Telecommunication

INTRANETS: FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY An intranet is an organizations

internal private network that uses the infrastructure and standards of
the internet and the web. When a corporation develops a public website, it is
making selected information available to consumers and other interested parties.
When it creates an intranet, it enables employees to have quicker access
to internal information and to share knowledge so that they can do their
jobs better. Information exchanged on intranets may include employee email
addresses and telephone numbers, product information, sales data, employee
benefit information, and lists of jobs available within the organization.
EXTRANETS: FOR CERTAIN OUTSIDERS Taking intranet technology a few
steps further, extranets offer security and controlled access. As we have seen,
intranets are internal systems, designed to connect the members of a specific
group or a single company. By contrast, extranets are private intranets that
connect not only internal personnel but also selected suppliers and other
strategic parties. Extranets have become popular for standard transactions
such as purchasing. Ford Motor Company, for instance, has an extranet that
connects Ford dealers worldwide. Called FOCALpt, the extranet supports sales
and servicing of cars, with the aim of improving service to Ford customers

PROTOCOLS A protocol, or communications protocol, is a set of conventions

governing the exchange of data between hardware and/or software
components in a communications network. Every device connected to a
network has an internet protocol (IP) address so that other computers on the
network can properly route data to that address. Sending and receiving devices
must follow the same set of protocols.
A client/server network consists of clients,
which are microcomputers that request data, and servers, which are
computers used to supply data. The server is a powerful microcomputer
that manages shared devices, such as laser printers. It runs server software
for applications such as email and web browsing. Different servers may be
used to manage different tasks. A file server is a computer that acts like a disk
drive, storing the programs and data files shared by users on a LAN. A database
server is a computer in a LAN that stores data but doesnt store programs.
A print server controls one or more printers and stores the print-image output
from all the microcomputers on the system. Web servers contain web pages
that can be viewed using a browser. Mail servers manage email.
PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS The word peer denotes one who is equal in standing
with another (as in the phrases peer pressure and jury of ones peers).
In a peer-to-peer (P2P) network, all microcomputers on the network communicate
directly with one another without relying on a server Every
computer can share files and peripherals with all other computers on the network,
given that all are granted access privileges. Peer-to-peer networks are
less expensive than client/server networks and work effectively for up to 25
computers. Beyond that, they slow down under heavy use. They are appropriate
for small networks, such as home networks.

Hubs: In general, a hub is the central part of a wheel where the spokes

come together. In computer terminology, a hub is a common connection

point for devices in a networka place of convergence where
data arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded out in
one or more other directions. With hubs, bandwidth is shared by all
components. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN.
A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is
copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all
packets. A hub is a half-duplex device, meaning it transmits data in both
directions but only in one direction at a time.

Switches: A switch is a device that connects computers to a network.

Unlike a hub, it sends messages only to a computer that is the intended
recipient. A switch is a full-duplex device, meaning data is transmitted
back and forth at the same time, which improves the performance of
the network. Switches allow each component full use of the bandwidth.
Switches are used only in certain configurations; hubs and switches can be
used in combination.

Bridges: A bridge is an interface used to connect the same types of

networks. For instance, similar local area networks can be joined together
to create larger area networks.

Gateways: A gateway is an interface permitting communication

between dissimilar networks for instance, between a LAN and a WAN
or between two LANs based on different network operating systems or
different layouts. Gateways can be hardware, software, or a combination
of the two.

Routers: A router is a special computer that directs communicating

messages when several networks are connected together. High-speed
routers can serve as part of the internet backbone, or transmission path,
handling the major data traffic.

Backbones: The backbone consists of the main highwayincluding

gateways, routers, and other communications equipmentthat
connects all computer networks in an organization. People
frequently talk about the internet backbone, the central structure that
connects all other elements of the internet. As we discussed in Chapter 2,
several commercial companies provide these major high-speed links
across the country; these backbones are connected at network access
points (NAPs).
BUS NETWORK The bus network works like a bus system at rush hour, with
various buses pausing in different bus zones to pick up passengers. In a bus
network, all communications devices are connected to a common channel.

( See Panel 6.7. ) That is, in a bus network, all nodes are connected to a
single wire or cable, the bus, which has two endpoints. Each communications
device on the network transmits electronic messages to other
devices. If some of those messages collide, the sending device waits and tries
to transmit again. The advantage of a bus network is
that it may be organized as a client/
server or peer-to-peer network. The
disadvantage is that extra circuitry and
software are needed to avoid collisions
between data. Also, if a connection in
the bus is brokenas when someone
moves a desk and knocks the connection

outthe entire network may stop

working. This arrangement connects
the networks devices in a closed loop.
STAR NETWORK A star network is one in which all microcomputers and
other communications devices are directly connected to a central server.

( See Panel 6.9, next page. ) Electronic messages are routed through the central
hub to their destinations. The central hub monitors the flow of traffic.
A PBX systema private telephone system, such as that found on a college
campus, that connects telephone extensions to each otheris an example of
a star network. Traditional star networks are designed to be easily expandable
because hubs can be connected to additional hubs of other networks.
The advantage of a star network is that the hub prevents collisions between
messages. Moreover, if a connection is broken between any communications
device and the hub, the rest of the devices on the network will continue operating.
However, if the hub goes down, the entire network stops.
Ethernet is a LAN technology that can be used with almost any kind of
computer and that describes how data can be sent in packets in between
computers and other networked devices usually in close proximity. When
two nodes try to send data at the same time that might collide, Ethernet
instructs the nodes to resend the data one packet at a time. It is frequently
used in a star topology.
TOKEN RING A technology
developed by IBM, Token Ring is a LAN technology that transmits a special
control message or message frame, called a token, around a network to
each node, signaling the node that it can then send a message. The node then
sends the token on to the next node, thus guaranteeing that each computer
or device on the network will transmit at regular intervals. The Token Ring
standard is mainly used in star or ring topologies. The advantage of Token
Ring is that broken cable connections are easily detected and thus easily
fixed.
TWISTED-PAIR WIRE The telephone line that runs from your house to the
pole outside, or underground, is probably twisted-pair wire. Twisted-pair
wire consists of two strands of insulated copper wire, twisted around
each other. This twisted-pair configuration (compared to straight
wire) somewhat reduces interference (called crosstalk) from electrical
fields
COAXIAL CABLE Coaxial cable, commonly
called co-ax, is a high- frequency
transmission cable that consists of insulated
copper wire wrapped in a solid
or braided metal shield and then in an
external plastic cover.
FIBER-OPTIC CABLE A fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds
of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit pulsating beams of
light rather than electricity. These strands, each as thin as a human hair,
can transmit up to about 2 billion pulses per second (2 gigabits); each on
pulse represents 1 bit. When bundled together, fiber-optic strands in a cable
0.12 inch thick can support a quarter- to a half-million voice conversations
at the same time. Moreover, unlike electrical signals, light pulses are not

affected by random electromagnetic interference in the environment. Thus,

fiber-optic cable has a much lower error rate than normal telephone wire
and cable. In addition, fiber-optic cable is lighter and more durable than
twisted-pair wire and co-ax cable, although it is more expensive. A final
advantage is that it cannot easily be wiretapped, so transmissions are more
secure.
BANDWIDTH The bandwidth is the range, or band, of frequencies that
a transmission medium can carry in a given period of time. For analog
signals, bandwidth is expressed in hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. For
example, certain cellphones operate within the range 824849 megahertz
that is, their bandwidth is 25 megahertz. The wider a mediums bandwidth,
the more frequencies it can use to transmit data and thus the faster the
transmission.
DENIAL-OF-SERVICE ATTACKS A denial-of-service (DoS) attack , or distributed
denial-of-service (DDoS) attack, consists of making repeated requests
of a computer system or network, thereby overloading it and denying
legitimate users access to it.
WORMS Worms, viruses, and Trojan horses are three forms of malware, or
malicious software, that attack computer systems.
A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly into a computers
memory or onto a disk drive. Sometimes it will copy itself so often it
will cause a computer to crash
VIRUSES A virus is a deviant program, stored on a computer floppy
disk, hard drive, or CD, that can cause unexpected and often undesirable
effects, such as destroying or corrupting data. ( See Panel 6.17. ) The
famous email Love Bug (its subject line was I LOVE YOU), which originated
in the Philippines in May 2000 and did perhaps as much as $10 billion in damage
worldwide, was both a worm and a virus, spreading faster and causing
more damage than any other bug before it.