Professional Documents
Culture Documents
5-49
September 1987
Revised January 2000
Page 1 of 11
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 2
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2.1 Power Supplies ..................................................................................................................... 2
2.3 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 2
2.3.1 Alarms and Supervisory Devices .......................................................................................... 2
2.4 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 3
2.4.1 Initial Tests and Acceptance .................................................................................................. 3
2.4.2 Maintenance and Testing Systems ....................................................................................... 3
2.5 Training ............................................................................................................................................ 3
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 3
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 3
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 4
4.1 FM Global ........................................................................................................................................ 4
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 4
C.1 Description ...................................................................................................................................... 4
C.2 Application ....................................................................................................................................... 6
C.3 Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 6
C.3.1 Thermal Conductivity-Combustibles ..................................................................................... 7
C.3.2 Thermal Type Paramagnetic-Oxygen ................................................................................... 7
C.3.3 Non-dispersive Infrared ......................................................................................................... 7
C.3.4 Ultraviolet (uv) Absorption ..................................................................................................... 8
C.3.5 Zirconium Oxide Cell-Oxygen ............................................................................................... 9
C.3.6 Electrochemical MethodMicro-Fuel Cell-Oxygen ............................................................ 10
C.3.7 Gas Chromatography ......................................................................................................... 10
C.3.8 Flame Ionization-Total Hydrocarbons ................................................................................. 11
List of Figures
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1987 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
5-49
Page 2
1.0 SCOPE
The basic methods of detecting gases or vapors and the general aspects of detection analysis systems are
discussed. References are made to data sheets concerning specific occupancies and hazards where the
application of such detectors are recommended.
1.1 Changes
January 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Introduction
The application recommendation for specific occupancies may be found in the data sheets concerning the
hazard and occupancy (see Section 4.0, References).
Factory Mutual Research Approved equipment and devices are preferred by FM Global, and should be used
when available and suitable for the application. Approved means equipment tested by the Factory Mutual
Research Corporation and listed in the Factory Mutual Research Approval Guide.
Because of processes and arrangement of many of the installations, Factory Mutual Research Approved
equipment may not be available to meet specific installation arrangements or particular field operating
conditions. In these cases, the equipment chosen should be from a reliable manufacturer and have a proven
satisfactory field experience.
2.2 Electrical
2.2.1 Power Supplies
2.2.1.1 The power supply for electrical detection and any actuation devices should be independent of the
supply for the equipment and the hazard area. Where this is not practical, use pneumatic or mechanical
devices or provide an emergency battery-powered supply with automatic switchover if the primary supply fails.
The batteries should have the capacity to operate the system for at least 24 hours.
2.2.1.2 For critical and important occupancies, an alternate power supply should be provided for any electrically operated detection and actuation system. An emergency battery-powered supply, with automatic
switchover if the primary supply fails, is an acceptable alternate power supply. The electric power supply
should not be exposed by the hazards in the protected area.
2.2.1.3 Wiring, cables and tubing should be located and protected to avoid mechanical damage. Tubing in
vulnerable locations should be in conduit or equivalent. Conduit is not needed for short lengths of cables or
tubing near detectors and controls.
2.3 Equipment and Processes
2.3.1 Alarms and Supervisory Devices
2.3.1.1 An audible alarm should be provided to sound when the system operates and continue until reset
manually.
2.3.1.2 Where a system is provided for valuable and important structures, equipment or contents such as
chemical processing equipment, multi-zone oven or a remote processing or pumping station, the detection
devices and circuits should be supervised. Trouble alarms distinctive from the operation alarms should be
provided to sound, preferably at a constantly attended location.
5-49
Page 3
5-49
Page 4
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 6-2/12-63, Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-4/12-69, Oil and Gas-Fired Single Burner Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-5/12-70, Oil or Gas Fired Multiple Burner Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-7/12-7, Fluidized Bed Combustors and Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-8/12-68, Combustion Air Heaters.
Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers.
Data Sheet 6-10, Process Furnaces.
Data Sheet 6-11, Fume Incinerators.
Data Sheet 6-13/12-13, Waste Fuel Fired Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-17/13-20, Rotary Kilns and Dryers.
Data Sheet 6-21/12-21, Chemical Recovery Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-23/17-15, Black-Liquor Recovery Boilers-Direct Contact Evaporators.
Data Sheet 6-24/13-21, Coal Pulverizers and Pulverizing System.
Data Sheet 7-2, Waste Solvent Recovery.
Data Sheet 7-13, Mechanical Refrigeration.
Data Sheet 7-34, Electrolytic Chlorine Processes.
Data Sheet 7-45, Instrumentation and Control in Safety Applications.
Data Sheet 7-46/17-11, Chemical Reactors and Reactions.
Data Sheet 7-52, Oxygen.
Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process Vessels and Equipment.
Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors and Collection Systems.
Data Sheet 7-95, Compressors.
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Gas detector: device that responds to a specific concentration or range of concentrations of gaseous or
vaporous substances or compounds. (See Section C.1 Description)
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY
This document does not have any revision history.
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
C.1 Description
Gas detectors or analyzers give a response to a specific concentration or range of concentrations of gaseous
or vaporous substances or compounds. These substances may be detected in the normal atmosphere
in or around process or experimental equipment. Some devices are designed to detect specific gases in low
oxygen or oxygen-free atmospheres. The detector and associated system may analyze continuous samples
or an isolated sample.
5-49
Page 5
Most detectors have meters for visual indication of the concentration, usually expressed in parts per million
or percentage. These may also have set points with electrical contacts which permit signaling when the set
point or limit has been reached.
Common uses include in-line process control, fire detection or explosion prevention and detection of potential atmosphere or process contaminants. These devices have the capability for continuous or repetitive
measurement of specific gas or vapor concentration in the atmosphere. The detector may be incorporated
into a system to control the concentration of the gas or vapors. Alarm and corrective action can be initiated
when the concentration point or concentration range is insufficient or is exceeded. A continuous recording
device may be incorporated to print a record of the gas concentration.
The detector elements may be located either remote from the sampling point or at the sampling point. The
in-site detectors simplify the sampling method but erosion, corrosion and temperature of the gas stream can
present problems. The environment around the installation outside the sampled gas stream must be considered for protection of the associated mechanical, electronic and electrical equipment. For a remote detector element, a forced flow is frequently used to transport the sample to the detector element. This usually
complicates the system by requiring a pump-blower arrangement. As soon as the sample leaves its original environment enroute to the sensor, care must be taken to prevent detrimental alteration of the sample.
Condensation, particulate matter and contamination are common problems.
Some detectors use a media which is sensitive to a specific substance. The media compound may change
color or composition when exposed to a certain gas or vapor. These may be used for grab sample instantaneous tests or accumulative sample long term exposures for time weighted averages. Most detectors of this
type require that the sensitized material be discarded after use, although some substances may be regenerated for repeated use.
Some detection and measuring methods are only suitable for laboratory conditions. The processing method,
equipment size, processing time, sensitivity of the equipment to temperature, atmosphere corrosion and
vibration are all restrictive factors. In some instances, the same sample processing method may be used
in the laboratory and the field with either portable or fixed equipment. The accuracy and sensitivity may vary
with the analysis method, the detector design, and the sample collecting method.
The required accuracy and range of the detectors will vary with the application and the detectors design.
A cold storage food warehouse with an ammonia refrigeration system could need a detector for concentrations in the range of 5 to 25 ppm and above. A flammable vapor detector for a coil coater drier would measure
concentration in percent of the lower flammable limit or between 0 and about 5000 ppm depending upon the
solvent.
Industrial equipment is expected to have an accuracy of 1% and a reproducibility of 3% of full scale
concentration or 10% of actual gas-vapor concentrations.
Gas detectors are used in control systems of the relatively unsophisticated hard wired electromagnetic relay
type. There is a trend to incorporate gas detectors with a microprocessor based, closed loop analytical control for process analysis and control feedback. The control gas detector and a dedicated safety limit gas
detector may be similar devices, but interfaced into different control systems. Each is important to the proper
continuous operation of a system. The control analyzer is in continuous service or is available during the
process as a production control device. The safety limit analyzer must also be constantly in service ready
to signal actuation of the emergency operations, shutdown, bypass and alarm. This actuation would occur
when the hazardous limits were approached due to the failure, malfunction or control inability of the process
analyzer and associated controls.
Because of the degree of reliance upon the dedicated safety limit gas detection, it is important that the system have adequate reliability in circuitry and power supplies. In some instances, the safety limit gas detector system may need to be entirely independent of the process control microprocessor and its system.
5-49
Page 6
C.2 Application
An isolated sample taken manually would be a simple application procedure. This method would measure
the concentration at a specific time and with the conditions of the sample and its environment at that time.
Repetitive sampling during a test cycle or production process is a procedure commonly used for verifying
the adequacy of safety ventilation for a solvent evaporation oven or the concentration of a fire extinguishing or an inerting agent.
A slightly more complex system would be a single detector continuously sampling a specific area. This can
be limited to a type of detector with the capability of continuously analyzing the compound specified.
For sampling multiple points, two methods are available:
1. A multiplicity of detectors each at a sample point transmitting to a central controller. The controller may
query the status of each detector in a rotational basis or it may respond to a signal for a condition varying from
a present set point.
2. A single detector with a multiplicity of sample draw tubes working on a rotational basis to analyze a sample
from each tube. This method usually requires several minutes to draw and process samples. In some
instances, response time could be excessive. A hazardous condition could occur in the processing equipment before the detector could sense the increased concentration.
High dust concentrations in the sampled atmosphere may make the continuous and reliable operation of a
detector nearly impossible. In these instances, the location of the sampling probe may be located downstream of a dust removal device, such as an electrostatic precipitator. This method has proven effective on
black liquor recovery boiler applications.
Some of the Data Sheets which mention the application of gas-vapor detectors and analyzers are listed in
Section 4.0, References.
C.3 Operation
The property of the gas or vapor component being measured and the operating principle of some commonly
employed detectors may be classified or grouped as follows:
1. Thermal properties.
2. Electrical or magnetic properties.
3. Radiant energy properties.
4. Chemical properties.
5. Combinations of the above.
a) Electrochemical.
b) Chromatographic.
c) Flame ionization.
The basic principles by which some detector types operate are described as follows:
Chemiluminescence NO, NO2, NOx (NO + NO2) and Ozone
When the sample containing nitric oxide (NO) is combined with ozone (03) the reaction releases light energy
in measurable wave lengths, 6000A (600 mm) and above. The light intensity is proportional to the nitric oxide
(NO) concentrations. When a thermal catalytic NOx converter is used in conjunction with the chemiluminescence NO analyzer, the oxides of nitrogen are converted to NO and the analyzer can determine the total
NOx concentration. With the conversion of the NOx, N02 can be determined by the difference.
5-49
Page 7
5-49
Page 8
5-49
Page 9
the mixture. The radiation reaching a mirror is reflected onto a grating and dispersed according to wavelength. Finite wavelength ranges corresponding to absorption characteristics are measured by a slit and
phototube detector arrangement. The proportionality of this absorption output measured against a reference
radiation output yields the concentration of the gas being analyzed.
5-49
Page 10
5-49
Page 11