KXivrjv otto to[C]
to
[i/]d[t,
oIkItjv [c]Xcv[^]cpoi' 5aX[do-(n)|t] irpwTov,
o[|c]i',
pe vnoTi6evai kvXikq vno

/ifSe
8e
/xe
aprjv evai ttjv oiKlrjv, koi 6vr) 6vtv e0[i(ma].

\i\ov(T[a\s
8e
tov dav6[y']Ta [8e (pepev
/ie[;^]pi
a"ia)7rJ7t
K.']\a\
(pepev
eparjlioLS.
K]ai r[a] (r[rp(i)|/i]aTa e(7(pfpeii eV8do-f.
[dX]u[K](T[mt]
rajSe
\evKOis, frrpw-
iêvai
e\m^\ep.aTi
Kara
Tp\i](T\
p\_aT]lol^Ls
dylycia d7ro(ppa-dai.
KKa\vfJip.4vov
[T-]o[f
[kcli
dX[o]o-;(ep[6a]
II
ev
irXeoi/or aîois rois rpicri fK[aro]i' 8[pal;(]-
ji\\^'\
(r^[/i]a [/i]e [ttXe'oi']
ra Sc
rwy
nepl
Oavovra'
tov
â[7rr]cv
Date, near
Tzia.
B.C.
dvSpmv
7r]otei'.
pede to vSa)p eK)(ev,
(pepev fVi to (rrjpa.
Sttov av [djavrji,
APPENDIX.
496
poets, Archiloohus of Paros,
Simouides of Amorgos, Hipponax
Mimnermus and Xenophanes

seems probable that these poets kept on the
whole closely to the dialect of their native towns although not
without a certain admixture of Epic forms in elegiac poetry.
According to Herodotus (i. 142) there were four
652.
of Ephesus, Anacreon of Teos,
of Colophon.
It
Eastern or Asiatic
of
divisions
But there
Ionic.
is
not
enough evidence preserved to us to confirm the distinction

Ionic may therefore be distinguished geothus drawn.
graphically into (1) the Ionic of Asia Minor spoken in the
great centres Miletus, Ephesus, Chios,
Samos and the
other
Ionic settlements and their colonies, (2) the Ionic of the
Naxos, Keos, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Siphnos, Andros,

Myconos, and (3) the Ionic of Euboea.
Cyclades
los,
653.
It
characteristic of all Ionic (a) to change every
is
original a into
instances, the
(i;),
to drop, except in a few sporadic
(b)
digamma.
Eastern Ionic has entirely lost the spiritus asper.

654.
Eastern Ionic and the Ionic of the Cyclades agree in contracting -KKirfs into
stems in
-los
Euboea agree
-KXetjs is still
not
-Kkrjs,
-tSof.
and
The
in
making the
genitive of
-i-
Ionic of the Cyclades and of
but in Euboea
stems is in -tSoj,
in retaining the spiritus asper,
written and the genitive of
-t-
both features being also characteristic of Attic. Euboea is

peculiar in having rhotacism in the dialect of Eretria onopai,
:
TrapafSaivapiv, etc.
655.
The curious phenomenon not yet
fully explained
whereby Ionic presents forms in ko-, ktj- from the IndoGermanic stem qo-, qa-, while other dialects give forms in
770-, TTT]-, is confined to the literature, no example of a form in
KO- or KT)- having yet been discovered on an inscription.
656. The relations in literature between the Ionic dialect
and Attic Greek have often been misunderstood. The forms
which the tragedians and Thucydides share with Ionic, e.g.
-a-cr- where Aristophanes, Plato and the Orators have -ttare
horrowed from Ionic, which previous to the rise of Athens to
preeminence was the specially literary dialect. Attic Greek
never possessed forms in -ua-^ which it changed later to -tt-.
THE GREEK DIALECTS.

eln^v
e
Uvai yvvaiKas 7r[po]s
f]j^fve;(6Et, /xe
ras luaivofievas'
d8e[X0af
/c]a]i
de
\)ji\ia\ivea-6\a\i
Tov
[tJoit
xpaara
ri
vv
[x]^*'"'
.
yvvaiKa kol
[wXeoK
/if
TrlejiTE
aXKov Se
\ov(Tapivo\ys^ n[êpl navra
[>i]ta[ij'o/i'||i'Ous]
uSarjoff
Km
[ff\vyaTpas, np\o\s Se TavT\a]is
aXKas
0i]||Ki7;i/
t[iJi/
firjripa
yvvaiKmv, naiSas 8e \8io, 6]fiy[aTepas
mW^C'"]"'
497
a]ve-$nav,
evai
Ka\^&ap']ovs
--
.
I
Dittenberger's text, Sylloge Inscriptionum Oraeearum,

Cp. /. /. No. 43.
p. 654.
used for original
is
a,
for original
and
for
the
Bdvrji.
and
bia-
spurious diphthong, but note the diphthongs

pavOfji, where -et might be expected.
From Oropus.
In the dialect of Eretria. Date is between 411 and 402 B.C. or 387 and 377 b.c, the only
periods in the age to which it belongs when Oropus was
an independent state.
(3)
QsoL.
Tpds
Tbv lepia tov ^Kfiîapdov (poirdv
7rap4\dL pi^pi dpoTov
êt/jiav
rjpepas, Kai
\\
copies,
peveiv ev Toi iepol
eli
to Up6\v iirubav
irXiov StaXetTroira
firj
rj
eXaTTOv ^ SeKO T]pepa\s
firj
TOV prjvbs iKaaTov,
Kal eiravayKaêiv tov
Av
6
v\03ii6pov Toil Te
VOpOV Kal Tav d<pLKV(ô)pVQ>V
KOTO. t6\u
5e TLS dStKet eu Tol icpol
Upevs p^XP'' "^^VTC dpaxpôiv
TOV e^r]pL(i>p\evov
8'
hv
îvos
tj
rj
Kvpiats, koX
eiripeXela-daL
^rjpLovrai
St/ôtIItjs,
evi^vpa \apâv4T
dpyvpiov, napeovTos tov
to
eKTLvei
Upov
TO Up6v,\
cls
iepeos pj3aK($4TO} els tov Orjaavpov.
AiKaêiv 8e tov Upea, av Tis
Tav
Ibici
8r)poTeiiiv iv To'i Upoi, /Jf'xP' TpiStv
rjxoi Kd(rTOLS at 8tK|at
dbiKrjBei
|
tS>v
f/
'Enap\)(fjv
Oeov
els
pfj
pfj a-vvxWcopfl, (Is ttjv io'Teprjv
fj
v Tois vopois etpT^rat, VTov6a ytvifrdtov,
Upoa-KaXeio-dai. Se Kal avOrjpepov irepi tcov \v toi
av hi 6 avTihiKOs
^\\v(iiv
hpa^peav, to St piôva,
diSovv Top peXXovra
eXaTTov (vvfoôXov
rj
Upol dbiKiQ>v^
hlio)
TeXeta-da.
BfpaTrevecrdm
doKipov dpy\vpL0v
Kal
ii|7r6
tov
ep^dXXetv
TOV Orja-avpov 7rap\6vTos tov veaKOpov

KaTevêo-dai
Se
tcov
OTav napelj tov lepia,

6v(rUi
d|iiroi'
eavTo't
Upav
Ka\
^Tav 8e
prj
KaTevêadai
eV|l
tov âpov eVirtêlv,
irapet,
tov dvovTa, koI ret
cKaaTov, Tav
Se
Srjpopiiov
TOV lepea k.t.X.

Inscrr. Oraec. Septentrionalis
"
I.
No. 236;
/. /.
No.
32
18.
c.
The
[The standard
Dialekte
Zvetaieff's
(1850)
Italic Dialects.
Vork on Oacan
a
13
Mommsen's
more recent and
Inscriptiones
Italiae
inferioris
grammatical works are out of date.

are Bronisch's Die oskischen i U7id
Vocalismus der oskischen Spraclu.
accessible
(1886).
Unteritalisehe
collection
The
is
older
Eeceut treatises on Oscan

Vocale, and Buck's Der
The
best accounts of
Umbrian
found in Brâl's Les Tables Euguhines (1875)

and Bticheler's Umbrica (1883). In Umbrian, even where the
at present are to be
forms are clear, interpretation is largely guess-work. A complete

account of all the Italic dialects and of their existing records
is promised by von Planta in his Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen
Dialekte of which one volume (Phonology) was pubhshed in 1892,
and by Prof. R. S. Conway in a volume soon to be published.

The distinguishing characteristics given below will be found
discussed at much greater length in von Planta's introductory
chapter. The Italic "words are collected in Bticheler's Lexicon
Italicum (1881).
In the following account of the characteristics
and Umbrian, the usual practice has been followed of

printing forms found in the native alphabets in ordinary type,
forms found in the Latin alphabet in italics.]
of Oscan
The principal dialects of Italy which belong to the

657.
same stock as Latin are Oscan and Umbrian. Oscau in the
widest sense of the term was the language spoken by various
monuments of whom have been

found over a vast area extending from the borders of Latium
southward to Bruttium and northern Apulia. On the northern
peoples of Samnite origin,
frontier of this territory lived several tribes, Paeligni, ]\Iarruoini, Marsi, Vestini, Volsci, Sabini, of whose dialects some
scanty remnants have survived.
The Umbrians inhabited
499
THE ITALIC DIALECTS.
the great district called by their name, which extends from

the shore of the Adriatic westwards across the Apennines to
the border of Etruria, and
territory of the Gauls,
is
bounded on the north by the
on the south by that of the Sabini and
Vestini.
records of these dialects, except isolated words
The
658.
form of inscriptions. The

most important of the Oscan inscriptions are
(1) The
Tabula Bantina from Bantia which lies some distance to the
It diflers from the Oscan of other districts
S.E. of Venusia.
by changing -ti- into --, di- into 2- hence Bantia appears as
Bansa; zicolo- a diminutive from dies = a Latin *dieculo-.
The document is of considerable length and deals with certain questions of local law.
(2) The Gippus A hellanus which
or place-names, are entirely in the
contains a treaty regarding the privileges of the people of
Abella and the people of Nola in the use of a shrine of
The Oscan of this monument is the most accurately

we possess. (3) The Tabula Agnonends found
some way to the N.E. of the ancient Bovianum in 1848. This
is a bronze plate originally fixed up in the neighbourhood of a
temple and containing on its two sides a long list of names of
deities who had statues and altars there.
Two lead
(4)
tablets from Capua containing curses invoked on enemies.
Although the general drift is clear, much doubt still exists
with regard to the interpretation of individual words and
phrases.
A considerable number of other inscriptions have
been discovered at Capua in recent years and published most
Heracles.
written which
accessibly as yet in
Pompeii come
a,
the Rheinisches Museum.
certain
number
(5)
Prom
of short inscriptions which,
being mostly of an ephemeral character, probably date from

the last years of the city before its destruction in 79 a.d. The
date of the other documents is much disputed, the authorities
differing in
some
cases as
much
as
two hundred years.
Most
of the inscriptions from Capua, however, date from before

211 B.C. when that city, for having revolted to Hannibal, was
deprived of
meddiv
self-government, and the local magistrate or
tuticus ceased to exist.
The Tabula Bantina probably
822
500
APPENDIX.
first century B.C., or the end

This Tabula Bantina is written
in the Latin alphabet, the others mentioned are in the native
There are also some small inscriptions from the
alphabet.
belongs to the early part of the

of the preceding century.
south of Italy and Sicily in the Greek alphabet.
The Umbrian records
659.
are
much more
e.\tensive
than those of any other dialect. By far the most important

are the Euguhine Tables from the ancient Iguvium.
These
tables are seven in
both
sides.
The
number, all except iii and iv engraved on

four and the fifth to the seventh line of
first
the reverse side are in the ancient

rest of Table v
The date
is
and Tables vi and
uncertain.
The
vii
Umbrian
alphabet, the
are in the Latin alphabet.
tables in the
Umbrian alphabet
are no doubt older than those in the Latin alphabet.

vi
and
vii
deal with the
same subject as Table
i,
Tables
viz.
the
but in much greater

detail.
Bucheler places the first four tables about a century
before, the Umbrian part of v immediately before the time of
the Gracchi. He would assign the parts in the Latin alphabet
to the period between the Gracchi and Sulla, while Breal
The whole of
places them as late as the time of Augustus.
these tables deal with a sacrificial ritual and belonged originally
Other
to the priestly brotherhood of the Atiedii at Iguvium.
records of Umbrian are small and unimportant.
Oscan and Umbrian and the other small dialects
660.
form a unity distinguished from Latin and Faliscan by a conpurification of the fortress of Iguvium,
siderable
number
of characteristics in phonology, inflexion
and syntax. There are some real but less important differences
between Oscan and Umbrian themselves.
The different
appearance of the forms of Umbrian as compared with
Oscan turns mostly upon the following changes in Umbrian
(1) change of all diphthongs into monophthongs, (2) change of
medial -s- between vowels and of final -s to -r, (3) change of
-d- between vowels into a sound represented in the Umbrian
alphabet by ^ (, given by Bucheler as S), in the Latin by rs,
(4) palatalisation of gutturals in combination with e and i
k into a sound represented in the Umbrian alphabet by d( = c)
501
Roman by ^ or s, ff into a y-sound tagez ( = tacitus)

{Hmo) from the same pronominal stem as the Latin
ci-s, ci-tra; muietu (participle) cp. mugatu (imperat.), and
later liuvinu- ( = Iguvino-) where earlier Umbrian represents
k hj g: Ikuvins (5) changes in combinations of (a) stops,
-ft- (representing in some oases original -pt-) becoming -htwhile -kt- changes to -ht-, and (6) of stops and spirants, -psbecoming -ss- (or -s-): osatu {=*opsdtd) Latin operato, while
in the combination of l + t, the liquid is silent: motar=
in the
(jvcaw
*mt)Z<a gen. (Latin multae 'of a fine'); (6)
Umbrian
final
and generally also final i, f, s, and r disappear. (7) Umbrian

changes u into I and -um into -om.
On the other hand Oscan changes e and into i and
661.
u and develops in many words one or more anaptyctic vowels
in combinations of liquids with other consonants sakaraklom
:
= *sahro-klo-in),
sacaracirix
= *sacratrix).
The dift'erences between these dialects on the one

and Latin and Faliscan on the other are much more
numerous and important.
662.
side
A.
663.
have p
Phonology.
To
represent original q% g, Oscan and Umbrian

and b while Latin has qti (c) and u {gu after n).
1.
îs=quis, hiuo- vivo-,
hem = veru.
Sounds which became spirants in primitive Italic

remain so in Oscan and Umbrian while medially Latin
changes them to a stopped sound alfo- = albo-, mefio- = medio-.
2.
Syncope.
3.
Osc. actud=agitod, factud=facitod;
hiirz
= hortus: Umbr. pih.a,z=piahts. Osc. teremnfss, Umbr. fratrus,

dat. and abl. pi. with ending = primitive Italic -/os, Lat. -bus.
4.
Change of -h- to -ht-, of -pt- to -ft- (Umbr. -ht-).
Oscan 'Uhtema=Octaviws, scriftas=sanptae; Umbr. rehte
= recte.
5.
Assimilation.
Of -nd- to
Umbr. pihaner=piandi
{a)
-nn{h
Osc.
upsannam = qpera?jrfaOT,
being inserted to avoid hiatus).
APPENDIX.
502
Of
(6)
-ks to -ss (s)
= dextra
di&stvat
But
(c)
Umbr.
s is
not assimilated before nasals and liquids
medially
initially or
Oso. slaagi- cp. focws
in
-rs-
Osc. fflsna-, Old
Paelign. prismu=jt>nmMs.
fesna-, cp. /cwim-to.
{d)
whether medially or finally Osc.

Osc. meAAiss,meddix.
destra.
:
Umbr.
est;
Osoan becomes
-rr-,
or
-r-
with compensatory
lengthening of the previous vowel, in Umbrian it appears as

Umbr. turdtu,
Osc. teer[um] once, Kerrf
-rs- and -/-.
;
serfe.
Treatment of
6.
final -ns
Indo-G. -?is=Osc.
avif
= *avi-ns)
-ss,
'birds,'
and
Umbr.
nerf
-nts.
-/.
Oso. viass
= *'>ier-ns)
= vias, Umbr.
'men.'
an analogical formation
from a stem in -Hon-; Umbr. zeret =sedens
{-nts).
-ns, however, in the 3 pi. with secondary ending ( = -la)
and -ns, which arises by syncope of a vowel between -n- and
Osc.
with
-s,
nom.
final
remain
sing. nittml=*oitio7is,
-s,
coisatens
'
curaverunt,'
Original a appears as 6
7.
Banthu = Bantinus.
; Umbr. pro-
Osc. viii cp. via
seseto, cp. pro-secta.
Inflexio:^.
B.
664.
1.
-es,
i.
In the
Noun
The consonant stems
for otherwise the
retain the original nom. pi. in

vowel could not disappear by syncope
:
humuns = *homones, meddiss 'nwddwes, censtur = censores,

Umbr. frateer =fratres.
2.
Where Latin generalises analogically the strong form
of a consonant stem, Oscan and Umbrian generalise the weak
form.
Thus from a stem *tangion- we find Osc. ace. tanginom, abl. tangin-nd, Umbr. natine = reaioMe. But in the nom.
Osc. lilttiuf and also statif.
Cp. also Umbr. uhtr-etie with
Osc.
Lat. auctor-itas.
The
and --stems retain the original form of the

(the -stems also the old gen. sing.), and
following a course exactly the reverse of Latin have extended
3.
-0-
nom. and gen.
pi.
these forms of the pUu'al to the pronoun.
Osc. ata.tos = stati

;
503
Umbr. motar=multae; Osc. smftas = scriptae. Osc.

pds=jm, Umbr. eroni*is-om 'eorum.'
4.
The locative of -o- stems survives as a distinct case in
-ei, Osc. miiinikei terei
in communi territorio etc.
moltas,
'
New
.5.
'
analogical formations
in case-endings of
(a)
consonant stems after -o-stems
Osc. tangin-om (ace), ta7igin-ud (abl.);
But the Umbr.
fertorem.
abl.
Umbr.
arsferturo ad-
like the Latin
ends in
-e:
natine
the gen. of -i-stems
-eis
(6)
and -o-stems
extended to consonant
is
Osc. Appelluneis (4jooZZmis),medikeis(iec?rfim),
Umbr. nomiur, matrer ; Osc. Niumsieis (^raaeriV),

Umbr. popler (populi).
ii.
In the Verb
tangineis ;
Pumpaiianels (Pompeiani)
665.
Secondary endings in -d occur for the sing., in -ns for

-d is found in old Latin also.
Cp. the forms of
the perfect below (4).
1.
the plural,
The future instead of being
2.
as in Latin in -b- is in
-s-
Osc. deiuast 'iurabit,' Ximhr. pn-u-pehast 'principio piabit.'
All future perfects active are
3.
made from
the perfect
Latin) and the substantive verb
participle (lost in
per-emust 'peremerit,'
Umbr.
en-telv^t {=*en-tend-liut
Osc.
an ana-
formation from a stem *en-tend-lo-) 'intenderit.'
logical
When
4.
Latin has perfects in
show a great variety of forms

(a)
in -/-
(6)
in
(c)
Osc.
-<-
--,
Oscan and Umbrian
Osc. aa-man-affed
Osc. dadikatted
'
'
faciundum
curavit.'
dedicavit.'
uupseus from a stem *op-sd- with 3 pi.

operaverunt,' Umbr. portitst from a stem
secondary ending
'
porta-.
In Umbrian only appear perfects in
{d)
entelust
'
intenderit,' combifiaiui
The
5.
infinitive
ao-um agere
'
6.
'
Umbr.
nuntiaverit
ends in -om:
a{n)-fer-o{m)
Imperatives are found

{a)
'
in -mod. Pass.
'
Osc.
'
-I?
and
-nh-,
Osc. Xioxa-
defk-um
'dicere,'
circumferre.'
-mor.
Osc. ceiisamur 'censemino,'
504
APPENDIX.
Umbr. persuimu
'
origin of these forms is
The
precamino.'
von Planta conjectures that -m- in the

represent original -mn- by assimilation.
iincertain
suffix
may
In Umbr. the Plural of the Imperative is found in

-momd. There is no example in Oscan.
7.
In the Passive -er is found as the suffix by the side of
or and in Umbrian -ur. Osc. sakarater = Lat. sacratur.
The perf. conj. and 2nd future play a large part in the
8.
passive
Osc. sakrafir let one dedicate,' Umbr. pihafei{r)
Osc. comparascuster [ioc egmo\
let one purify
ea res
(6)
-totd,
'
'
'
consul ta
erit.'
Verbs in
9.
Latin
'
-a-
make
their participles in -eto-
cp.
Late
rogXtiis, probihis.
Oscan.
A.
The Cippus Abellanus.
(1)
The
text is Zvetaieff's, the
interlinear translation Blicheler's.

Maiiiii Vestirikiiui Mai.
Maio
Sir.
prupukid sverrunei
Mai{filius) Sir.
Vestricio
kvaistulref Abellaniif Im'm Maiiiip]
Puka-
Iiivkittf Mai.
Maio
Mai{f.) Pucamedlkei deketasiui Nuvl[a|nui] inim ligatuis Abel-
quaestori
latiif
Ahellano
et
lovicio
lata
Nolano
et
legatis
AbelNuvlaniiis pus senateis tanginiid
medici
l[anuis]
I'ni'm
hgatiiis
et
legatis
lanis
Solanis,
suveis puturuspid lfgat[us]

sui
utrique
kliim Herekleis
legati
qui
sententia
fufans ekss kiimbened

erant,
ita
slaagid piid ist im'm
senati
convenit
teer[iim]
crum Herculis
regione
quod
est
et
territoritim
id
sacrum
est
quod
inter
terminos
ex.
. .
sakara-
Sa-
pud up
quod apud
piid anter teremnfss eh...
eisiid sakarakliid [fst]
ist
pai
est,
quue

tereinenniumu[fnlkad]
tanginud
communi
termina
505
r[ehtud] amniid
priiftiiset
sententiaprohatasunt recto
puz fdfk sakara[klum]
circuitu,
terum muini[kum] miifid territorium commune incom-
I'nfm Idi'k
sacrum
id
ut
nlkel
terei
muni
et
fusld [fnim]
territorio esset,
efsei's
sakaraklefa i[nim]
eius
et
sacri
putilm[mpd
communis utrorumqiie
fruktatiuf fr[ukta|tiuf] miiin&ii
fructus
fructus
Nuvlanu...
...Herekleis
fi'f[sn...
...]
terels
territorii
et
fus]M.
avt
esset.
Nolani
Niivlan...
iispld
iipv
autem
Herculis
fan
ekkum
lisatl...
I
[sva pid hereset]
trlibarak-
Item
si
quid volent
aedificare
[aviim teref pud] liimf tu[m] term[. puis] Hereklefe ffisnii
quibus Herculis fammi
in territorio quod limitum
. .
mefi[u]
ehtrad fefliuss pu[8]
fst
Herekleis fli'snam amfrjet
Herciilis fanum amhiunt,

medium est, extra fines qui
pa{ fp fst pustin slaglm senatefs suvels
pert vfam pusstfst
sui
quae ihi est, pro regione senati
trans viam post est
|
sententia
aedificare
Niivlanus
infm
inira.
aedificaverint,
svaf pld Abellanus
Item
si
lifttiuf
Et
lioeto.
trfbarakattuset
Nolani
ekkum
inim ink tribalrakkiuf pam
trfbarakavum K|kftud.
tangi|niid
et
|
id
lifttiuf
aedificium,
qtcod
Niivlanum estud.
|
Nolanorum
usus
trfbarakattuset
fiik
esto.
trilbarakkiuf
id
aedificium
aedificaverint
quid Abellani
Abellaniim estud. avt pust fefhiifs piis ffsnani
|
Ahellanorum esto. At post fines, qxd fanum

nep Abel[lanus nep Nuvlanus pfam[fret efsef teref
ambiunt, in eo territorio neque Abellani neque Nolani quidusus
et
dum
avt
trfbarakattfns.
piid
thejsavrum
esef
teref
quam
fst
aedificaverint.
piin
patensfns
quom
aperirent
est
pfd
e[sef]
alttr[\is
thesavref piikkapfd eh[stft ajfttfum alttram

1
quidquid in eo
thesaurum quod in eo territorio

At
mufnfkad ta[n]igiDud patensins fm'm
communi sententia aperirent et
thesauro qiiandoque exstat portionum alteram
slagfm
h]errfns.
avt
anter
caperent.
At
inter regionem
[A]bellanam
fnfm
alteri
Abellanam
et
APPENDIX.
506
Niivlanam
[p]ullad
vi'ii
qua
via
[ejlsaf viai mefiai
uruvii 1st tedur

|
Nolanam
fiexa
in ea
est
via
media
teremen|[n]iu statet.
termina
stant.
prupukid =pi'o pace

like
cjiw-vfi
(2)
must be a different grade

some sort of title,
it
sverrunei, apparently
deketasiiil according to
Bantina.
(Biich.); if so
and fa-ma.
Bronisch = (iecentarjo from
decern.
The third of the six surviving clauses of the Tabula

The text and translation are Bucheler's as given by
Mommsen
in Bruns' Pontes luris
Romani Antiqui
(6th ed.),
p. 51.
Svaepis pru meddixud altrei castrovs avti eituas zicolom

|
Siquis pro niagistratu alteri fundi

dicust, izic
comono
dixerit, is
comitia ne hahuerit nisi
rupert
ter
urust
ni
perum dolom
sipus
oraverit sciens
pen
ne
hipid
dolo
sine
aut pecuniae diem
op
tovtad peti-
cum apudpopulum qua|
mallom, in
malo
et
trutum
definitum
tovto
peremust petiropert. Neip mais pomtis
populus percepent
quater.
Neve magis quinquies
com preivatud actud pruter pam medicatinom didest, in
cimi privato
agito
prius quam iudicationem dabit, et
pen posmom con preivatud urust, eisucen ziculud zicolom
zico[lom]
diem
cum postremum cum privato oraverit, ah eo

die
diem
XXX nesimum comonom ni hipid. Svaepis contrud exeic
XXX proximum coynitia ne habuerit. Siquis contra hoc
fefacust, ionc svaepis herest
meddis moltaum hcitud, amfecerit, eum siquis
volet magi.ttratiis multare liceto, dum|
pert mistreis aeteis
eituas
taxat minoris partis pecnmiae

hipid, subj.
licitud.
liceto.
from perfect stem
= *heped.
trutum according to
Bugge = 4th, from a weak stem ^qtra-to-. If urust is from the

same root as Lat. oro, (1) it must be borrowed from Latin or
(2) neither word can be connected with Lat. os, there being no
rhotacism in Oscan. op (=Lat. oh) governs the ablative.
Now in
Mommsen U. D. p.
From Pompeii.
(3)
(Zvetaieff, p. 51,
507
Museum
the
at Naples
183).
eftiuvampaamj vereiiafPumpaiianai
eivitati Pompeianae
tristaalmentud deded, efsak eitiuvad V. Vii'nikifs Mr.
dedit,
testameivto
ea pecwnia
V. Vinicius Marae {f.)
kvalsstur Piimp|aiians trilbum ekak kumbenjnieis tanginud
qimestor Pompeianus aedificium hoc
conventui
sententia
Aadirans V.
V.
A diranus
Vibius
V.
{f.)pecuniam quam
|
lipsannam
operandicm
deded, Isfdum prufatted.
idem prohavit.
dedit;
B.
The
Umbeian.
and translation of both passages are Bucheler's
text
{Umbrica, 1883).
1.
In the Latin alphabet, from Table vi a
part of the
directions for purifying the citadel of Iguvium.
Verfale pufe arsfertur trebeit ocrer peihaner, erse stah-
Templum uhi
flamen versatur
mito eso tuderato est:

tivum
asa
sic
finitum
deveia
est,
ah ara divorum
aviehcleir
auguralihus
come
tuder,
tuder.
arois piandae,
hondomu,
sta-
qui proxume
imo
somo, porsei nesimei vapersus
ad angnlum, smnmnm qui proxume ab sellis
est:
ah angulo
anglome
eine
et
angluto
somo
vapefe
aviehclu tod-
ah angulo
eine todceir tuderus seipodruhpei

et
id
porsei nesimei
summo ad sellas augurales ad

todcome
angluto hondomu asame deveia
inw ad aram divorum ad urbicum
ab angido
est,
urhicum finem,
finem.
est,
est,
angluto
urbicis finibus utroque
vorsum
seritu.
servato.
APPENDIX.
508
In the Umbrian alphabet
2.
from Table
ii a.
Umbrica,
p. 138.)
asaku
Asama
kuvertu.
Ad aram
revertito.
snihmu.
quern
vinu
sevakni tagez per-
vino
sollemni tacitus sup-
aram
herter,
erus kuveitu
tefJ-tu.
oportet,
erus congerito
dato.
esuf piisme
ipse
plicato.
ap%id
vinu
vinum
kapiJe
pune teittu. struhglas fiklas sufafias kumaltu.

capide
struiculae fitillae suffafiae commolito.
poscam dato.
punes vepuratu. antakres kumates persnihmu. amparihmu,
|
surgito
poscaerestinguito. integris cominoUtis supplicato.

statita subahtu.
esimu
statuta demittito.
sacrum porrectum
purtitu futu.
pelsans futu.
esto.
katel
asaku
catulus
apud aram
Kvestretie usaê svesu vuvgi
stite-
annuae suum votum
stite-
pelsandus
Quaestu7-ae
esto.
teies.
rint.
The most
noticeable point in these extracts is the large
of post-positions:
anglu-to
etc.; asani-a(d); asa-ku(m).
It
may
vapersus
In
erse, ^'orsci
= id-i, j?od-i an enclitic
German
means
certain.
v.
be connected
Italic dialects,
of
number
a7iglmn-e{n), afam-e(n), todcom-e(n),
Flanta conjectures = lapidibus with I changing

erus occurs 23 times ; meaning and derivation are uncertain.
appears,
to u.
Umbr.
cTire
(1) \vith ais-
a root found in most of the
esono- (esunu below)
= (ii'ymns,
sepeliendus (Biich.).
(2)
with root
Knveita^ convehito. pelsans

The meaning of usape is very un-
'honour,' acs-fi)nafio.
vuv(;i possibly parallel to
a Latin *vovicius.
INDICES OF WOKDS.
The references are to sections unless p. is prefixed. Where several
references occur, they are separated by commas a point between two numbers, as 337. 8, indicates that the second number is a sub-section.
;
Greek Index.
I.
106
480 g
d- (neg.)
&yaixa.i
iii,
157
dye 517
iyelpo/xev (subj.)
7>i7e;'
509
{ay iy) 629 b
&yipa(TTos
dXSalva 485
dddvaros 220
118 a
ASi;i'ai313 n. 1
322
'AeiivqaL
dXSofxaL
'AS'^^'afe
378
ai
325
a;
(if)
ii
dy^Tu 519
XiyLvaiav^ 640
alSSi
ayKwv 139 ii
347
ayvuTos 378
ayofjLEv 480 b
d76s 261
ti7pios 402
Aypdv 386
308
aiSiis
295, 351
n., 312, 337. 8
aid p. 34
d-yvcis
Ayp6s 100, 147, 159

iyx^TTôs 166, 399
dyxit> 150
dyu, 261
iyay6s p. 193
dyibvoi,p 633 ii 6
dyiiKois (dat. pi. ) 628 a
dyihvaavs 640 i a
ddeXtpidoOs 380
d5eX06s 140 i 6
d5iic^vTo 618 ii d
aepaa 230
A^jxpiivSas 625 i c
dX^w
342
dyios 402
alhv- 34
n.,
312,337.8
234
dXefû 230
d\-/)eeia 374
dXealvui 485
d\6ofj.ai 485
dXXd 341
d\Xo5air6s 286, 326
d'XXos 187,
dXoo-Mi'T; 194,
ai'ô)
d'Xs
354
142, 289
184
aXuiTTT}^ 349
d>a 106 iii, 156, 259 iv,
314, 338. 11, 341
dâXdOvctJ 485
dîaXds 230
dp.apdi' (ii/jiepCn') 629 i
dîdpTOLv 462
dXcros
pi.) 620 i d
alaaa 487 6
268
Alffxiiôs
aiiix 172, 361
dKep(TeK6fnjs 184
d/coiiirais (nom. ptop.) 624
i/
aKovaavrei' (nom. pi.) 645
aiXwc (gen.
dM^Xi/s
230
206
d/j-PpoTos
ii6
d/ie(û 140 i a, 230

dijî-ferai (subj.) 509
AKpdyavra 273
okt/s 133, 360

aKTutp 355
aXyeii'is
218
aiflos
174
261
arXos 218
485
dXeyetfij 216
aîXyu 137, 148, 230
216
dKyria-ere (subj.)
diiiv
609
djiix^
645
329
ii
510
a/i/is
d/j-fios
INDICES OF WORDS.
624
330
238
633 i a
dTTu 618 ie, 624 i^
dirvo-T^Wavros 623 1
dpajBuXai. 216
dpapi(TK(j) 549 ii
avTOiv) 683ii ?*
avToioip {
aOrots (d;'5pd(rti') 338. 1 &
diropLopyuv/xi
aTTOTtrotay
d//i'osp.ll5n.2, 180n.
396
132, 337. 7, 341
dfxÛyvvfii 481 e
dficpL
823
d/xipope^s 228
aM0w 297, 829
dv 243
1,
aihoio-t
gr
230
dp^TL>\aL 216
dpyvêos 377
dpyvôs 377
a'559, 562, 566, 639 &
dpetdvaavos 285
dua 307
dp7JLKTdfJ.V0S 285
ai/d 337. 7, 841
dp7]i(paTvs 285
dvayy4X\t>j 624 i e
dpT]iipL\os 285
dvayeypdcpovrat 643 ii
a/)7;pe 549 ii
apaXros 485
dpt-crrepos 387
dVaf 306 n. 1
dpiffre^fovra 643 i Z>
dva^ (Tpibeaatv) 337. 5 a
dpLffTos 894
dvd<T(rLv {"Apyei] 337. 4 a dpTOs (gen.) 858
dvaredg^ 569
dpvvfiai 481 e
df rtdi/oj 481 c
dpoTTjp 355
avSpdirodou 282
dporpov 388
dvdpLos p. 340 n. 1
dpooj 159
a{r)5pfa{i')ra' 620 ii b
dpira^ 350
382
dy5pLK6s
dppTjv 205
di^SpoTT^y 369 n. 1
d'po-Tji/ 205, 375
dv5po<p6vos 282
aprt 133
dvdpwv 361 n. 1
dpTiJs 372
dvideiKe 625 i 6
ctpx^} 382
^ê^to^ 169, 898
dpxiKos 382
di/ei^ 278
dpxofxai 545
dVeus 278
dpxovrois 628 a
du4xofJ.aL 445
apxw 552 ii
dvTiuode 550
ds ( = ^ws) 650
dr??/) 844 n. 1
d(rfXvos 188
dirf 133, 159, 887. 8, 341 dtrcra 54
dvrkov 891
d(TT/x(py}s 185
avrpoTTov [dvdpojtrop) 645 doTeojs (gen.) 371
dart/cos 382
dûjv (subst.) 186, 392
d(7ru 372, 382
dTT 243
drdp 341
dTToWoTpLiooiT] 630 c
dre 342
diravaav 640 irt
dr^fMôâi 481 (Z
aTra^ 259 iv
drep 341
dTT^TTTutra 552 iii
drfi-qv 369 n. 1
dirXoos 156
drra 54
dTrd 341, 394
ai)/cuo'a (d\/ctJoi/a) 645 i/
dTro5(S6av9i 625 ii
at'^dyw 177, 481c
a^tc^ 481 c, 482
dwo/enrdddo 645 i (/
dTro$vri(TKO) 544
aSuos (dXuos) 645 i/
dpd<T(T(i}
(ifX(pts
;j
624
auTo/Aaros 259 v
ayroy (subst.) 277
325 ii
261
dtpevo^ 216
d0â//ca 260
d0t (d/A(/>0 120
dipvcLos 216
dîJ?; 62
dx^'qSi^v 357
dxXiJw 487 c
a> 341
aiJrds
aSw
/3di9os
359
/3aii/wl8, 63,
140ia, 156,
205, 207,487 a, 545
^dWu) 140
207
492
i 6,
/3aX(j (fut.)
jSamUOia,
193, 291
^dpayxos 216
^dpadpov 140
288
(iapva/xevos 206
âcTiXdes 633 i a
âaiXeTos (gen.) 623 i c
(Sao-iXôs 309
â<n\evL 552 ii
/3acrtXiJs 306, 365
âaiXevoj 487 c
/SaatXôjs 227, 309, 365
/5ao"tX'î 813
/Sao-tXôs 227, 309, 365
^do-ts 357
/SdffKw 142, 483 a
^^^7;Ka494, 495
l34(3Xa<f>a 496
ê^Xrjarai 472
/3^/3X77â 495
^(3ovXeO<T9aL 549 i
^(3piea(Tiv 549 i
î^pujKa 495
êiXopLai 140 i ?>
l3dpj3apos 131,
îXefxvov 400
^4XXiTL (3 s. subj.) 623
i tZ
^^XXo/xai 140
êXWw*/ 133
i)
GREEK INDEX.
I.
7^7w'e 550
7Aat/it 51
phSos 359
Pv
pij
121
63
483 b
j3i|3piiffftcii'
/3i(3/3i6(r/(u
pios
^Xiif
(2 sing.) 624
yeXalcras (gen.) 624
28
/3(ie
yivrjTai
/3oi)
y^vrjTa.1.
(interrog.)
511
315
62
|3oe|i)05 263
625 i d
140 i t
ôXofiai 140 i 6
Boped5i;s 380
/SoffKi; 381
iSoiTKw 381, 483 a
Poippaa-Tis 20 n. 1
jSovXciiecrflai 549 i
|8ouXeiJ(raTo (hath devised)
552 iv
fiov\iii.la 20 n. 1
(3oi)Xo/iai 140 i 6, 220
(SoCs 18, 63, 140 i a, 181
(6), p. 193, 281, 289
Ppdyxos 216
PpAKea 624 i c
jS/jciffffw 206
/3p^/xw 206, 878
/Sp(fa 624 i c
Ppiea 485
/SpocT^ 378
(SpoTos 206
;8piiu 206
jSpurfs 372
pjiXo/iai 140 i 6
(3oiut0s (dat. pi.)

/SoXXoyiiai
= can
be) 559
560
351
161, 371
487 c
y^pavos 140 ii
7^pa$ 295, 351
7^pu^ 50, 351, 362
yeiu 178, 259 iii
yij 55
yrjBiui 485
yrjpas 351
ylyvoixai 137, 259 v, 494
yiyvbp.êa. 267, 480 d
yiyvwanu 14, 137, 483 6,
549 i
yivT}TOL 618 i/
yivoât 120
y\aKTO(pdyos 216
yXavKdi p. 194
7XaC| p. 194
7Xu/cys 196
yudras 511
yvCidi 518
7i'aj(rts 357
ytfu}OJ(TL 511
y6^<pos 132
7aXa 216, 295, 306 n. 1
76>'os 163 n. 2, 251, 259 v
7^113.2,3281, 342
y4yaij.ev 31, 32, 48, 259 v, 761-1; 137, 371
494
70W(5s 220
ypdpdrjv 185
yeyeri]ii,hioi 268
7^7o;'a 31, 32, 48, p. 192, ypa^îariddoi/TOS 625 i /
ypairrbs 185
259 V, 494
7pd(/>ais (aco. pi.) 624 i/
yeySvapLev 48
7e76vii' (inf.) 647 ii 6
ypd(pOfj.v 480 6
yiyovivat 526
7pd0u 185, 496, 545
ypd(pojc(n 624 i/
y^ypafifjLai 496
yiypiiparai 472, 496
ypo(f>vs 479
7p60os 479
yiypafai, 466
yepaipoj
7W1J 140
5a^p 355
y^voiTv 620 i
yivos 31, 137, 142, 163,
p. 194, 251, 259 v, 288,
y4ms
if
142
7^1'eiris
(SXijeTai
ii
635
7ui'af/fes
7Aais
7î'os 31,
637
yvfMvdSSofjLaL
yeveri p. 194, 384

yeveijtptv 338. 6 6
140 ic
230
p\a(T<pr)fiieTv
511
SatSdXXo; 446
daLSdao-eadaL 178
Sa(u 484
ddxyo) 481 6
Sd^pu 100, 134, 373
5dKpvfj.a
373
5a/x^^s 511
Sap-iuivBu (3 pi. imperat.)
625
ii
bdixvqjii.
481 a
SSjuo! (S^MOs)
Sd^-os
121
264
Sdpo-is 153,
287
daprbi 31
Sacrus
157
484
darioixai
5auX6s 213
dediônai (fut.) 555
5^S7)Xa 496
SeSoixw 643
ii
32
Se56(r9ei' 623 ii rt
5e5vKeiv (inf.) 643
S^SwKci 446
ddSia 650
Se/Kj-u 517
deLKvvf/.ai 447
d^SopKo. 31,
ii
deUi'v/M 51,
105,
447, 453, 481 e
deiKwadat 526
buKvifw 51, 453
BeiXaKpiav 360 n. 1
SelXofiai. 140 i i
6 Scii-a 237, 325 ii
Setj/as
248
deiâi (imper.)
522
528
5ei|ai (inf.) 526,
513
513
deiêias 513
Seiêie 513
S|oc 522
Septal 492, 503
5eixîs 624 i/
SeiâLfj.1
deiêtav
134,
512
INDICES OF WORDS.
416
SiKo. 136, 161,
5t/feic
381
Sexdfw 487 c
blK7}v
333. 7
347, 419
SiKar^Topes (acc.) 630 lib
5i6foTos
a^/cas
6^/faTos
140
5i\(pai 140
5eX0tis
5^/ias(
360
140
Sv<rp-v^s
i
5v<rpLevrf}s
di.6crdoTos
5e\<paKlvn 399
Se\<j>h
118
625
116. 2 6, 118 a,
284, 285
AioaKopidao 626 a
AidaKovpot 284
435
dhro 502
5AXw
Aio:'U(roe
Sio 408
dvodeKaferla 645 i g'
SucTjuefeis (as acc.) 318
188
5iKacr7r6Xos
d^Ka eirrd 418
= like)
5^^w 148
Sipedpov 140
SlTTOll!
&
5ie
vi
Soeai(5oey) 633 ia
boijjv
S^ptu
31
doJTllfT)
355
360
SwTis 27. 264, 360

5i6Twp 295, 355
512
5oKlfj.oip.L
32
408
dwTTip
361, 526 n. 1
i,
= f5 subj.) 625
= 5wpoi') 299 (5)
Swpedv 333. 7 c
5^pov 264
d^pK(r$e 31
S^pKo/xat 31,
SCipa
So/î-oi
559
Sucx^Mos 138
dia 134, 297, 326
SddeKa 408, 417
408
SiiT/fos 381
SL(j>po$ 259
5ipKai 31
d^pKeraL 31
Svffop.ai (subj.)
SlTTV^ p. 194
5i!
283
i
408
351
351
51
56Mei>' (inf.) 51,
647
ii
5^6;- 51, 312, 527

ddixeiâi 209, 311, 526
ddfios 148, 163, 294
56ta 351, 384
328
ii
629 i 6
dicnroiva 207
?a 501
Seo-TTiri)! 188, 219, 248,
la (dT]) 633 i a
309
edXojj/ 445
SeiVepos 428
5o6s (fw6s) 645 i b
iapLvSs 898
5eiyw 624 i c
5opd 31
&(r(7a 157, 363
dixofM<- (with dat.) 387. 4 dopKas 31
^^dXi;;' 480 a, 500
SiJXo/xai 140 i ft
36s 520
îSaXoi- 479
ST^Xofirt 56
56Tei/)a 374
^/Saj- 480 a
dTjXoure 121, 122
SoT-Jip 264, 355, 374
iâcrCXevrrc 552 ii
S7;X6u 172
doTds 264
i^Sep.oiOi' 432 n. 2
Sid 341
5oO\os (with acc.) 333. 6 a ijibefx-qKovTa 432 n. 2
6idXo70s 281, 282
doOvcu 209, 311, 361, 526, e^Sop.-iiKovTa 422, 432 n. 2
5ia7re7roXe/i?J(reTai 546 n. 2
543
?/3ao/xos 216, 432
dia(p&lp<7Kou 483 a
dovpds 220
i^V" 280, 479, 480 a, 500,
Sidda-Kui 188, 483 6
dovs 362
545
SiSojuai 447
dpdypia 185
mrrr 158
SWoMe;' 480 c
Spards 31
e^XdarijKa 446
dLddvai 543
Spax/J-r} 185
^/Spaxe 206
SiSocai 466
3/Ddu 487 a
^7^7wce 550
SiSou 517
dpeTdvT} 299
iyiveTo 259 v
SiSudc 518
Spiwavov 299
iyp6p.Tjv 543
5a>Mi 27, 52, 191 n. 1, Spoytiei^s 479
ey^vovdo 623 i a
264, 447, 480 c
SpAôs 479
eyiyi>6/j.Tjv 543
6i^623ie
SpAcroy 55
iyKaToirTpiâaai (inf.) 640
Ai/I 54
SpCj 294
i 6
Aifds 54
Su/apoi 526 n. 1
^yKdipA.ov 898
Sifwf 447, 480 c
SOvap-ai 481 a
^yvw 552 i
5i/(a55;' (inf.) 645 it
dvvdp.ai (subj.) 510 u. 2, cyvwad-q! p. 368 n.
1
diKcidoL 633 i Z'
511, 645 iic
iypafpov 479
SlKaios p. 340 n. 1
Siî/wât 511
iypacpae 648 i a
1
(ij)
GREEK INDEX.
I.
ilii,
113. 2, 161, 327,
328 erXKOK 212, 445
328 i
iSuia 462, 482 a, 502
iUâiuv 464
#Sei|as 502
J5| 502
et/x.ei;'
^5i;5iis]62
372
iSiSofo 503
^5iWo 474
iUSow 648 iii
iSkaaaav 640 ii a
^56j; 474
me-qv 280, 474
^5685)s 474
iSiiTii
231
X5wp 485
231
^^/)trj)
^/bs 330
gfo/iai 142
?fu 259 i
iBavov 141 i 6
i66.jxri)(!e 552 ii
?97)/ta 135, 495
d 325 viii, 342
elM'qv 513
elbetfxev 166
eMOT^m 526 n. 2
elSoi- 543
eiUra 534
eW^TO! (gen.) 352, 534
dSma. 534
dSiXKLov 390
205,
219,
624 i/
219, 259
eifris
247, 248,
407
iv,
325 vi
i/xio
325 v, 325
^Keivos 325 v
^/ceAcra 184
ixepaa. 184
?/<:j)Xos 277
^Kiaôf 485
IkXvov 548
?Kî)i/os 188
Ado-iroi'oj (gen.)
dT]v
eifT,!
dKocrris
437
eftiiXoufla
eJ\7)0a
179, 477
185
G. P.
fi-
Ado-irw;'
197
aa0os 377
624 ie
iii
149, 247, 337.
7,
^45
a, c
^v (
cis)628c
^p 156, 407
î-ttros 415, 434
^vSeKa 417
^^-ei/ia 184, 205, 219
(vefifâ 205, 624 i e
iKopiiTd-qs
iXaatroi (ace.)
328
ii
ipLû, 169, 480^

^^KTO 502
^fj./xv 51, 623 ii a
^/ioi 328 V
^/xos 330
e/ioO 328 iii
^,uo5s 328 iii
viii
'4Kov(jav {^x^^^^'^)
iKdpecra 481 e
ii
352
352
iii
^Kaffetif-v 445
f/caTii- 104, 423
dmiTL 315, 420
164, 353, 534
328
^êi-â 205,
iKec
Afiri;./480a
^Xixoc 479
ipi.eLo
512
512
142
e(Siis
AîTTw (iXiudu) 629

iXeiidepof 386
^Xevd^povs 645 ic
i\eO0epo5 231
Aeuffo/xai 179
Afl^ 517 n. 1
^/c323
504
^Kpiva 503
^KTafJ.V 494
lKT-qii.a.1. 446, 552
iKTTjffdfj.Tju 552 ii
^KTova 494
^KTos 188, 431
^t6s 309, 354
^Kupis 201
aaiSoi/ 185
Ad/Soircu' 521
l\aK0i' 483 a
eilij/iep
iXdipe-qv
Âiewa 184, 205, 219
erj
ielKotrc
*Xe70i/
ddKoi 483 6
623 i
%aico>' 31, 32, 151, 479
UpaiJ.ov 479
^Spw 480 a
ma^Ta 503
?Jw/c(i 495
kSva. 231
366
iBoiKaefi {=lSaKai')
485
479
448
IXdo/iai.
d(ni80a
els
5os 55,
^XaxiJs 141
eXXd 390|
ATTifu 485
AttIs 348
^Xwa 142
^Xvaav 635
6^^ 327, 328
545
(SoixM 492, 509, 511,
343, 352
i c, 197, 231'
eXcixiiJ-Tos
(inf.) 51, 647 ii a

eiM^;- 184
el/j.1 184
cImi 480 a, 544, 547 ii
e'ifufu 481 e
eJo 328 iii
e?7ro 480 e
dwi 517 n. 1
eXirri (interrog.) 560
etwris (interrog.) 560
eiTTj/cri ( = fut.) 561
dir6p.7]v 445
erTTo;" 480
elfyya^6fiT]V 445
iyihv
513
ivevijKOVTa
^vepoL
422
386
ivecpavhffoev 623
496
^cffa 314 n. 1
fyêi' 314 n. 1
ecffi^ (aScii') 643
341
ei'Iita 548 ii
ivvia 416
ei'j'â 638 i
ivi/cn-e 139 i a
ivvvp.!. 481 e
evrivoxo.
33
341
514
INDICES OF WORDS.
638
ivTaa-iTi
ii
348
^pi0os 877
^ppeoj- 204
epprjyeTa 353 n. 2
Sppiya, 549 i
Jpiro' 624 i e
i-pts
363
hrbs 309, 326
^y-rf J
iii,
ii 247, 323, 341,

?|ei 518
354
412
559 a
422
iêlTTw
erl/niaa 502
Jtos 55 n. 2, p. Ill u. 1
^r6s 260, 264 n. 1
ep^^w 231, 239
^vrepov 387
Jrpei/'a
e{iyev7]S
55
^^r/Koi'Ta
'ipcT]
i^dv (ace. absol.) 339

f'w 546 n. 2
?pcri;y
375
^0
epv$p6u (ace.) 386

fpuSpAs 135, 147, 231
ôp
ip^KCLKOV
328 iii
355
eoOs 328 iii
iiraivTjaai 624 ia
i-n-eLdov 548 iii
^TTfî/'a 502
iir^v-qvode 550
520
259 ii
506
iircTToidTj 506
e7reTro^T?s 506
îr^s 618 ii e
iiriairevae 645 i c
?7re<ro-i 142, 322
îre(pvov 480 e
EwrilSoXo! 220
ewriveaa 552 iii
<?7ri 337. 7, 341
iTiTTidfiev
(ireTroWa(v)
645
pi.
(dat.
iwLâWdvravs 645
<!7ri(33a 259 i
iirt
199
629 i (Z
640 iic
^TTiffo;/ 253
iirlKovpo^ 482 6
iTTi/jii'Keadov 624 ii c
^7ri/35ai
e7ri/o/9o>'
eTTiBriv (inf.)
eirlffKOTTOs
^TrfuTwât 511
iiroLija
633
^TToât 139
îrou
520
eirrd 130,
^P7oi 618
413
ii
193
193
iperfMos 393
ipeOyoficLL 231
^peflos
ipe/j.vbs
618 i a
^(r(?iu 485, 545
Haffu, 485
lir/ce 483 a
iaKe5cL<x6r}s 504
^ff/i^j/ 184
^ffireipa 184
'iffireiaa 188
yweiafiai 188, 446
'icnrero 480 ^
iaaiirdei.}/ 623 i (J
lo-ffi (3 pi.) 624 iid
i(rra.iT]v 513
'i(TTixiiev 446
^<rT^ 184
^(TTeiXa 184
laTcKKa 624 i e
?(rT7;/ca 494, 495, 549 ii
ia-Trj^di 492
(iTTri<Ta 502, 515
Jerri 28, 142, 161, 480 a
&ri (3 pi.) 624ii<i
iaropeaa 481 c
JtTTW 519
ia-xeOov 485
JffXoi' 98, p. Ill n. 2
^rafpop 185
fTEKOV 480 d
er^Xeiro-a 482 6
fTi?ois( = fre<n) 628 a
irTdx<iTO 472
ft-i 133, 244, 342
eWSei 480 c
iTLfi-^drjv 448
iaSoTrjpe^
Jireo 163, 474,
iiriâXKovaL
480/
545
^s 248, 520
^cTiSt).- 480 a
^pxofJ-ai
iffSiWovTCi 618
500
502
295
eiieX-n-ip 348 n. 1
ev/pijrdo'aTV 621 i a
eijeefc (^XSei;/) 645 i/
eWwa 361 n. 1
eiiXijpa 231
evixGvis 292
Eu^^j't;? 292
eui/ts 397
efooD 269
evofiev 480 6
euTrdropa 258
eîrdrc^p 258
eup^ 517 n. 1
evpiaKia 483 a
eupiioTra p. 193, 293 n. 1
evpvs 231
evaaîoi 633 i a
evippova. 258, 259 V
eii(j>poiv 258
eOu 178
î/idi'Tjj' 280, 448
iipepe 462
?0epe-i/ 241
iipipere 464
i4>ep6iJ.eea 98, 470
4(p4pofjiEV 464
(pipoê^ 464
icpepoy 325 viii, 462
?0epo)/ (3 pi.) 464
fî?!/ 462, 479, 500
ScpVirSa 477
i4>8apKa 494
f06lopa 494
^X'^ôv 481 d
^XCKa 138, 624 i c
exBaipui 487 c
ex^5 233
^XottTi 625 i/
Jxo(>')<Ti 620 i
^XiSi'Tus j/oD^ 278
fxoi'O-a 220
fxow (dat. pi.) 220
Ixo""^ (3 pi. pres.) 220
irpdTrrjp
fX"P. llln.
2,
480(i
GREEK INDEX.
620
iX'^{v)(n.
T?
(adv.)
5a 181
iilidow
445
445
/dpyoy 633
/e/'a5e96To629id
/"eiS^w 493
felSonat 259 ii
/eifiis 633 i 6
fklKdTl 315
fha 314
/iSeiK 259 ii
nSrire 510 n. 3
/ISwoi 352
fiSitiii^v 510 n. 3
FiKari 420
/iffxis 103 iii
rolSa. 259 ii
/oIkwv (gen. pi.) 319
rtri 629 i d
fpdrpa. 633 i a
fu/cks (ok(as) 625 i ^Z
633
â^wi'
fSs 620
\ipeepov
633
f^/ta
618
445
142
^701- 209
TJ'Sea 478, 482 a, 502, 504,
506
i)5h 313
^5et 313
riSeia 367, 374
ySei/j.ei' 506 n. 2
^5s 317
r,5ôs 309, 365, 371
fJSi; 502, 550
y^Sovi} 397
^5ii!/ 308
r]dvydfji,7]v 445
r}y4oiiai
342
rjiraros
209, 445, 501
ilov\b^y)v
iuvoiixriv
fws ('until')
342
(2),
187
ZcO 271
ê'iyvvfj.i 52
116. 6, 118,
Zci^s
64,
181 (5), 197, 271, 289
i-^(j
144
Zv
(ace.) 54,
Z^Ka 54
Zijves 54
Zi)W 54
Z??;/6s 54
fifcaia 633 i ft
ôOyuvep 637
fuyti 317
289
fi;/i7)
144
481
tîlivvviu
^325i
354
a,
Hpa/cXei5atos 626
445
%ia 548 ii, 552
TJpiraâ 503
ripira<ra 503
%xe 548 ii
Va 477
7}pya^6fj.7iv
^(TSioj/
ii
121, 209, 212
277
625 ic
7}TTUJ/XaL 547
T7XCJ 405
^ciis 351
rjcrvxos
'Ho-xoiJAos
rjiilrepos
^/xii'
8b4>^v 338.
367
ijOeXof
iji
(de()
445
625
ijWeos 21,
135
^Kd 495
iJkc 548 ii
T/Kw 547
riXeov 216
iJXueoi' 216
142, 162, 260
-^/zas
329
329
445
206
TjVepos 277
ijfieis
ijIMeWov
Tjfxcpivbs
330, 387
329
r]ixiaia.s 122
r]iJ.<pUaa 481
Tj^cpiecrâi 481 e
T7/iuJi' 329
r|ê7Ka 480/, 495 n.
543
dapa-ei
2,
(n. pi.)
299
^v/a (fem. sing.) 299

TjviiraTrov
480/
ôs 342, 650

T}oOs 334, 7
^Trap 139 ia, 207 n.

295, 354
374
Bepa-n-nh 299
i'118,144,167,p.l94,
303, 306, 376
139
55
6le?
li<T(Ta
ZeCs624ia
^TTetpos
'
185
552 ii
311
OeaHn 322
Sfdi' 308
Sedw./ 18, 319
BetjSeTos 625 i c
eeliJ-ev 258 n. 1
delva 141 ift, 487 a
Beioêv 650
BifieeXov 391
e^/êic 51
Si^jttec 51
(i^îs 370
êAfoTOS 118 a
eeo?s (aoo.) 624 i/
6le4s (aoo. pi.) 248
BebaboTo^ 118 a, 285
Seoi;? 248
142, 160, 306, 365,
^5i5s
rjfjLa
i
)15
1,
Bcpdiroji' 362
6'epM'5s 141 i ft, 148, 393
^s 520
^<ris 133
Qhis 287
SeT6s 260, 264 n. 1
QevK^TJs 648
Beuv (gen. pi.) 319
Qrjpayevris 313 n. 1
ejj(3ai 313 n. 1
QrjfSaiyevris 313
67)^1; 313 n. 1
332
516
INDICES OF WORDS.
driydvTj
481 c
481 c
d-qyaviii 481 c
diiyoi 481 c
eiri 511
flTjJc)) 382
erjXxji 162, 373
flT/pfoj/ 268
e-fis 347, 375
6i7;<r 187
di-yyavu) 481 C
Si6! (9e6s) 625 ie
BvriaKoi 483 a, 544
fipi;/' 346
6lp6i'os 397
duyaTTjp 355
eiiiJi0^6pov 292
UaTTJpai'
6'rjyavov
kdi/u 481
292
481/
660$ 117
ia/36s
I'aTT?
260
1,
461
n. 2,
517
I'ei
446, 480
UpafxvdiJ.ov(TL
480
480
e,
549
&
618 ii b
iep6s 386 n. 4
i'fo^j' 480 d
461
526
XuTdui 461
laTafrdac
'iaraTi (3 sing.
Vo-tt;
447, 549
480 c
192
laxo-vdiii 481 /
tcTTTjat
480
517
i<TTrtixi
icrris
Ixeui
Ka 639 6
KdfiâXe 243
Kadiôfxai 445
ra 326 i, 342
KaKovpyo^ 286
473
/caXei (3 sing, fut.)
KaXeifKyos 628 6
146
KdX-nfu 624
/caXeTi'
ii
Ka\idv (ptcp.) 645
152
KaXu (fut.) 492
KoXQs 278
KaXilis (adv.) 635
Kdfiftt} 481 6
Ka/MinjXos 268
KaTT 243
icdTri 245
KttTri'is 198
Kdpa 351
rapSfa 100, 134
KtipdtaKds 382
Kapuos 106 iv, 351
ii
ii
243
Kara 341
/caret 245
(car
iVTarai (subj.) 510 n. 2
Ifu 143, 199, 259 i

l-n/xL 142, 162, 480 c
307
311
iXîis 233
^Xî^tri 322
;xSi5
Kapirds 139
iVrai'Ti (3 pi. pres.)

i
iepj)s
Wapis 261
tffi 518
'le/tociKo 640
313
638
262
((rrctcat 526
618
'l<na.jxi
517
ieixev
r09iôs 113. 2
J0i 338. 10
KaXO-jrToi
('know') 518
233, 518
Uraiiai. 447,
iVra/iec 446,
352
561
KaUs 218
i'<Ti('be')
tffos
lSufj.ai (fut.)
136,
32,
31,
293
iTTirovs 220
ifTrTrwi/ 209
LTTTTthv 361 n.
I'pTjj/ 165
Ip6s 386
Jpos 624 i a
Is 289, 306
^\<jd^xoL
rSpis
6,
Ma
LTvir&ra
ifffSi
= ouVj)) 645 i a
367
iSpiis 142
;5wa 116.
l<rxvp6s
481/
20,
481 /
386
fexu 480 d, 481
166, 171
iVi;s 372
?TW 519
io'xai'W
139
386
I5i {'see')
233
I'XtjSi 518
'IMoo 200
jyiec 480 a
fr 308, 325 iii
h 618 id
Ua 314, 325 iv, 326 v,
338. 10, 342
%ec (subj.) 509, 559 6
io(i/)o-i 620 i
iinre 31, 32
iTTTreus 365
LTnrouv 316
'LTTTTOiV 316
iTTTTOlS 116. 6
iTTTTOicrt 321
'LTTTTOiCrtV 241
iVTTos
îJpa
iWi 157
ii
tKTis
393
135
eiSpao-i 322
euij.(,% 191 n.
6ihpa.Ka 308
OihpaKes 317
dthpauL 311
ecipaj 306
Scipaî 322
a,
481/
20
Uviofiai
SuKû 481/
Siyi/u
c,
LK^revaa 445
?K(fos
BviMO^bpo^ 282, 284,

eu/i6s 282,
620
Karad^vs (ptcp.) 645
Karda-xoi. (interrog.)
564
Kara(pevyetv 544
445
503
KaTwfi\e\p p. 193
KeiMai 239, 447
K^KXaarat 482 &
Ke/c\-^7oi'Tes 624 ii 6
KaT4fia.\ov
Karej3Ti(rT0
ii
GREEK INDEX.
ic4K\o(f)a
496
KovicraaXoi
k^kXuBi 480 e, 518

K^K^rjKa 495
KiKTTi/Mi 446, 549 i, 552
jfeXaife^Tjs
228
403
403
Kepdi/vvfit
201
\a/x^dyu 481 c
\avddvoi 481 c
ii
KopivvvpA,
481
Kopv</>ri
480
e,
481 a
377
\iyi.v
KpdcTTedov 351
KparG) 547
Kpâs 351
481 C
359
191, 481
Kevddviji
Xe7^^crai 28, 359, 400

X^7eo 325 n. 1
\iyeaeai. 280, 312, 526
X^70i (fut.) 565
\cy6pfvot. 28, 359, 400
\eybvT(j3 18
Kpeiauwv 219
Kev6fj.it)v
628 a
Kf0aXX(ceo-<rt
487
284
383
487 c
K-qip-qv 358
/ci7X'^^'' ^91 e
m5(i0?; 377
Kifxivas 625 i e
Klpvriixi 481 a
a:(s 1,39, 623 i/
KLxd-vu) 481 e
Kix^loi (subj.) 559
Kiu 488
jcXdw 482 6
/cX^TTTijs 103 ii
xXg^/Do.- 196, 389
Kkri'is 189
kXi7w 189, 208
K\iva 136, 487 c
kX6s 370
/cXo7r6y 346
kXOSi 518
278
480 (/
KpeiJ.dvvvp.1 481
Kpetrrdvios
XelTreadaL
Kpîxafxai
Xeltroi
Kpetxara {xp^p-a-ra) 645
Ki]pu^
623 i f/
Kp-qp-vT} 517
k-piffT) 158 n. 3
Kpipa 359
Kpivvoy 624 i c
/cpfi-w 389, 481 6, 487
Kpivwvcn 618 i 6
Kpovltav 360
Kp6!'os397, 487 c
Kpdratpos 377
KTdop.ai 549 i, 552 ii
fcrefj-u 193, 207, 494
KTiS^T? 233
i tZ
Kpivvefxev
/cWfw 113. 2
ktlKos 113. 2
KU^M 488
487 c
315
mc6s 254
/cuz/wâ p. 193
(cXuTis 133, 146, 167, 378, Kvppov 623 i(7
536
KiiirSos 191, 192
Kkdf 346
(ctfwi/ 136, 254, 306
Ko- (Ionie = 7ro-) 655
Koipavos 625 i d
Xa(3^ 517 n. 1
Koia 180
Xdêaicov 483 a
jco?Xos 212
Xdôi' (imperat.) 643
Koi!/6s 205, 207
Xa76s (ace. pi.) 248
K6Xa0os377
Xa7X(i''w 481 c
KoXoivbs 139 ii
/cu/cX^w
KtJj'e
526
122, 139
526
'kL<pdriaofxai 448
Xelipe-qn 518
X^KTO 188
X^KTpoj/ 388
XeXeip.p.iSov 468 n. 2
\e\ei:J/eraL 555
\\vpi^vo^ 269
XiXdrai 298
\4âtp.i. (interrog.) 564
Xôyros 50
XevKatva 487 c
Xei;/c6s 146
Xaicra-iJi 487 a
Xew!/ 50, 362
Xrjedva 481 c
Xijfiw 481 c
\ri(f>6riaop.ai 492
Xi7i't}s 373
Xt/(pi0(s 323, 338. 10
XiVa 230
\iirapiu 104
Xiffdop.tiL 197
XiO-<r6j 232
XiTi) 197
Xit6s 232
X67e 281, 302
X670S 281, 288, 375
XAe 180
XoO/itti 542
Xoxa76s p. 193, 261
XuSeis 362, 533
\ei<f>6rivai
KT^pecra-KpdptjTos
K'f)pi(j(Ttj>
(with 2 acc.) 333.
5c
Kdrepos 139
Kovpoi 220
Kpaivtii
625
X(ipi;7|
Xdcr/cw
Kfpdu 481 n
K^(7T0S 188
ktJ [Kal)
350
483 a
\ioiiva 50, 362
X^;37,s 347
X^7e 302
62
K^pas 351
/teii^w
Xaiis 174, 403
K6pcr7) 188, 351, 403

Kdpvdos 380
Kopdaaco 487 c
KiXevBos 299
559, 562
K^;/
Keveds
487
KopaAos 399
/f6/)7)
KiXevBa 299
jto-is
/coj'/u
517
518
INDICES OF WORDS.
227
\vKdâvTO$ 334. 7
\vKos 139 i c
XuTrd (XoiTra) 625 i d
Avaavlae 625 i c
XiJtras 533
\iaaadaL 526
\-6f7eff6cLi 526
p.i(TvoSi.
Xi/ffwT-
\ij(7(jiv
"Ktrrpov
623
ii
peraXXdco 168
pera^v 322
pATaaaai 363
/i^ 342, 656, 659, 662
ya'/Ji' 162
5.33
390
ptjvioj
487
pTjvvos (gen.)
623 ii (J
jjAOys 559
fxadTjTidoj 489
fiaiverai 26, 157
/j,abotia,i 259 V, 494
priaojpai (interrog.)
P^T-np
360
/xoKaKds 230
/j,a\SaK6s 485
MaXo/?cTa (ace.) 273 n. 1
/tcicTis 25, 28
IJ.ipvaii.ai 206, 447, 481 a,
n. 1
630
fiacrHiôj 487 c
jiareôj 158
Atdrr^p 148, 365
/i^ 328 ii
/i^7as 158 n. 3
/ieSi^w 487 c
ii
(gen.) 352
219
M/ieiJios 643 i 6
yuetpaj 349, 383
;His 162 n. 1
/xefre 625 i 6
/xeifoi/os
lieiôiv
nfK-n-rtBpa.
(6)
= sing.)
104,
106
ii,
560
560
160,
267
/iaiT!(paH5{aec.pl.)645iia
âffTLyihii>v
162
prjaopai. (interrog.)
/ia
fjt-aKaKicov
135, 172, 197

perd 314, 337. 7, 338. 10,
338. 11a, 341
/i^trcros
347
299
vevpov 299
pe0^\7) 390
vecf>p6s 141 i a
j-^w (' spin') 149
veuv 227
xâ (ace.) 289 n. 3
VrjTTIJTLO^ 168
viirode!
j-eiJpj)
66
j'ô'os
prirUra 293 n. 1
vTjaaa 158
pia 156, 407

piyvvpt 105, 483 a
AiiKpis 202, 237
viKebvroLS
483 6, 549 i
480 d
/iif' 325 iii
pLvv6co 485
plcryoi 483 a
/ii(r96s 143
pvdopai p. 115 n. 2, 193
Mvaatyevelos 626 a
pv7]pbavvos 198
poyoardKos 284
;Uo( 327, 328 V
poiaa [povaa] 624 i/
/i6Xoi (interrog.) 664
pjjpyvvpj. 238
poppijpoj 446
povcra 220
/ioxoi 620 i 6
/tu6s 142
299 p^jpioi. 425
^5s 168, 289
ûjcra 220
ptprqa-Koj
ptpvai
26, 31, 494

519
cafoj 158
lj,ip,vrip.aL 549 i
.aOs 181 (4), p. 194, 289
p.epvi]<ToiJ.ai 546 n. 2
/i^Moi-a 26, 31, 269 v, 494 via 291, 376
veavias 306
liivQ-; 259 V, 292, 361, 403
veifpei. 141 i 6
ixival (dat. pi.) 645 i c
(with
ace.)
r^/ios
259 iv
333.
5
6
yu^cw
vipa 161, 164, 259 iv,
^^j-w 480 d
494
p.eij7ip.fipii'6s 206
vevipijKa 494
Ai^tros 197
lj.ip.aiJ.ev
pL^paTOj
ve6iv^ p. 194
viopax 547 ii
v&i/ 291, 376
ce6s 149, 291, 376
ve6Tvs 241, 369 n. 1
628 a
547
325 iii
viffaopai 188
vfc/ia 141 i a
vopevoj 487 c
j'i/ios 259 iv
i/t/cw
xix
vovvix^'-'^ 2"^
278
278
167, 342
vovvexTji
I'oui'exii'Tws
xiJ
vvkt6s 139 i c, 334. 7

vvprpa (voc.) 307
1/171/
342
j/w 342
vvvdrai 645
ii
347
H/As 104
xilf
i/U(/)7;
(vijp(pri)
120
329
i/(3i 329
vujtv 329
./u.
vbjirepo^
i/u./
330
329
405
403
êicos 219
J^>/j/os 624 i
Sai/ffci
fex/bs
(ivos 170, 219,
fi0o! 192, 193

{i)x
341
403
I.
629
325
GREEK INDEX.
oros 122, 407

326 i
Sis 172, 306, 366
"Oafos 232
olo-e 503
6ê\6s 140 i b
orafla 477
dôUs 140 i b
dlaovTi 638 i
dydoriKoPTa 422
olariav (with aco.) 333.
87500s 433
66
dyddxovTa 422
ofo-u 503
07/cos 139 ii, 163
oCxo/j-ai 547
87/ios p. 193, 261
ifxpis 370, 414
dddl 322
6ktJi 103 ii, 106 i, 163,
SSe 325 ii
414
(i5e\6s 140 i h
6/crtj 638 i
dSfL-li 393 n. 2
bXeepos 389
66s 251
ciW/co) 495
65oi)s 134, 306 n. 1, 362
iiXi7os 117, 232
dSovffL 322
6X170S 624 i a
dduvrjpis 386
dXuredvu 232, 238
'OSiJo'ireiJs 37
SWvfii 187, 495
(iSt^Suo'Tat 549 i
6\u>\a 495, 549 i
6\dj\eKa 495
fos 143
oi 325 ii
oAiaXAs 370, 390
of (dat.) 328 v
dn^xâ 138, 232
of (adv.) 342
d/xlx^V 141 ii
olda 106 i, 477, 494, 502, MMa 139 i a
6/jLo\oyiovn (Bubj.) 645 ig
506, 543, 549 i, 550
olde 176, 477
d/Mpyvv/xi 238, 481 e
oTSe;/ (with gen.) 334. 4
6/i6s 156, 259 iv
old' oTL 56
6fi6T7i$ 169
oies 317 n. 2
ofj-ws 341
oto 307
Sj- (d^'d) 624 i g
o?:ei 34 n., 209, 309, 313
6vop.a 359
okeiosp.340n.l,399n.3 dvo/Jtaifu 487 c
6vo^dK\vTos 284
olda p. 340 B. 1
oUiav 618 ii c
ii/^MaTa 157, 359, 861
oIkI(Tkos 483 a
6i'oVa7-os 309, 359
okoi 34, 209, 309, 313, bvv/xa. 624 i ^
oirdpac
( = 67r6(7ai) 654
317
oirorra (oTroo'a) 625 i ^
otKOis 176, 181 (3), 227,
OTTOTTOL ( = 67r6(7oi) 645 i a
305
6Trvi.i{d)eai. 645 i d
QtKOKTL 305, 321
oirwira 263
oIkov 303, 308
o&os 142, 294, 306, 343, diruiprjs 334. 7
6pdw 543
376
opyvta 309
otKovs 205
(5/)7i'ias 309
otKifi 181 (3), 311
dp^yvvfu 481 e
Siv 308
<i/5^7u 147
olvr; 407
oTtos ('ace') 149,176, 396, dpeKTos 378
dpii/u 487 c
407
(i
519
i
i,
'
op/iii/zedov
468
n. 2
V"*' 518
481 e, 549
220
dpo077 239
6po(pos 239
A6p?oi' 629 id
dpia-a-oi 232, 238
6/3wpc 549 ii
irpivoi 487 c
OS 825 iv
6(Tij.ii 393 n. 2
Spi/vfu
ii
opos
6We
366
325 vi
8Te 342
dniMi. 326 iv, 329 iv
oD (gen.) 328 iii
oS (adv.) 342
oi) 342, 556, 557. 2, 562
oi5a/) 135, 153, 354
ovkI 325 V
oBXos 154
otvoixa 220
oupaviwves 360
oi/s ( = iis) 623 i 6
ouo-a 374
oStos 325 ii
dtpelXw 239
o0eXos 232, 239
6(pp6os 371
dippvs 371
Sxos 138, 171
6\pelovTes 489
Si^-is 263
6^0 fiat 263
p. 192, 197,
0(7Tis
iradu 83
Trdôs
359
Trd^w 560
7ra6l(iv
252
7rai5a7W76s 293
Taides 635
TraidicrKi)
381, 483 a
635
TraiTrdXXw 446
iraibuiv
iraiffa {irciaa)
624 i/
TrdXro 188
iroXT6s 152, 259 vii
7rayoup70s 286
7rdp(7a
218
INDICES OF WORDS.
520
Trd{i')Ta
620
TravTodaTrds
286
623
TTCLvroup (gen. pi.)
TravTuv 635
rrapd 247, 314,
837.7,
341
irapaâivwptv (subj.) 654
193
7rapa^\(Jj\p p.
irapayLvdwvdri (3 pi. Subj.)
625
ii
247, 341
irdpos 247, 341
218
TT^t-re
645
Trared [Trarrjp)
625 i b
Trarô/xat 484
TTctrep 98, 307
jrareip
iraripa 48, p. 192,

258, 259 vi, 308
Trardpe 315
Trar^pes 32,
Trar^pi 311
irar^pOLV
Trar^pos
253,
322
48
402
Trdrpios
253, 259
vi,
309
32
7raiJ0p.ai 542
Trarpujv
iricTTis
259
390
259
i,
314, 338.
TredloLO {dLîrprjcraov)
334.
139
480
Triro/Mai 480 d
Trlrrapa 625 i
TT^rrapes 139
e,
Tref^w 175,252, 253,
405, 494
259
ii,
139 ia, 326

317
TToSi 165, 209, 311
TToSotJ/ 316
7ro56? 309
TToei;' (TToteip) 122
TToivru) 618 ii d
7r65es
7roi7a(7(Tat(7roiT;o'ao'â()
179,
259
481c
iii,
7ro?325
ii
&
(interrog.)
325
326
337.8
irOI.Vpi,VOS 648
TTotfxaivd} 487 c
iroipJv 307
7r6ê'
638
633
ie
TTO'^crtJO'ii'
405
526
TT^êuya 179
Tr6<pvKa 495
Tve<pvTevKr}iJ.ev
7ro5a7r6s
(7
7re(pdv$aL
48
42, 156, p. 194, 258,
259
481a
TvevOih
480
7r(35a
337. 8
Treijeo/j-aL
10
Tveieofj.v
ii,
509
496
ireTTovda 253
ireirbvdGLS 643 ii
jreirpeafSeiJKwv 624 ii 6
TT^Trpwrat 154
Trepa 341
Tripav 341
Wp5i^ 383
7rep7}(Tio (subj.) 559 &
Trepf 247, 337. 7, 341
irepLbi.bp.edov 468 n. 2
Trepi/cXuros 239
TrpL-n-\6p.vos 139
irlpvT}{iL 447, 481 a
TT^ppara 361, 624 i e
7rTdvvvp.L
492, 509, 511, 545

480 d, 481 a
133
TTLtTTds 259 ii
TTLcrvpes 139
TTiTi/^w 481 a, 488
iriri'rjfj.i 481 a
TTi'n/u) 481 a, 481 6, 488
7ru>^ 361
TrXaîJOira 633 itf
irXeiovep (aCG.) 633 ii a
irXdovs (acc. pi.) 352
ifKiov (TrXeioy) 122
ttX^wp (part.) 50
ttX^ôs 55, 366
ir\T}(Tp.ov7} 400
TTfOTJ 62
TT/o/ât
TTiTrrw 192,
7r4aaupes
542
7raxi^X6s 268,
Tref^y
150, 411
421
TT^TraKraL 446
ireiravKivaL 526
TTîreLKa 494
TriTreio-de 471
TreTTLd/iev 494
TT^puo-i
177
514
514
TraOpos 130,
TravaolfXTjv
Tredd 48,
i 6,
TT^TTO/Kpa
48, 92, 98, 104,

130, 162, 169, p. 192,
193,
258, 267, 295,
p.
306, 355
irarpdcn 32, 253, 259 vi,
7rai;w
139
TrevTT^KovTa
irewoidoixev
316
48
7rai;(70t//.t
437
347
494
317
rrarpds 48,
185
185
irrfXiKOS 370
Trrjxôs 371
TT'^X^'^S 371
TT^ÛS 371
TnaLvu) 487 c
TTidecrdat 165
TTt^w^ 252
TTLKpaivOJ 487 c
trVkvafMat 481 a
TTiXl'dcj 481 &
ttIXos 390
trifXTrpT) 517
TTiPw 545
TTTjKTds
TT^TToiâ 176, 253,
TrarTjp
jraTpl
Tv-qyvv fXL
Trej/Tds
Trardpa (jraWpa) 629
338. 8
TTjj
TreTafxa
irevTaKocTLOffTSs
-rrapal
Tracra
487 c
188
TreitTofxaL 252
TT^/CTOJ 192, 484
Trekduj 481 a
TrAXa 146
ir^Xfia 146
TT^/J-TTTOS 431
irevdepbs 102
7r^;/ôs 83, 359
TTELpdui
vi,
vi,
iii
560
GEEEK INDEX.
iroifiiva
a-ot/iivei
308
209, 317
188
143
TTp^TTOvaa
pu7es p. 194
x/i^(r/3us
(nj3vvvp.i
311
TTOlfiivOS 309
TrpeaÔrepos 9
TTOifi^cri.
322, 364
359
TTOivr] 139
irofos 326 ii n. 1
TTOLCplJCffUJ 446
TTOtu) 211
TTOtibS-qS 348
ir6X 311, 313
TToXeis 211
TTo\e/iiu 487 c
iroXeiww 487 c
TToXeos 309
TToXetrt 322
Trpr/du
TTOi^riv
npM/xidvf 380
7r/?6 341
irpoâats 299
Trpoypa<privTi. 639 a
TTOifi^VL
521
irp^cryus
143
485
<7ii
481
(=Via) 641
198
201
ird\7rt7{ 350
<ra /Mc
197 n. 1
aalpuj
(TciXos
(Tpinvp.!.
116. 2
6,
143,
399
481 e
xpd;Uos 282, 394
(T^ 198, 328 ii
irpo's 197 n. 1,246, 337.7,
<ril3oiMi 488
341
(r^(3u 197 n. 1
vpoaSe 314 n. 1
(7^6(1' 326 iii
Trporai'is 624 i^f
ireio 328 iii
7rporil97n. 1,246,337.7 ffô 328 iii
TrpoTidetat 624 i/
crira 299
TToXeMS (gen.) 267, 309, irpoTL69}VTi 639 a
(Tiros 299
365
TrpuiTos 427
(Ttw ( = eeoO) 637 i6
TTTdpvvpLai 481 e
7ro\7/t 313
uKUTos (gen.) 354
TToXi/os 365
irreXâ 192
crKeSauvvp.i 481 a, 481 c
TTT^pV^ 350
TTOXI 307
(TKedaoi 481 a
TTT/o-ffw 188, 487 e
TToXtos (gen.) 365
(TKeTTTLKOS 382
TTToXet 313
IloXiouêyos 625 i a
(TKeuawv {aKeuôjp) 633 i a
Trr6Xe/xos 197
TTo'Xis 365
<7K^\pop.ai 488
TToXttrt 322
TTToXlS 197
(TKidPT]p.L 481 (I
7roXri;s 293
TTTiil 624 ia
ff/ci0os 192
irueiaeai 165 n. 2
aKXTjpos 189
TToXfrou 293
TTiêu
168
(T/fOTT^W 488
TToXXci/cts 325 V
ttkXSs
(0uX^s)
645
i
d
(T/COTTOS
488
iroXXoi 164
IIfXot7ej/?7S 313
iTKcip 295, 354
TToXos 139
TrOfUiTos 394
afiepdaXôs 237
TToXd^ptjves 358
Trwddvoixai 102, 179, 481 c afxepSvos 202
TTOpKOS 147
TTiJaTis 259 iii
ff^'tpos 202, 237
jrop(pOpo) 487 &
ffojSû 488
TTwXos 152
n-is 618 ii e
<ro( 328 V
TTtis p. 193, 289, 375
TTOffi 187
crds 330
TToffis 133, 163, p.
192,
ffoO 328 iii
277
pdf 203
ixofpdjTepos 290
p^/i/3oât 481 d
TToaai 322
(Tiraipw 142, 207
p^w 203
TTorepov 387
(TTra'u 482 6
piwv 50
iroTcpos 139
.TTreipw 207, 282
p-^yvvfii p. 194
TTOTviav 308
cnr4vSo> 488
pr7os 203, 234, 237
jToO 325 vi
o-TT^p/ia 282
234
pifa
TTous 100, 104, 258, 289
ffir^pixoKoyoi 281, 282
piTTTioi
488
TTOUJ 245
(TTripxopiat- 486
pi^TTw 488
jrpaKrios 403
(r7rei55w 179
poSobaKTvKos 292
Trpa^lofiei/ {int.) 645 i (/
o*7r?5Xu7^ 350
phopaXaL 119, 643 i 6
Tpdaof 153
ctttXi;!' 189
pbiTTpov 388
irpauffovTacrffi 638 ii a
piiiyaKioi 403
ffTTovSri 122, 179
TrpoTo! 427, 637 i d
'jrpofj.pt](rTivo$
522
INDICES OF WORDS.
ffrad/xos
393
512
ffraiêv 512
ordXa 218
ardWa 218
(ttU/xiov 262
(r0ii
(XTairjv
(Tipwlrepo^
ffracris
165, 169, 262
ffr^yTj
237
329
tr^wi'
rivSo!
330
329
552 i
546 n. 2
Sw/cpctTT? 282
âKpa.TTji' 60, 282
XoiKptTT]! 618 ii a
(Tw/TOs 198
<rxes 520,
crx^trw
237
ffTf-yu 140 ii, 237
(JTciofx^v 650
raS (aoo. pi.) 645 i e
(TreixoJ 175
raffeio-i 219
o-raAw 170, 207
raf 325 ii, 326 i
are^îji 185
rats (dat. pi. ) 645 ie
arkpy-qOpov 389
rati (aec.) 624 i /
(TTk(pavos 400
rdXas 106 iv, 152, 218,
aTe<l>6,vwp.i 624 ii a
259 vii
o-TTjSi 518
rai'vy\(jj(rffo^ 133, 157
iTTTJXt) 218
TO-vvTai 481 e
(TT7)ofj.ev 511
ravijijo 481 e
(TTlyixa. 140 i a
Td/)a<'Ta (aco.) 273
<7Tifu 140 i a, 142, 197
ras (ace. pi.) 645 ic
(TT-oa 245
7-dxct 338. 10
ffrota 245
rdwi/ (gen.) 18, 142, 319
<rTOLX7}d6v 380
re ( = cr^) 328 ii
(XTopevvv^L 481 e
re ('and') 342
(TTpaîvv 358
Tey)7 237
arpoTos 624 i ^
Te70s 202, 287
(XTpuip-a 400
Tf7u 237
arpojîifr) 400
re/os 330
o-TpwTos 154, 189
Tedva.irjv 513
<ru 198, 328 i
TedpaiT}s 549 i
(Tuyyeveta 299
reOvriKa 495, 544
(yuyKadi\Kva6ri(rTai 275
Tedv-n^w 492
(Tl^feiryi'uj'ai 118 6
reicu 494
(Tv^rjv 118 Z>
Tetcra/xei/os 268
(TuXôi'Tes 630 ii c
ff^fiaros 637 i &
TKpiaipco 487
ffi);' 338.11, 341
TiKVOV 396
avvTlB-qa-i (2 sing.) 640 ii 6 TeKraiva. 207
<7upLy^ 350
TeKraiv(o 487 c
o-Os 201
Tf/cTW^ 50, 161 n. 3, 193
(Tfpayeis (with gen.) 334.1 TeXd/jnoy 259 vii
a(payiov 402
TfXdu 487 c
(r06 192, 329
re\(T(p6pos 268
cr{p'Tpos 330
reXew 482 6, 487 c, 494
reXXw 139
(7077^ 199
ciplyya 481 d
reXos 482 6
T\(TOf 184
o-0(// 329
(Trfios 330
rkti-voi 481 6
(rT^70s 202,
488
rô 325 vi
reojo 328 iii
TfoCs 328 iii
T^perpov 133
281, 282, 295, 317,
T^joôa
359
295, 306, 317, 359
ripTos 429
Tiffaapes 198, 410
rûaepes 189
Terd7;AefOS 624 ia
T^p/xojc
riruKa 494
TeTa/j.^qs
269
r^rapTOS 480
494
rereuxarai 472
T^TXai480e, 518
T^T'Kapi.ev 259 vii, 446
T^TOpes 139, 410
T^TpafXfXaL 496
Terpatparai 496
TETpdcpdac 526
T^rpoâ 496
TerpwKOVTa 421
TerrapaKOVTa 421
Tirrapes 189 i i
rerrdpots 628 a
reruiT/ceTO 483 ?>
Tû 325 vi
t/? 198, 328 i
ry]Kidihv 357
ttjXLkos 370
T^^/a (Ztjto) 645 16
TT]vu>8e 826 iii
rôs 650
ri 325 vi, 826 i
rer^Xe/ca
517
riêi
rfSeMo' 480 c
466
riSeo-ai
TieeaBov 469
T/9erai
467
T(7)Mt 100,
191
II.
480 c
rWijo-i 133
Tie-qTi. 183
rkrw
TtX
Tt/j.6.
480 d
645 i e
192,
(ris)
315
Tiâi 815,
817
1,
260,
I.
Ti.ixi.vt
645
Tifido/iai.
Tifids
Ti/icts
Ti/Mdio
31
205, 218, 248, 318
248
172, 211, 487 c
ii, 271, 309
139
TLHy 311
nfi-j^
448, 546 n. 2
(gen.) 271, 309
TLpi,TiffifiaoiJ,at.
ri/i7}s
448
402
TLfj.oOvres 647 ii c
Tiyois ( = r/) 628 a
TLfx-âofxai
tI/uos
GREEK INDEX.
TpLa 409
TptaKOVTa 421
Tpiraros 429
Tplros 429
TpoTria 488
TpiTTos 253,
{}tf)r]va
4>ay45aLva 357
Tpotpda 293
293
294
rpi^x" 486
559
624 i e
(palvaTai. 633 i a
(palvotxai 542
tpaivw 542
(paelvoi (subj.)
rpoîj p. 212 n. 1, 293

T/)o06s p. 212 n. 1, 293,
Tpiiji
396
fpaeivds
486
481/
Tr^ra (Z^â) 645 i h
Wcu 481/
Ti 328 i
Tioiixa 625 ia
ri's54, 139, 139i6,325vi T\)yx'i.v<^ 481 c
TlJp^T; 100
TiVi (dat. pi.) 54
tOs (tois) 625 i d
Tlai ( = relaei.) 625 i e
326 i
This 133
T(P (interrog.) 325 vi
TLTiffKofxat. 483 6
rXijâi 543
viKiv0o5 104, 136, 171,
tXt/tAs 154, 196
381
t6 163, 325 ii, 326 i
vyLaivets 117
Tol 176, 325 ii
iiSaros
(gen.) 354
Tol (adv.) 342
iidpos 147
TOio 326 ii
iiSwp
164,
354
ToiouTos 122, 211
iicTds 378
Tolp (rois) 633 i c
I'to^'s 640 i a
T6\}xa 269 vii
vl6s 116. 6
ToKfxav 543
L'yUas 329
ri!- 148
u/icis 171
T6ySe 118 6
vp.^Tepos 330
rics 640 i a
i'^tJ;' 142
t6s (aco. pi. ) 645 i c
u/i?;' 329
Tov (interrog.) 325 vi
iifiixe 171, 329
Tovvveovv 623 ii h
iilj.p.i(v) 326 iv
TovTU}6e 326 iii
Cl^jUos 330
Tpdirefa 48, 410
u^wp 329
TpdiTTjOi. 518
vv 341 n. 4
Tpairijoixev 511
Ws (i;i6s) 122
Tpdiroj 545
OTraSvytoLois 633 ii &
rpets 100, 211, 409
vir&pxOKTa 624 i/
rpeis /cai 5^/ca 418
UTT^p 193, 341
T/3^/tw 478
{jTTKTxvôfxai 481/
rpîrw 253, 488, 496
Uttvos 142, 396
Tp^(pocv 462
i.x6 337. 7, 341
r/9^(/> p. 212 n. 1, 496
'Twoerj^M 313 n. 1
rpiu 204, 478, 482 b
5s 168, 201, 289
Tpripojv 204
Ti.viiJ.evos
341
445
(nom. ptop.) 624 i/
ii(rTpos
tfi/'ois
488
Tpo(peLov p. 212 n. 1,
Tpo(peis 293
523
ipdevvos
(/âioxiruives
75
624 i/
0ai(Tt (3 pi.)
0^Xa7l 350
0a/i^^ 262,
0a/i( 262,
480 a
331
626
(/idi/ai
(^wels 362, 533

(pdvTjdi
518
526
(pavTJvaL
633
483 a
0ari 331, 480 a
0dipi;y {(pipuv)
(pdcTKU
0ar6s 141 i J
488
<t>ipop.ai.
0^/5c
617
0îoei (3 sing. prea.
act.)
454
ipipei (2 sing.
pres. mid.)
466
pip^Lv
312, 358
(pepeis
454
<p4p(TM 142,
466
(pipeaSov 469
(pepiada 522
522
522
(piperai 467
^^pere 31, 32
(pep^Trjv 621
^^pcTpov 388
0ep^TU 519, 521
(pep^Twv 520
ipep^rojaav 521
<pep4(reoiv
(pep^crdojaav
0^p7, (subj.) 454, 510

0^P2) (2 sing. pres. mid.)
466
0^p7)>'
358
0^pj)s 454,
0^poi 514
510
524
<p4poLev
INDICES OF WORDS.
514
464
fp^potf/.v
462, 514
<p4pois 493, 514
i>ipoiiî
(p6vos
141 16
93, 251
ipopeOt 365 n. 1
(jiopd
X^ppas (x^pas) 624

X^ppojv (xdpwv)
X^piros
624
277
259 i, 488
X^w (fut.) 492, 509
259 vi, 393
X<?w 138, 179
(pepi/iedd 470
ipopSs 259 vi
XV" 100, 138
^dpofiev 31, 32, 459, 480 b 06/505 488
X&api-aXds 356
<ppaal 259 v, 322, 364
<l>^popi.es 459, 480 6
Xês 233
<p^povTa 308, 533
^pdrvp 104, 132, 133, 855 Xfliic 192, 856
(p^pOVTES 28
cppi-Topa 259 vi
XiXtoi 158 n. 8, 425
0^poKTi (3 pi.) 28, 133, (ppdrwp 104, 106 ii, 355
Xtp^^tpa 138
163, 461
^pâra (pi.) 361
XL/J-apos 138
ipipovrov 624 ii c
4>pha p. 192, 258, 259 v Xtwj/ 856
4>pbvTU3V 521
rppecri 364
xXAt) 62
^^powi 28, 133, 461
xApro! 878
(ppw p. 192, 258
<pipw 14, 93, 100, 132, (ppovTLaTTjs
(with
ace.) XovpcLv 623 i &
147, 161, 251, 259 vi,
333. 6 a
Xpa-iSoi (xp^fc) 633 i a
453, 488, 543
(ppo6pLov 268 n. 1
Xpeifl/Movv (gen. pi.) 623
(p^pajpicv 510
(ppOycij 158 n. 3
ic
ipipuii' 306 n. 1, 362
ipvyif 181 (1)
Xpetrrat (xpî^ât^ 629 c
4,ipuivTai 227, 510
tpvyds 348
XP^P-droit 633 ii ??
tp^pOJVTL 510
0i'77cj'w 481 c
XpAcoi 623 11 c
(p^pijldL 510
XputroGs 269
<t>vyn 88, 376
ÊijyeLv 544
^livj (opt.) 172
Xo-di/ôj 643 i a
<l)evy(XKOv 483 a
(pvi-n (opt.) 172
Xi^rpa 388
î57u 83, 179
ûXafi 322
Xiipi 278, 823
tpriycvos 398
(pvXij 299
Xf^plov 268
0))76s 160, 294, 376
0CXoj/ 299
xojpis 247, 278, 323
ipvTdv 378
0i?/ii 331, 453, 480 a
^wi/Tj 262
i/'du 486
<pvij.it 370
0c6p p. 193, 375, 528
xpi 192, 643 id
</)j;crf 331, 480 a
(piis 375
\teu5^s 295, 351
4,edvio 113.2, 481/
êvSrjs 351
^Se/pw 113. 2, 494
Xa/i'W 138
^('eOSos 295, 351
</)/ 113. 2
Xa/pw 487 a
i/'7/Xa0du) 193
/
4>eipu 118. 2, 193, 481
Xo-Mtttoi 192, 197, 487 c
(pedri 62
XaA^f 117
^lAeire 121. 122, 175
xancii 138, 387. 6
wa 164
<pi.\iu, 172, 211, 487 c
Xo.vSdvw 141 ii, 481 c
UTO 388. 10
4>i\7)p.L 51
Xapiei-t 364
wK-eap6s 239
't'lXr^'os p. 338 n. 1
(dat.
pi.)
Xa.pU<n
364
ci/fl'S 371
îXLTTiros 117
Xapfetrtra 364
ajXî-T? 146
<pL\oirdTOjp 92
Xcipiv 338. 7
wXcro ( = fut.) 552 v
*iXii 405
Xdpirep 638 ii a
wv 363
<J>tfrfas 643 i c
XdcrKw 138
uvbp.rjva 503
(piTV 372
XefXiot 425
'Qpop.d^Tjs 118 c
(pXeyieoi 485
Xeipa 856
ws (prep.) 338. 8 n. 1
<;6X4 346
XEL/j.EpLv6s 206
ci0eX^M 239
<poêpis 386
XEi.P'ii^v 138, 356
w0eXoi' 121, 567
0o^û 488
Xl(TOfj.ai 481 d
wXf 548 ii
Vi6/3os 488
xAXioi 425, 624 i e
ip^pofj,aL
31
i/>op^w
(pop/u.6s
II.
The
Italic Index.
= Oscan, P = Paelignian,
Latin words have no distinguishing mark.
following abbreviations are used
XJ
= Umbrian.
aamanaSed 0.
665. 4 a
afficio 191,
273
U. 663. 2
402
321
alis 402
aliud 326 i, 408
alius 402, 428
alnus 186
alo 485
alter 428
alteram 387
altitude 857
alumnus 400
ama 517
amabam 442, 501
amabilem 249
amabilis 279
amabitur 272
amabo 441, 493
amamus 272
amant- 227
amarier 530
amasse 528
amavisse 528
ambages p. 193, 261
ambitus 182, 341
ambo 297, 315
ambulatam 529
amem 512
amemus 512
amicus 383
amo 172, 211
anas 158
ancus 189 ii
a(n)fero(m) U. 665. 5
alfo-
ab3
age 517
alid
abioit 125
agellus 390
alis (dat. pi.)
abiegnus p. 188 n. 1
abies 374
aborigines 398
agendum 631
agendus 531
ager 100, 147, 159, 215,
228
530
ac244
aooeptus 159
accerso 482 6
agi
(2)
agimus
agite 161 (1)

agitis 457
agito 519
actud 0. 663. 3
actum est 549 i
acturus 537
aoum
agitor 523
agitote 521
agitur 475
0. 665. 5
acupedius 371
acutus 53
addo 191
Adeodatus 284
adigo 159 (1), 274
adimo 249
advenio 547
aedes 174
aeneus 223
aenus 396
aeque (constr.) 335. 2
338. 2
aere 314
aeruca 383
Aesculapius 215
aestas 261
aestimo 174
aevom 172, 861
163, 480 b
agis 455
agit 455
aeer 370
acies 374
actor 355
agmen 183
agnus 180 u. 1, 396
ago 261
agricola 293
Agrigentum 273
agrum 386
c,
aguntur 475, 528

Agustus 177
aidilis 174
aio 138
airid 310
ala 186, 392
albeo 487 c
albere 488 a
albescere 483 a
Albinus p. 838 n. 1
Alcumena 215
526
INDICES OF WORDS.
ango 150
animadvertere 278
animal 244, 366
auxerit (fut.) 555

avaritiae (pi.) 296
aves 223
avif U. 663. 6
animum
advertere 278
animus 169, 393

Anio 360
anser 100, 125, 138
ante 133, 159, 337. 8, 341
auticus 383
aperio 487 c
Appelluneis 0. 664. 5 b
aps 341
apstineo 125
aptus 192
arare 20 n. 2
arator 355
aratrum 388
arbor 295
arborem 308
arborescere 483 a
arbos 55, 294, 295, 351
arcesso 482 b
arebam 501
arena 125
Ariminum 249
aro 159
arsferturo U. 664. 5
artifex 159 (2)
artus 372
Ateius 402
Atius 402
at(jue 244
atrox 383
audacem 308
audaees 317
audaci 811
audacter 283
audax 306, 383
audi 517
audiens (dicto) 336. 1 c
audio 487 c
audirem 515
audissem 515
audivisse 528
audivissem 515
augeo 481 c
augere 177
auris 366
Aurora 384, 482 6 n. 1
auspicato 339
aviUus 180 n.
avius 402
axis 186, 392
balbus 131, 288*

0. 658
Bantins 0. 663. 6
bellus 390, 397
bene 390
Beneventum 273 n. 1
benignua p. 188 n. 1, 274
benust U. 63
beru U. 663. 1
bideus 408
bimus p. Ill n. 1, 214
bis 408
biuo- 0. 663. 1
Bansa
blasphemare 9
blatire 487 c
bonus 397
bos 18, 63, 140
(6), 289
breviter 283
Brigantes 24
burgus 24
a,
181
cadaver 353
oadivos 404
caducus 383
Caecihs 402
Caecilius 402
oaedo 481 a
caelebs 346
oaelicolum 319
caementa 299
caementum 299
calare 146
caloar 244, 295
calda 183
caldus 228
calefacio 273
caligo 357
calx 117
canis 136
Canpaui (Campani) 127

canticum 382
cape 517
capit 487
capitur 449
capiunt 487
caprina 399
captivus 208
captua 103 ii
cardo 357
carne 254
carnem 254
carnes 296
carnis (gen.) 254, 358
care 254, 358
carpo 139 ii
castellum 268 n. 1
castus 183
cavum 212
ce 325 V
cede 325 v
eedo 482 6
cena 223
oensamur 0. 665. 6 a
censtur 0. 664. 1
centesimus 437
centum 104, 423
centurio 360
cepi 494, 497
cerebrum 188, 204, 386
cerno 215, 389, 481 6
cernuos 188, 403
cervix 349
ceterum 341
cette 183
cieo 488
(jimu {himo) V. 660
circueo 127
ois 325 V
citerior 387
cito 338. 10
citra 325 v, 387
civitas 369 n. 1
Cladius 177
Claudius 129, 177
claudo 177
clavis 189
clavos 189
cliuo 136
clivos 136, 403
cloaca 383
Clodius 129, 177
II.
370
<!oactum 127
coeroeo 127
<!Ogito 490
cribrum 389
crimen 359
cruentus 481
cognomen 127, 359

cognomeuta 157, 361
oognomentum 357, 359
cuium 328
cogo 490
oohibere 127
culmen 400
clunis
coicere 127, 224
127
coisatens 0. 663. 6
coUa 299
ooUido 174
coUigo 161 (1), 274
coUis 189 ii, 183
solium 184
eolo 139
<!oire
527
ITALIC INDEX.
dens 134, 362
densuB 157
desilio 249
destra U. 663. 5
cui 123. 6, 129, 326
ii
cuius 326 ii, 328

culina 188
destrst 0. 663. 5 6
iii
devas 322
die 520
dicitur 449
iii
cum (quom) 125, 342

cum (prep.) 205, 338.
dico 105, 184, 490

11,
341
dictito 490
dicto 490
cupio (with gen.) 334. 4

cuspis 348
custodia 299
oustodio 487 c
eustos 191, 192
dictu 529
corculum 390
dedrot 497
domum
Corinthiacus 382
cornu 106 iv, 351
cornua 317
defenstrix 190
degener 295, 351
deieo (dico) 134
deikum 0. 665. 5
domus
dictum 878
dictus 490
diduco 225
diem 289
dies 181 (5)
cutis 287
dignus 186, 195
dilabor 225
columna 400
dimitto 225
dadikatted 0. 665. 4 b
combifiansi XJ. 665. 4 d
Diovis 197
daps 346
comes 347
dirimo 225
datio 360
comis 367
dator48, p. 189n. 1,254, discipulina 215
commentus 259 v
disco 188, 483 6, 488
264, 295, 344, 355
communis 370
dispennite 194
comparascuster 0. 665. 8 datore 48, 254
divos 374, 404 n. 3
datorem 48
compos 163
divum (gen. pi.) 209
datoris 48, 254
concentus 159 (2)
dixe (inf.) 336. 4, 528
datus 264
conculeo 159 (2)
dixi 497
de 341
conoutio 159 (1)
dixim 518, 515
deabus 321
conditus 260
dixissem 515
deae (dat.) 311
condo 191 n. 1
dixo 441, 492, 493, 509
deae (gen.) 313
conseijui 544
dixti 482 a
deam 308
conspicio 103 i
do 27, 52, 191 n. 1
dearum 18, 319
consulatus 372
decent 227
debeo 273
contagio 360
decem 136, 161, 415, 416 doceo 488
contagium 360
dolabra 389
decimus 435
conventio 357
dolere (with aoe.) 333. 5 b
decorare 482 b
coquo 139
dolus 249
dedecori (est) 331
cor 100, 134
domi 282, 813
dedi 446
coram 337. 7
cosol (consul) 127, 224

coventio 127, 287
crastinus 401
creber 389
credidi 52
credo 52
deis 321
deiuast 0. 665. 2
deivos 322
deliro487c
dem 512
333. 1 6
148, 163, 282, 294
dona( = donum)
299
donum
n. 1
264, 897
dormire 483 a
dos 27, 264, 360
drachuma 215
duam 361 n. 1
due 520
duco 178
(5)
528
INDICES OF WORDS.
duim 512
est ('eats')
dulcis 196
duo 84, 134,
esto 519
esurire 487 c
et 244, 342
euntis (gen.) 362, 363
ex 193, 341
326
i,
297,
315,
408
diiodeviginti 418
dvenos 397
Dyrrhachium 273
n. 1
ecce 325 v
edi 162, p. 167 n. 2
edim 512
edo 485
egi p. 167 n. 2
Egidius 249
Egilius 249
ego 161, 327, 328
eius 325 iii, 326 ii
emo
209
examen 183
fero 14, 100, 132, 147,

161, 259 vi, 543
fers 455, 520 n. 1
fert 133, 455
fertis
extemplo 278
extempulo 215
exteri 387
extra 387
ferus p. 194
fesna- U. 663. 5 c
fides 55, 165, 259
fidimus 480 b
fido
520
161, 164, 249, 259 iv

entelust U. 665. 3, id
Epidamnus 273 n. 1
facillumed 326
facinus 188
Epona 136
faotud 0. 663. 3
eporedia 136
equabus 321
facturum (inf.) 528

faginus 398
equae (dat.) 209

equae (nom. pi. ) 315
equas 222
eque 31
equester 388
equi (pi.) 29
equi (gen.) 29
equidem 325 viii
equis 321
equitare 24
equo (dat.) 29
equo (abl.) 29
equod 326 iii
equom 29
equorum p. 167 n. 1
equos 20, 23, 29, 31, 41,
136, 163
equos (ace. pi.) 29, 224
eram 501
ero 441, 493, 509
erom U. 664. 3
es (imper.) 517
esca 381
esoendero (fut.) 555
escit 483 a
essem 142, 515
est 142, 161, 480 a
fagus 55, 160, 294, 376

falsus 184
fama 262, 393
farci 517
fariolua 138
fateor 262, 484
fatur 480 a
iii
faxo 441, 493
260
feido 175, 259

felare (inf.)
321
321
162
findo 481 d
fingo 481 d
finio 172
firmiter 283
fissus 187
fisus 187
fiabrum 196
flammescere 483 a
flamus 480 a
flavus 279, 403
flemus 480 a
fleo 480 a
fles 480 a n. 2
fletus 498
flevi 498
filiabus
filius
faxim 515
ii
373
383
femen 354
feminis (gen.) 354
femur 354
fendo 141 i b, 487 a
lex 517, 520
feras 510
ferebamus 464
ferens 362
ferentem 308, 533
feres 493, 510
feretrum 388
ferimus 459, 480 b
ferio 487 a
felix
175
filiis
260
faveo 180
feci 135,
ii
fidustus 55
fiisna- 0. 663. 5 c
fabula 262
facio 100,
521
ferunt 163, 461

ferunto 521
feruntor 523
exanclare 391
existumo 174
fac
457
ferto 519,
fertor 523
flo480a
Flora 384, 482 6 n. 1
floridus 380
fluvi 125
fodio 263
foedus p. 139 n. 1, 176,
259 ii
folia 299 n. 2
foliae 299 n. 2
folii 299 n. 2
folium 299 n. 2
folus 138
foras 135
forma 393
formonsus 357
II.
formosus 357
formus 393, 141
fors
b,
148
ITALIC INDEX.
geniuB 157, 259 v

genu 137, 371
geuubus 167
genui 498
genuini (deutes) 371
529
honor 378
honos 295, 351
horior 487 a
153, 165, 259 vi,

278 u. 1
hortus 378
forsitan 278 n. 1
hospes 163
forte 259 vi, 278
genus 31, 137, 142, 163, hostia 103 i, 106 i, 163
fragor 206
259 V, 351
humi 337. 6
fragum 203
gerundus 380 n. 2
humillimus 394
frateer U. 664. 1
gignimus 480 d
humuns 0. 664. 1
frater 106 ii, 132, 133, giguo 137, 259 v
humus 138, 215, 356
365
gilvus 279, 403
huuo 163
fratrem 93, 249
glocire 487 c
hiirz 0. 663. 3
fratrus U. 663. 3
gnatua 158
fraudo 177
graoUentus 286, 290
i517
fremo 206
gradatim 326 v
ibo 441
fretum 206
gradior 141 ii
Idem 225
frigidulus 390
grus 140 ii
iens 362, 363
frigo 158 n. 3
gustare 178, 259 iii
ignis 370
frigus 203, 237
guttura 299
ignotus p. 104 u. 1, 127,
frustra 177
378
frutex 206
habilis 279
liuvinu- U. 660
fuas 501 n. 3
haec 325 vii
Ikuvius U. 660
fuat 172, 501 n. 3
haee (pi. neut.) 326 i
iUco 163, 189, 249, 274,
fuous 199
halare 222
278
fudit 179
harena 125
illeoebra 889
fueram ( = fui) 551 n. 4
hariolus 138
illi (loo.) 326 ii
fuga 376
illio 272, 326 ii
hau 235, 342
fugae 181 (1)
iUius 326 ii
haud 235, 342
fugio 487 c
illustris 186
haut 235, 342
fui 227
im 325 iii
helvus 403
fuisse (be dead) 549 i
imbutus 53
hemo Old L. 138
fuliginosus 357
impos 163
hemonem 358
fullonicus 382
in- (neg.) 106 iii, 157
hiare 138
fulvus 279, 403
in 149, 247, 337. 7
hibernus 206
fumus 393
hio 325 V, 325 vii, 326 i, incesso 482 b
fundo 13^
inciens 488
520
incipit 127
funebris 204
hiemps 138, 356
funera = funus)'299 (5) hisoo 138, 483 a
inolitus 536
fur 528
include 177
historiam 249
inclutus 133, 146, 167,
furvus 403
hoc 325 vii
378
Fusius (Furius) 125
holus 138
incurvicervicus 275
homine 310, 313
inde 314 n. 1
Gaius 404 n. 3
hominem 258, 308
gaudeo 485
homines 209 n. 1, 223, ingens 362
inhonestus 378
geua 161
317
inquam 453
generare p. 194, 384, 482 b homini 311
inquilinus 139
geuere 313
homo 138, 258, 358
inquit 331
generis 31, 142
homonem 358
insece 139 ia
genibus 167
homunoio 360, 382
instigare 140 i a, 142
genitus 498
homunculus 382
(
G. P.
34
530
INDICES OF WOEDS.
insulio 159 (1)

insulto 249
inter 283 n. 1
interior 387
intus 826 iii
investigare 175
labea 299
lien 189
labium 299
laborare 482 h
lignum 161
limpa 167
labosem (laborem) 125
lino 481 b
lac 295, 306 u. 1

laorima 378, 393
lacruma 100, 134
linquo 189
lactuoa 383
laedo 174
laevos 174, 403
lis
ipsa 325
ipse 825
326 i
ipsemet 326 iv
irremeabilis 279
is (pron.) 325 iii
ispiritus 249 n. 1
ista 325 ii
istarum 18, 142, 319
iste 825 ii
isti (nom. pi.) 176
isti (loc.) 826 ii
istic 826 ii
iatinc 826 v
istius 326 ii
istorum 326 vi
istud 168, 825 ii, 326
istum (ace.) 148
it 480 a
iter 283
ito 519
itur 449
i,
lambo 481 d
lana 154
lanugo 857
lapis 848
latrina 212
latus 154, 196
lavaorum 390
lavere 180
lectioa 883
legam
i
(fut.)
441, 493
legatus 378
lege 517
legebam 272
Jegebamini 49, 280
legere (imper. pass.) 325
n. 1
legere (inf.) 336. 4, 515
(2),
a,
195
481 d
d
XioKaKeLT 0. 665. 4
lippus 104
189
loea 299
locuples 347
locus 189, 249, 299
loidos 176
longinquos 286
lora 231
lubet 167
lubricus 100, 131
lucem (ace.) 146
lucrum 390
ludius 402
ludus 176
lumpa 167
luna 186
lutulentus 286
luxuriei (gen.) 309, 313
luxuriem 308
luxuries 374
lympha 167
legerem 272, 515

magister 387
magistreis 317
jecinoris 139 i a, 354
magnus 158
jecur 139 io, 207 n. 1, legi (int.) 386. 4
major 1.38, 222
legimini (part.) 28, 49, Maleventum 278 n. 1
295, 354
Jovis (gen.) 197, 289
malignus p. 188 n. 1,
359, 400
judex 284
legimini (imperat. pass.)
274
juga 299, 317
manu 813
359, 523, 530
jugum 144, 167, 308, legio 360
manui 311
legisse 528
806, 876
manum 808
jumentum 226
legissem 280, 312, 515
manus 306
jungo 52, 481 d
legunto 18
manias (gen.) 309
Juppiter 159 (1)
leo 50, 362
maniis (n. pi.) 317
jus (broth) 144
leonis 50
mare 165, 366
jutua 498
leviorem (ace.) 852
margo 857
juvencus 104, 186, 171. levir 355
mariscalcus 20 n. 2
381
levis 141 i c
mater 106 ii, 148, 160,
inventus 299, 869
lex p. 193, 375
355
jnvi 498
liber 231
matrer U. 664. 5 b
liberum 386
Matuta (dat.) 311
Eerri 0. 663. 5 d
libet 167
me 327, 328 ii
kumbened 0. 63
licet 278, 480 a
med 328 iv
jacio 487 c
leges (2 sing, fut.) 441,
jam 342
498
leget 493
II.
531
ITALIC INDEX.
meddiss 0.663. 56,664.
mordeo 446
noctis 139 ic
medikeis O. 664. 5 b
medius 135, 172, 197
morior 487 c
mors 287, 366
nomina 317
nominis
(gen.)
mefio- 0. 663. 2
megalesia (megalensia)
mortuos 206, 403, 536

motar U. 660, 664. 3
motus 498
movi 498
nomner
(gen.)
127
mei 328 iii
meilia 425 n. 1
meio 138
memento 519
memet 326 iv
memini 259 v, 488, 494,
549 i
meminit 26
mens 25, 259 v
mensis 162, 321
menstruos 403
mentio 25, 287
meraous 383
mereennarius 194
merces 348
mergo 148
metuo 487 c
meus 330
mi 326 V, 327
migrare 140 i a, 230
mihi 326 v
miles 143
milia 425
mina 215
MiDerva 259 v, 403
mingo 138
minister 387
minuo 481/
miseeo 483 a
miser 142
misi 187
missum 187
moderare 482 b
modicus 382
modo 338. 10
moiros 176
moltas 0. 664. 3
momordi 446, 497
monebam 462
monebo 441, 493
moneo
26, 172, 211,
monitus
(part.)
monstrum 392
morbus 377
488
488
mox
322
mugatu U. 660
muietu U. 660
miiinikei 0. 664. 4
muletra 388
mulgeo 137, 148, 230

mulsi 184
multa 378
murio 487 c
muris (gen.) 142
murmuro 446
murus 176
mus 168, 289
nactus 158
nare 487 a
Nasica 383
nasus 142
natine U. 664. 2, 5 a
navem 289
nayis 181 (4), 289 n. 3
nebrundines 141 i a
nebula 390
neco 351, 488
neoopinato 339
nefrones 141 i a
nemo 138, 214
nemus 259 iv
neo 149
nepos 347
nerf U. 663. 6
neu 129, 178
neuter 123. 6
nidor 195
nidus 143, 199, 259 i
nihil 214
nil 138, 214
ninguit 141 i a
Niumsieis 0. 664. 5 b
nivem 141 i a
no 487 a
nobis 329
noceo 488
358
U.
358,
664. 5 6
415, 434
nonus
nos 329
nosco 14, 137
noster 330, 387
nostri 329
nostrum (gen.) 329
nova 291, 376
novem 415
noveram 550
novi 494, 549 i, 550
novissimus 394
novitas 241, 369 n. 1
novos 161, 180
novum
291, 376
novus 149, 291, 376

nox 103 ii, 347
noxa 351
nucleus 186
nudius 167
num 342
Numasioi
181
(dat.)
(3),
311
Numeric
(dat.)
181
(3)
nundinum 434
nurus 104
nutrio 487
nutrix 228, 487
ob341
obdormiscere 483 a
obedio p. 139 n. 1
obsidio 360
obsidium 360
= obtulerat) 551
= plpf.) 670
obtulit (
occideris
oociduos 404
ocoultus 152
ooris 370
octavus 433
Octember 406
ootingenti 424
ooto 103 ii, 106
i,
414
octodecim 417
ootuaginta 433
342
163,
532
INDICES OF WORDS.
oouluB 139 ia, p. 192,

197
odi 549 i
odor 134
oenus 176
oleaginus p. 189 n.
patrem
oleaster 392
oleo 134
pax 105
peoto 484
peetora 299
48,
308
patres 317
Patricoles 215
patris 48, 259 vi
patrius 402
pauous 130, 177
pinso 487 c
pinus 373
pisO. 139 16, 663. 1
piscina 399
piscis 103 i
plantas (2 sing. pres. ) 211
plaustrnm 177
plebes 55, 366
plecto 484
pleo 227
peou 50
pleores 352
pecnnia 50
pletns 498
pecus (-oris) 50
plevi 498
peeus (-udis) 50, 348
optimus 80, 128, 167, 394 pede 165, 209, 259 i, 310, ploirumos 352
optumus 80, 128, 167
plostrum 177
311, 313, 314
opulentua 286
pedem 42, 156, p. 194, plumbago 357
ora 164, 299
plurimus 352
258
orator(withaco.?)333. 6a pedes 223, 317
poculum 215
ornus 55
pomerium p. 139 n. 1,
pedester 388
osatu U. 660
pedestris 190
176, 224, 493
oves 211, 317
pedeteutim 326 v
noyHjTTies 0. p. 340 n. 1
ovi 311
pondus 112 n. 2
pedica 382
ovile 366
pono 224
pejor 394
ovie 172, 180, 306, 309, pellis 146
Pontius p. 340 n. 1
366
pello 187, 259 vii, 481 b
popler U. 664. 5 b
ovis (ace. pi.) 317 n. 2
penesp. 34n.,312, 337. 8 poploe (dat.) 311
porca 153
penna 194
pacis (gen.) 185
porous 147
pennis 321
paganus 58
porrigo 147
penus 312
palmaris 370
porrum 153
pepigi 105, 185
pains 348
pepnli 259 vii
portio 360
pandidi 52
pepulit 446
portust U. 665. 4 c
pando 52, 194, 380 n. 2
peregriuus 399
poseo 188, 483 a
pango 105, 481 d
peremnst 0. 665. 3
possem 670
papaver 363
pergo 228
possim 570
parasitaster 392
periclum 133, 390
posterior 394
paraveredus 20 n. 2
pericnlum 215, 390
postumus 290, 343, 394
paricidas 293, 306
peril 549 i
potior 487 c
pars 154, 278, 287, 366
persnimu U. 665. 6 a
potiri (locis) 337. ia
partem 360, 366
pes 100, 104, p. 193, 258, potis 133, 163, p. 192,
partim 278, 326 v, 360,
289, 375
277
366
pessimua 394
potus 378
parturire 487 c
pihafei(r) U. 665. 8
prae 341
pasoo 142, 483 a, 484
pihaner U. 663. 5 a
praebeo 273
paseor 381
pihaz U. 663. 3
praeda 141 ii
passus 187, 190
Pilipus 117
praefamino 523
pater 130, 162, 169, p. 189 pilum 188
praesaepe 366
n. 1, 254, 295, 306, 355 pilua 390
praesens 157, 363
paterfamilias 309
pingo 481 d
praidad 310
patre 48, 310, 311, 313
pinsio 188
precor p. 192, 483 a
olim 326 v
oranis 370
opilio 179 n. 3
opinio 360
opprimo 161 (1)
prehendo 141 ii, 481 d

prelum 188, 392
premo 478
n. 1
presbyter 9
preBsi 478 n. 1
primus 394, 427
prinoipatus 372
prisous 394
prismu P. 663. 5 c
pristinus 394, 401
pruina 487
probitus 665. 9
probrum
389, 391 n. 4
procus p. 192, 483 a
profecto 273
propinquos 286
proaeseto U. 663. 7
protervus 192
protinus 249
prupehast TJ. 665. 2
prurio 487 c
puellula 390
puloherrimus 394
puUus 152
pulsus 151, 152, 259 vii
pumilio 360
Pumpaiianeis 0. 664. 5 6
Puntlis 0. p. 340 n. 1
purgo 228
purigo 228
piis 0. 664. 3
puteo 168
quadraginta 421
quadringenti 424
quae (pi. neut. 326 i
quaero 482 b
quaeso 482 b
quails 370
qualum 222
quam (conj.) 342
quartus 410, 430
quatio 487 c
quattuor 130, 139 i b
que 342
queo 488
qui 325 vi, 326 i
)
qui
(loo.)
quia 342
quid 325
337. 8
vi,
326
583
ITALIC INDEX.
II.
quidlibet 274
quin 342
quinotus 431
quindecim 228
quingentesimus 437
quinquaginta 421
quinque 139 i 6, 150, 161
(2), 411
quintus 431
quia 139 i b, 325 vi
qum (quom) 125
quo 342
quodl39ia, 325vi,326i,
342
quoi 326 ii
quoius 326 ii
quoniam 205
quot annis 337.2
quot mensibus 337. 2
rape 517
rapio 487 c
rastrum 392
reoturus 528
rectus 378
rogitua 665. 9
rogo (with 2 ace.) 333.
5c
Koma
203
313
Eomai 309
rostrum 392
ruber 135, 147, 196
rubrum (ace.) 386
rubus 179 n. 3
ructare 231
rudimus 480 b
rudis 367
rufus 135
ruma 393
rumpo 481 d
rumputus 53
runoina 481 c
runcinare 481 c
ruperunt 552 iii
rusticus 382
Komae
sacaraoirix 0. 661
sacerdos 215, 347
reditus (with ace.) 333.
6a
regamur 449
regar 449
saeclum 391
saeculum 215
saepio 487 c
aaeptus 192
sagire 142
regere 528
sakaraMom 0. 661
regeremur 449
regerer 449
regimur 449
regina 399
regio 360
regnabat 548 ii
regor 449
rehte U. 663. 4
sakarater 0. 665. 7
sakrafir 0. 665. 8
sal 142, 289
salinae 399
salio 249'
reminiscor 26
reppuli 228
res 181 (2), 281
restio 860
retiouisset 570
rettuli 228
rex p. 193, 306 n.
rexi 502
rexisse 528
rigor 203, 237
robigo 179 n. 3
robus 179
sarci
sallo 183,
sam 325
289 n.
2,
sapio p. 132 n.
3,
487
517
sas 325 i
satus 260
Bcala 188, 222, 392
485
scibam 501
scibo 441, 493
sciebam 501
scilicet 278
scindo 481 a
scisco 483 a
screare 189
scriba 293
534
INDICES OF WORDS.
scriftas 0. 663. 4, 664. 3

scripsi 496
se (pron.) 328 ii
sexaginta 422
sextus 188, 431
statif 0. 664. 2
atatim 262, 326 v, 360
341
seeare 193
secerno 206
secundus 428
securim 308
sed 328 iv, 341
sedeo 134, 142, 159 i
sedes 55, 366
sedi 494
sedibus 199, 366
sedimus 497
sedulus 249
seges 347
segmentum 193
sella 390
semel 106 iii, 156
semen 142, 162, 260
semifer p. 194
semper 259 iv
senati 282
senatus (gen.) 282
senectuB 869
senex 349, 882
seni 188
senis (gen.) 382
septem 180, 413
Septimus 432
septingenti 420, 424
septuaginta 43.3
sibi
342
826 v
sibila 299
sibUus 299
sic 520
static 165, 169, 262

stationem 360
Statis 0. p. 340 n. 1
stativos 404
se (adv.)
se(iuere(2sing.pres.) 163,
449, 474
sequere (imper.) 520
sequeris 449, 474 n. 2
sequi 544
sequimini 449
sequor 139 i a
serfe U. 663. 5 d
serimus 446
sermo 859
sero (vb.) 142, 162, 165,
480 d
servitude 869
servitus 369
servos 125, 163
sessus 188
seu 123.6, 178
sex 412
si (sei)
states 0. 664. 3
statua 404
statue 172
siccus 244, 382
sidimus 480 d
sido 143, 198, 225, 259
siem 512
sies 142
silere 113. 2
silvaticus 382
sim 512
similis 370, 390
simplex 156, 259 iv
simus
(vb.) 166, 512

sinister 387
sLno 113. 2, 481 b
sipus 0. 164, 353

siquis 325 vi
sistamus 510 n. 2
sistimus 446, 480 c
sistit
480
sisto 165,
sitio 487 c
stem 512
stemus 512
stemamus 510
480 d
n. 2
steterunt 497
steti 52, 446, 481
stetimus 446
stilus 196
stipendium 228
stlis 189
stlecus 189
stratus 154, 189
studium 402
stupidus 380
suavis 142, 160, 367, 374

sub 387. 7
subtemen 188
subter 337. 7
sudor 142
slaagi- O. 663. 5 c
sui 828
sobrinus 204, 399

socer 180, 201
suinus 166, 399
solidus 380
solium 184, 259 i
somuus 142, 396
sons 363
soror 180, 201, 855
SOS 325 i
sovos 330
species 874
a
spectatum (supine) 333.
-specie 487
sum
sum
iii
(vb.) 52, 215,
(pron.) 825
453
sumus 215
suo (vb.) 142
super 193, 341, 337.
386
surge 228
surpui 228
sus 168, 289
Buus 330
svai 0. 342
7,
Id
sperno 142, 481 b
spiritum 249
spoudeo 488
spopondi 446
spretus 189
spuma 393
spuo 197
stabulum 215, 391
starem 515
tagez U. 660
tactio (with ace.
talis
333. 6 a
870
tangineis 0. 664. 5 b
tanginom 0. 664. 2,5 a

tanginud O. 664.
tango 481 d
Tarentum 273
te 328 ii
2,
5 a
II.
teehina 215
ted 328 iv
teer[um] 0. 663. 5 d
tego 98, 140 ii
tela 186, 223
temere 204
temet 326 iv
temno 481 6
temper! 851
temulentus 286
tendo 194, 480 e
teuebrae 204
teneo 480 e
tenuis 188, 157
teuus 57, 249
terebra 138
terei 0. 664. 4
teremniss 0. 663. 3
ITALIC INDEX.
trigesimus 486
triginta 317, 421
.535
uupsens 0. 665. 4 c
uxoronla 390
trimestris 403
tripudium 259 i
tuber 206
tuemdam (tuendam) 127
tui 328 iii
tuli 106 iv, 196, 543
tulo 106 iv, 196
tumeo 206
turba 100
turbae (nom. pi.) 317
turbarem 515
turbas 818
turbassem 515
turbassim 515
turbasait 515
turbavissem 515
termen 281, 295, 317, turbo 487 c
359, 400
turdus 188
terminus 400
turgere 488 a
termo 295, 806, 317, 359, turgesoere 488 a
400
turpis 367
terrae (loo.) 337. 6
tnrsitu U. 663. 5 d
tertius 429
tus 117
testudo 357
tutudi 465
tetuli 259 vii, 446, 497
tuus 880
texi 502
tibi 326 V
tignum 161 (2), 195, 396 ubei 342
uber 185, 158
tilia 192
timendum (poenas) 833. ubi 342
66
Uhtavis 0. 663. 4
timidus 380
uhtretie U. 664. 2
tintinnio 487 b
liittiuf 0. 663. 6, 664. 2
toga 98
ulna 146
tollo 152, 196, 259 vii, uncus 139 ii, 163
4816
unda 194, 354
tondeo 446, 488
undeoim, 417
tondutus 53
undeviginti 418
toustrina 190
unus, 149, 176, 896, 407
topper 325 ii
upilio 179 n. 3
tostus 188
lipsannam 0. 663. 5 a
totiens 223
urbicus 382
toties 228
urimus 480 6
uro 178
totondi 446
tovos (tuus) 161, 180, ussi 187
ut 342
330
utei 842
tres 100, 211, 409
utrum 887
tria 409
vacivos 404
vacuos 404
vapor 198
veho 138, 171
vel 278, 520, 552
velim
570
Velleius 402
vellem (si) 570
Vellius 402
velox 388
vendere 228
vendidi 52
vendo 52
vendutus 58
Venerus 309
veniolS, 63, 140 i a, 156,
205, 487 o
venitur 449
veniuntur 449
venumdare 228
Venus 55, 381
venustus 55 n. 2
veritates 296
vermis 370
verto 31, 484
Vertumnus 400
vesica 223
vester 330, 387
vetus 55 n. 2, p. Ill n. 1,
351
vetustus 55 n. 2
(si)
viass 0. 663. 6
vicesimus 436
313
(nom. pi.) 317
vioimus (shall have won)
552 V
vicinus 399
vici (loc.) 209, 309,
vici
vicis 176,
181
(3),
vico (dat.) 181
(3),
227
311
vicorum 319
victor 374
viotrix 374
vicum 303, 308

vicus 142, 294, 306, 843,
376
vide 274, 517
536
INDICES OF WORDS.
videbam 515
viden 272
videram 482 a, 507
videre 259 ii
villanus 58
videre (3 pi. pft.) 497

viderem 515
viderim 513
videro 493, 497
viderunt 497
vidi 259 ii, 494, 497
vidisse 528
vidissem 515
477
vidistis 504
vidisti
vidit 176, 477,
497
vidua 21
Tiduos 21, 23, 135
yidutuB 53
Tiginti 315, 420
villa
186
volare 140
b,
488
volnus 183
Vina 296
vindex 284
vir 165, 228
virtus 369
vis 289, 306
viso 482 h
visus 187, 192
vitabundus (with
333. 6 b
vitis 166, 171,
volitare 488
vim 308
287
voluntarius 228
volup 215, 348 n. 1
vomica 382
vorare 63, 140 i b
versus 31, 184, 190
vos 329
voster 330
ace.)
vostri 329
vostrum 329
vox p. 193
vitulus p. Ill n. 1
Vitus 372
vulpes 139 i c
vulva 140 i b
0. 663. 7
vivos 140 i c, 403
vobis 329
vocivos 404
zefef U. 663. 6
zicolo- 0. 658
viii
III.
Germanic Index.
The following abbreviations are used

Du = Dutch, G = German,
= High German, L.G. = Low German, Go = Gothic, N = Norse,
= 01d as in O.H.G. =01d High German. English
S = Saxon, Sc= Scotch,
words whether old or modern have no distinguishing mark.
:
H.G.
a 149, 176
a 172
abed 241
able 279
acre 100, 147, 159, 386
aesian 192
ad 174, 261
segru 61
setheling 286
against 80
agnail 150
ahtau Go. 103 ii, 106

163
aihvatundi Go. 20
ainlif Go. 417
ains Go. 176
air 79
aiw 172
aiw Go. 172
aiweins Go. 399
aka N. 261
akrs Go. 100, 147, 159
an 149, 176
an 396, 407
and 133, 159
angle 139 ii
answer 159
apron 240
arya Go. 159
ascian 192
ask 192
asts Go. 143
asunder 341
i,
ate 162
beef 9
aukan Go. 177
belife
4uso Go. 104

axle 392
beodan 259 iii

beran O.H.G. 161
beran 259 vi
beraS 461
berende 363
badi Go. 263

bsBcestre 279
bser 259 vi
baira Go. 100
balran Go. 161 n. 1
bairand (3 pi. pres.) Go.
163, 461
Ui\> Go. 176
bake 51
baker 279
band 93
barm (bosom) 893
bauerkneoht G. 58
Baxter 279
bead 259 iii
bear (vb.) 14, 100, 132,
147, 161
bear 30
beareth 133, 455
bearing 363
bearm 259 vi
beam (bairn) 259 vi
bears (3 sing, pres.) 455
bd 263
bedder 287 n. 1
bedmaker 287 n. 1
beech 160 n. 1, 376
beechen 398
104
berg G. 24
beuk (past of bake) So.

51
bid 165, 175
bidyan Go. 165

bileiba Go. 104
bind 93, 102
binda Go. 102
birth 153, 165, 287
bishop 9
bitter G. 81
biuda Go. 102
blackbird 285
blame 9
blaspheme
blue 279, 403

boetreo(w) 160
book 50, 282

books 60, 282
borough 24, 109
both 329
bounden 397
boycott (vb.) 276
brae 24
bridegroom 138
brittle 81
538
INDICES OF WORDS.
brother 104, 112 iii, 132,

133, 355
broor 104, 106 ii, 259 vi
bruder G. 112 iii
bruKat'S Go. 163
buckwheat 160
day 163
deed 112 ii
dioh G. 49
dir G. 49
do 96, 100, 135, 260
dolmetsoher G. 24
dom 260
door 135
doubt 9
doute 9
ducker 287 n. 1
budon 259
iii
burg G. 24
bur(u)g 109
Burgundy 24
Burke 24
burke (vb.) 24
burrh 109
but 79, 277
calf
140
fee
feet
eft
oeosan 178, 259

child 109
childish 381
iii
children 61
chin 161
ehind O.H.G. 259 v

choose 178
Christian 192
cildre 109
citizenship 369 n. 1
fell
So. 51
cleave (adhere) 51
cleave (split) 51
climb 51
comb 132
come (part.) 30
come 30, 140 i a, 156
content (adj.) 288
content (subst.) 288
cow 9, 140 i a, 289
crane 140 ii
crap (vb.) So. 51
creep 51
cwelan p. 116 n. 1
oynn 259 v
dSd 260
dags Go. 163
dankbarkeit G. 286
darling 286
daughter 112 ii, 355
146
488
felt (subst.)
feor'Sa
390
430
feowertig 421
few 130, 177

fidwor Go. 130
139, 411
431
421
fight 484
fill 30
fifta
fiftig
2,
159
filled (past)
240
30
film 146
eggs 61
ehu O.S. 20
eight 163, 414
eke 177
ell 146
etum Go. 162
ewe
50
50
fell (subst.)
eat 485
iii
o^nnan 259 v
clamb
feoht So. 484
fif
eage 139 id
eahta 414
ear 104
earing 20 n.
came 30
ceas 259
fearh 147
fimf Go. 139

fish 103 i
Go. 103 i
five 139 1 b, 150, 411
flat 77
flechten G. 484
flee 51, 130
fliehen G. 130
fisks
172, 366
eye 139 i a
eyren 61
fly (vb.)
51
foal 152
fact 10
fadar Go. 169
fader 104
fon 10
fadrs (gen.) Go. 259 vi
football 287 n. 1
footer 287 n. 1
fadrum
(dat.
foot 50, 100, 112
pi.)
Go.
259 vi
feeder 104,
a, 282,
289
foremost 394
259 vi
fcegen 397
fagan O.L.G. 397
faihu Go. 50
fain 397
fall 488
fallow 403
fangen 10
fangs Sc. 10
farrow 147
father 79, 80, 104, 130,

162, 355
fathom 81
fault 9
faut9
faws Go. 177
forleas 104
forleosan 104
forloren 104
forluron 104
forsohen G. 483 a
fot 289
fotu Go. 156
fotus Go. 100
four 130, 139 i b
fragile 9
frail 9
frauenzimmer G. 299
fresher 287 n. 1
freshman 287
fill
(foul)
furh 153
168
n. 1
GERMANIC INDEX.
III.
furlong 153
furrow 153
further 387
fuss G. 112
get 141 ii
get-at-able 279
gibai Go. 181 (1)
gilagu O.S. 299
hare 104
harvest 139 ii
base G. 104
haiirn Go. 106 iv
He (subst.) 277
heall 139 ii
heart 100, 134
heavy 382
help 77
hengest 20 n. 2
hengst G. 20 n. 2
hiU 139 ii
him 325 v
hindmost 394
history 93
hither 325 v
hlSnan 136
hlSw 136
hliftus Go. 103 ii
hlM 133, 146, 167 n. 3
(H)ludwig G. 167
hogshead 285
hole 152
horn 106 iv, 351
hors 20 n. 2
horse 482 6
horselaugh 20 n. 1
horseplay 20 n. 1
hound 136
hros O.H.G. 20 n. 2
hulundi Go. 152
bund 136
gimmer 138
hund( = 100)423
ginan 138
girs So. 192
giutan Go. 138
go 544
goose 100, 138
gowt 138
grass 192
greenish 381
grey 279, 403
grist 158 n. 3
guest 103 i, p. 132
guma Go. 138
hundred 104, 419
427
fySer-139i6
fyrst
gabaurj>s Go. 153

gers
192
gamunds Go. 25
ganian 138
gans Go. 100, 138
gardener 355 n. 1
gas 24
gasts Go. 103 i, 106
p. 132 n. 1
gaut Go. 179
gawies Go. 103 iii
geard 378
geboren 259 vi
gebyrd 153
gecoren 259 iii
gemynd 25, 259 v
genumen 259 iv
geotan 138
gereohtigkeit G. 286
gerate G. 158 n. 3
jesoden 104
hafts Go. 103 ii

hail 146
hairto Go. 100
hale (vb. ) 146
i,
hundteontig 423
huzd Go. 191
I 161,
327
IcB27
ich H.G. 112
idel (idle)
idle
n. 1
261
174
ik L.G. 112
in 149
1 6,
161
Innsbruck 112 ii
Innspruok 112 ii
is
ist
161
Go. G. 161
kamm
G. 132
kidney 141 a n.
539
1
kin 137, 157

kinnus Go. 161
Kirsteen 192
kiusan Go. 178
knabe G. 58
knave 58
knee 137
knight 58
kniu Go. 137
know 14, 137
laohter So. 388
lagu 299
lassen G. 112 i a
lean (vb.) 136
leihwan Go. 139 i a

lend p. 113 n. 5
leoht 146
let 112 i a
leumund G. 157
Lichfield 283
[cattle-] lifting 103 ii
lifts {2 sing, pres.) 455
light (adj.) 141 ic
light (subst.) 146
lihan 139 i a
like 283
likely 283
liver 207 n. 1
Llangollen 77
loan p. 113 n. 5
loch 75
loon Sc. 58, 60
loud 133, 167 n. 3, 378
loun 60
loved 442, 549 n. 1
low (subst.) 136, 403
lowu 60
Ludlow 136
lychgate 283
lykewake 283
lyteling 286, 345
magus Go. 141 i a

maiden 399
maihstus Go. 138
79, 96
manhood 369 n. 1
manlike 283
man
n. 2
540
INDICES OF WORDS.
manly 283
marascaUi
0. H. G.
n. 2
20
nestling 286
new 149, 376
priest 9
progress (subst.) 288

progress (vb.) 288
newt 240
mare 20 n. 2
marshal 20 n. 2
next 352
Pst! 83
nickname 240
pund 112
mawi Go.
night 139
nigou 415
141 i a n. 2
may be 278
me 327, 328 ii
mearh 20 n. 2
med (meed) 143
mena Go. 162
menotis Go. 162
mere ( = mare) 20 n. 2
mioh G. 49
middle 135
midge 109
migan 138
migge 109
mild 485
milk (vb.) 137, 148
miltecheit M.H.G. 286
miltekeit M.H.G. 286
mind 25
mir G. 49
mist 141 ii
moder 104
modor 104, 106 ii
moua 162
month 162
moon 162
347
i c,
nim 10
nima 161
nima Go. 164
niman 10, 259
nimen 10
qiman Go. 140 i a

qius Go. 140
quail 140 i b
iv
nine 415
no 79
noon 58
not 214
now 167
quick 140
o'241
od-force 24
241
on 241
one 149, 176, 396, 407
One (subst. 277
of
'oo' Sc.
pagan 58
palfrey 20 n. 2
pferd G. 20 u. 2, 74
pfund G. 112 i c
photograph 9
pillar's
n. 1
30
poetaster 392
pork 9
pound 112
Praise-God
284
presbyter 9
pride 77
quean 140
queen 140
quell 140
176 n. 2
'oon' So. 176 n. 2
open (Scholar) 279
ora 164
orange 240
other 428
mother 104, 148, 160, otor 147
355
otter 147
mils (mouse) 142, 168, oer 428
289
out 341
mutton 9
over 386
mycg 109
oxhoft G. p. 216 n. 1
nahisto O.H.G. 352
nahts Go. 103 ii
uahts (gen.) Go. 347
nam (vb.) 259 iv
nam (aubst.) 299
nama O.H.G. 299
napery 240
neaht 139 i c
nebel G. 390
nebul O.H.G. 390
needle 149
nere 141 i a
nest 143, 199, 259 i
ic
punster 279
(Barebones)
i
i
6
c
rack (vb.) 147

rafter 388
raihts Go. 161 n. 1
rang 31, 529 n. 1
rauds Go. 179
reach 147
red 135
reek 193
right 378
ross G. 20 n. 2
ruddy 135, 147
Rugger 287 n. 1
Sjichsen G. 313 n. 1
260
saihwan Go. 139 i a
sallow 279, 403
salt 142, 289
same 259 iv
sang 30, 31, 32, 48, 442,
549 n. 1
satyan Go. 259 i
saw 79
sawan 162
Sffid
say 139 i a
schaf G. 112 i c
schlafen G. 112 i c
schliessen G. 189
aehon G. 80
seamstress 279
sear (sere) 261
sea 104
secgau 139 i a
see
139 id
seed 142, 162
III.
GERMANIC INDEX.
seek 142
speir Sc.
seojiau 104
spinner 279
spinster 279
spreoan ] 12 i 6
sprechen H.G. 112 i 6
spreken L.G. 112 i 6
spur 142
spiiren G. 142 n.
set
259
i,
488
settle (subst.)
390
sebs Go. 142

seven 130, 418
sew (past of sow) So. 51
sew 142
sham
Sc. 354
spurn 142
spyrian 142 n.
stSBgr 175
sta3 262
stair 175
starvation 287
stead 165, 169
steed 299
she 325 i
sheep 9, 112 ic
sibun Go. 130, 413
sieh G. 49
sieg G. 163
sien 166
siexta 431
sigor 163
silan Go. 113, 2
Sim O.H.G. 166
sin O.H.G. 166
sing 30, 31, 442
sir G. 49
sister 190 n. 1, 355
sit 142, 259 i, 488
six 412
stalks Go. 20 n. 2
skarn N. 354
sleep 112 i c
slepan Go. 112 ic
slipor 100
slippery 100, 131
slit
stick (vb.) 140
O.S. 189
a, n.
162
289
spaewife 108
speak 112 i b
a,
142
surface 9
sweat 142
(vb.) 51, 142,
(subst.)
262
stream 18, 190 n. 1, 203
stud (of horses) 299
stute G. 299
sty 175
su (sow) 168, 289
subject (subst.) 288
subject (vb.) 288
sudon 104
sugars 296
sums Go. 106 iii, 156
sung (ptcp.) 30, 48
sung (past) 31, 32
sunge 48
sungon 48
superficies 9
smart 202
sow
sow
n. 1
stol
51
smitten 81
sn&iws Go. 141 i
snoru 104
snow 141 ia
Socker 287 n. 1
soldier 148 n. 3
some 259 iv
songstress 279
sooth 157
take 10
stigan 175
slow 174, 403

sluice 189
slutil
142 n.
spehon O.H.G. 103
541
sweet 142, 160

sweetbread 285
swefn 142, 396
sweostor 355 n. 2
swine 9, 166, 399
systir N. 855 n. 2
tacor 355
tsecean 134
tagr Go. 100
taihun Go. 136

taihuntehund Go. 423
taikns Go. 105
talk 24
H.G. 112
teach 134
tat
ii
tear (subst.) 100
teiha Go. 105
telegram 9 n. 1
telephone 9 n. 1
ten 136, 161, 416
thak Sc. 140 ii
thane 396
that 168, 325 ii
thatch 140 ii, 237 n. 1
thee 328 ii
thin 75, 183, 157
thole (vb.) 106 iv, 152
thorp 100
thousand 425
three 100, 409
thrill
133
tien 416
timber 148
tiuhan Go. 178
tochter G. 112 ii
together 80
token 134
tolc M.H.G. 24
tolk Du. 24
tongs 481 b
tooth 112 i a, 134
t6)> 134
tow (vb.) 178
trickster 279
Tripos 58
truly 288
truth 287
truths 299
Tuesday 289
twa 408
twa-ltes-twentig 418
twain 408
twalif Go. 417
twegen 408
twentig 420
twenty 420
twenty-four 418
twice 408
twies 408
twist 408
two 112 i a,
134,
408
542
INDICES OF WORDS.
>ana Go. 148

>ara 142
baurp 100
heccan 140
>egn 396
)>olian 152,
wseps 192
WEBSp 192
wain 138, 171

wait Go. 106
ii
wan 397
259
vii
>reis Go. 100
reo 409
ri 409
ridda 429
-Sritig 421
J>ula Go. 106 iv
hulan Go. 152
busund N. 425
G. 80
udder 135
uder 135
un- (neg.) Go. 106 iii,
unco Sc. 878
uncouth 378
understandable 279
us 329
use 10
utter (adj.) 341
fiber
viduvo Go. 21
villain 58
villein
58
Wffign 138
i,
176
n. 2
wanhope 397
wanton 397
warm
141
6,
with 420
withy 166, 171
wolf 139 ic
world 165
worth (vb. ) 484
wot 176, 494
wiisc 381
148, 393
wash (vb.) 483 a

wasp 192
wat (wot) 259 ii
water 354, 483 a
watins (gen.) Go. 354
wato Go. 164
we 829
wear 51
weigh 188
weitwods Go. 164
157 were (subj.) 442
wether p. Ill n. 1
what 139 i a, 325 vi
whether 887
who 79
-wick 376
wide 420
widow 135
wines 296
wish (subst.) 381
wish (vb.) 483 a
witan 259 ii
Xanten G. 813
n. 1
yard 378
yawn 138
yclept 109
yeast 144
yellow 279, 403
yhight 109
132
ymb
yoke 144, 167, 876

you 829
young
104, 136, 171, 381
youngling 286, 345

youth 299
yuggs Go. 104
yuk Go. 167
yus Go. 171
ywis 103 iii
zahn G.
74,
112 ia
zimmer G. 148
zwei G. 112
;
;
;;
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
The
each heading
details of
will be found in the Table of Contents.

references are to sections.
The
Accent
Degrees of 95
of original Idg.
language 94
Greek 266271
Latin 266, 2724; pitch-accent
effects of pitch 92 ;
88, 90 ff, 249
:
kinds of pitch-accent 97
stressaccent 889, 91 ff, 249, 288, effects
of stress-accent 93; accent-points
words without accent 98 ;
96
vowel-gradation 312, 251265,
;
288.
:
ff.
borrowing in
definition of
spoken 1. 66 ; influence of dialects
in language 59
65 isolation as an
influence in 1. Ill; race andl. 611.
911,
Analogy:
psychological force 46; classification of types of a. 47; combination of types of a. 54; crosses
Germanic sound changes 104 ; Formal a. 50 53; Logical a. 48, 184
Proportional
49
a.
relation to Se-
masiology 58
Analogy in gender 55, 294
in
Syntax 56 7 in formation of adverbs 278 ff, of adjectives 279, of
verb 280; in noun-formation 282,
286; declension 293, 306, neuter
299; suffix of gen. sing. 309, of
instrumental 314, of Lat. nom. pi.
of
317, of nom. pi. neuter 317
gen. pi. 319; of Gk. dat. pi. 3224;
in stem suffixes 345 in Latin names
months
406.
Analogy in verb-formation 480 a,
iii
;
in re- verbs 481 c ii, d, e
487 c
inpft. 496
8; in aorist 502 3;
in plupft. 5067 in subj 510511;
in opt. 512
infin. 530.
imperat. 521
Science of I. : does
history of 3944.
Languages
Comparison
it exist ?
45
of 5;
Indo-Germanic
original Idg. language and civi6

lization 16
7; characteristics of
Idg. 1. 124; list of Idg. 1. 15;
interrelation of Idg. 1. 18
dif9
ferences between Idg. and other
languages 20 ff (Isolating 1. 33,
Agglutinative 1. 34, Semitic 1. 35).
Noun
(see
Accent, Analogy):
Simple 281; compound 281, 284
nouns 289 n. with formative suffixes 2904; verbal nouna

534538; reduplication in, 288,
ff
root
vowel-gradation in, 288; indistinguishable from verb in form 30, 277;

loss of inflexion in English n. 109
relation of subst. and adj. 277.
Cases 300 305; original Idg. 300;
instrumental possibly
two ih,
more numerous in other languages
301, 303; vocative not a case 302;
origin of cases 304, grammatical
304, local 304, syncretism 305.
?7ses of noun cases : 331
8 ; absolute cases 339.
Number 296:
Words in dual
nouns with vb.
only 297
in singular
plural
298
theory of this construction 299.
Numerals 406437:
Permanency of in language 13
cardinal 407425; ordinal 426
;
Conjunctions 278, 342.
437.
Dialects (see Language)
Gk. dialects 610656,
5961;
Attic 116,-Latin 123.
Italic dia-
657665.
Gender (see Analogy) 291
lects
Adaptation in 28
1.
Adverbs
Formation of 278, 340
AlpnaDet 601609
of
Language
Phonetic Laws
Different at different times 183,

5.
without exceptions 43.
::
;;;
;
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
544
Prepositions 340
With
Suffixes:
Noun :
with abl. 335.

337. 7; with instr.
ace. 333. 8
1 d; with loc.
338. H.
Declension 324 330 differences

decl. between noun and pron.
permanency of pron. in lan326
guage 13; personal pron. 327 ff
possessive adj. 330; relation between pron. and noun 277; pron.
stems which distinguish gender 326.
Semasiology 58.
Sentence
Formation of 275 & phonetics
;
in
alveolar, cerebral, dental, la67 ; syllabic 81

glide 84
7 ; relation of spelling to
pronunciation
of Attic 117,
s. 110;
72;
bial, palatal, velar
of Latin 124.
Consonants : mute stops 68 ; spirants 69, 70; aspirates 73; affricates

74; nasals 76; Uquids 77. Diphthongs 83: Idg. 115; Attic 122;
Latin 129; history of Idg. d. 173
181.
Sonants : definition of 81
liquid 81
3 nasal 81
3 ; changes
in Germanic 106 ft ; Idg. sonants
42, 114 ; history of Idg. s. 151181,
of short hquid s. 151
3, of long
liquid s. 154, of short nasal s. 155
nasal
158.
Vowels:
of
long
s.
7,
definition of 78 classification of v.
79 examples of v. 80 anaptyxis of
V. 215
6 ; compensatory lengthening of V. 217 226 contraction of
209 214 ; effects of position in
history of
sentence on v. 239 ff
Idg. V. 159169; loss of v. 228;
neutral v. 80 ; pronunciation of
Attic V. 1212, of Latin v. 1289
prothesis 229234, 238; shortening of V. 227.
CAMBKIDGB
in sing.
PBINTED BY
J.
AND
453464;
perfect)
476 passive 448

477; of stems 26
;
4913
perfect 4948
future
235248.
Sounds
Organs which produce languagesounds 67 breathed and voiced 67,
of
ff
accent in 345 history of 346 405.

Verb: of moods 509 531; of persons 26 ff, 450 ff
active (except
of cases 20
306314, dual 3156, plural 317

323 of stems 20 ff, 281 ff, primary
281, secondary 281; arising from
decayed stem 283
obsolete 287,
290 4
simple and complex 343
;
Pronoun
;;
middle
465
perfect active
aorist
5024,
imperfect
pluperfect
5001
5057;
ff;
present 479490.
Syntax
Noun, Verb).
(see
v^
<>
Vert)
Augment 445;
characteristics of
V. 444; definition of 'v. 277; formation of V. 276, 438 ff. history
of Idg. V. 438
9; gains and losses
in Greek 440, in Latin 441, in Germanic 442, in modem languages
;
443;
indistinguishable
V.
noun in form
meaning 277;
noun 4823,
505
Moodji
opt.
relation
487
of
v.
to
488490.
formations
Injunctive
7.
520.
509511;
imper. 510523;
515;
525531.
inf.
c,
from
distinct in
4913; pft. 494

5001 aor. 5024
508531;
512
fut.
impft.
plpft.
276
present
Indicative:
478490;
30,
subj.
Participles
532
Persons of v. 450452; act.

453464; mid. 465476; perfect
538.
Eeduphcation 446. Voices

passive 448 9.
Uses of Verb-forms 539570;
voices 540
2; types 543
4; tenses
545 555; moods 556 570.
477.
447
Word-formation (see Languages,

Noun, Verb) case-suflixes 23, 29
principles of w. f. 275 ff. root 22 4
root-words 24 nouns and verbs from
same root 26 8 stem 22 3.
C. F.
CLAT, AT THE UNIVERSITY PKESS.

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SHORT MANUAL

FELLOW AND LECTUKEB OF EMSIANUEL COLLEGE

&s jU^y vOp vytrjs, eipri^vos ^ittui

AT THE UNIVEBSITT PEESS.

have passed since

Short Manual of Comparative PhiStudents."

ingly Parts II and III are devoted to what

a comparative grammar of those languages. As the

have not adduced, except in a few instances, words

was likely to know nothing. On the other hand it

better to proceed from the

unknown than vice versa

But though some

necessarily incomplete has been given of the

Latin and Greek.

have endeavoured throughout to keep the needs of

the learner before me.

facts in the science.

have not aimed at originality,

that, in a subject of this nature,

must frequently mean the propounding of

hypotheses which the circumstances of the case or the

would render it impossible to prove.

subject than to state dogmatically

theses, the truth or falsity of

which the learner

has no means of testing, while his belief in the results

disp(Dsal, to discuss all

the various views of authorities on the

existing explanation seemed to cover satisfactorily all

of the case, or where for other reasons no

certain conclusion could be reached,

the originator of the view which is mentioned, but

hand may be found. Advanced students will find a

Phonology and MorpJwlogy have

The first part of the book has been made as simple

a difference not of character but of degree.

ated by Curtius and Schleicher.

the older philologists applied these principles less rigidly

makes considerable differences

here and there in the results.

reason to suppose the foundations of the science shaken

on Logic has now

given place to another.

The Syntax of the Noun was already completed

are indicated in the footnotes, but,

like several of his reviewers,

think that Delbriick's

second thoughts, contrary to the proverb, are not always

For the extraordinarily

Moods and Tenses there

no complete authoritative work in existence.

the specimens given

at present nothing of the kind

References have been given to

the rest of the book, the numbers running from 601

obligations to others, those which I

the early part in the

and former tutor the Bev. E. S. Boberts gave me the

Trinity College, Professor Strachan of

Manchester, and Professor Streitberg of Fribourg, Switzer-

who have undergone the drudgery of reading the

mistakes, for those that remain