Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Simple Machines
MXXX-??P
Description
554
EXPLORE S
ACTIVITY
MXXX-??P
Description
2. Release the marble from a point near the bottom of the curve. Observe
the motion. How high does it go? When is its speed greatest?
3. Release the marble from a point near the top of the curve. Observe the
motion. Compare this to the marbles motion in step 2.
Science Journal
In your Science Journal, describe your experiment and what you discovered.
How did the different starting points affect how high the marble rolled up the
other side?
FOLDABLES
Reading &Study
& Study
Skills
555
SECTION
Motion
Speed
Define speed and acceleration.
Relate acceleration to change in
speed.
Calculate distance,speed,and
acceleration.
Vocabulary
average speed
instantaneous speed
velocity
acceleration
Figure 1
To find the bikers average speed,
divide the distance down the hill
by the time taken to cover that
distance. What would happen to
the average speed if the hill were
steeper?
556
Solution
distance: d 9 km
time: t 30 min 0.5 h
This is what you need to know:
speed: s
This is the equation you need to use: s d/t
Substitute the known values:
s 9 km/0.5 h 18 km/h
Check your answer by multiplying it by the time. Do you calculate the
same distance that was given?
Practice Problem
If an airplane travels 1,350 km in 3 h, what is its average speed?
For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.
Figure 2
The odometer in a car measures
the distance traveled. The
speedometer measures
instantaneous speed. How could
you use this speedometer to
measure average speed?
SECTION 1 Motion
557
Practice Problem
You and your friends walk at an average speed of 5 km/h on a nature
hike. After 6 h, you reach the ranger station. How far did you hike?
For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.
558
Velocity
Suppose you are walking with a constant speed on a
street, headed north. You turn when you reach an intersection and start walking with the same speed, but you
now are headed east, as shown in Figure 3. Your motion
has changed, even though your speed has remained constant. To completely describe your movement you would
have to tell not only how fast you were moving, but also
your direction. The velocity of an object is the speed of
an object and its direction of motion.
Velocity changes when the speed changes, the direction of motion changes, or both change. When you
turned the corner at the intersection, your direction of
motion changed, even though your speed remained
constant. Therefore, your velocity changed.
N
W
E
S
Acceleration
At the top of a skateboard half-pipe, you are at rest. Your
speed is zero. When you start down, you smoothly speed up,
going faster and faster. If the angle of the half-pipe were steeper,
you would speed up at an even greater rate.
How could you describe how your speed is changing? If you
changed direction, how could you describe how your velocity
was changing? Just as speed describes how the distance traveled
changes with time, acceleration describes how the velocity
changes with time. Acceleration is the change in velocity
divided by the time needed for the change to occur. Figure 4
shows some examples of acceleration.
Marble
Figure 3
If you are walking north at a
constant speed and then turn
east, continuing at the same
speed, you have changed your
velocity. What is another way to
change your velocity?
Figure 4
If the velocity of an object is
changing, the object has
acceleration. The direction of
the acceleration depends on
whether the object is speeding up or slowing down.
Acceleration
Acceleration
Marble
Marble
Ramp
Ramp
Ramp
559
Practice Problem
The roller coaster you are on is moving at 10 m/s. 5 s later it does a
loop-the-loop and is moving at 25 m/s. What is the roller coasters
acceleration over this time?
For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.
560
Figure 5
Section
Assessment
6. Making and Using Graphs Make a speedtime graph of a roller-coaster ride. Begin at the
top of the first hill and graph the motion through
two smaller hills. Compare the speed at the bottom and top of each hill. For more help, refer to
the Science Skill Handbook.
7. Solving One-Step Equations The space
shuttle takes 8 min between blastoff and reaching its orbit. During this time, it accelerates at
16 m/s2. Express 8 min in seconds. How fast, in
kilometers per second, is the shuttle going when
it reaches its orbit? For more help, refer to the
Math Skill Handbook.
SECTION 1 Motion
561
SECTION
Vocabulary
force
friction
inertia
causes its motion to change. So, a force causes an object to accelerate. For example, when you throw a ball, as in Figure 6A, your
hand exerts a force on the ball, causing it to speed up. The ball
has acceleration because the speed of the ball has increased.
A force also can change the direction of an objects motion.
After the ball leaves your hand, if no one catches it, its path
curves downward and it hits the ground. Gravity pulls the ball
downward and causes it to change direction, as shown in
Figure 6. Recall that an object has acceleration when its direction of motion changes. The force of gravity has caused the ball
to accelerate. Anytime a force acts on something, its speed
changes or its direction of motion changes, or both.
Figure 6
After a golf ball is thrown, it follows a curved path toward the
ground. How does this curved path
show that the ball is accelerating?
562
Applied forces
Figure 7
Net forces
Force 1
Net force
Force 2
When two forces act in the same direction on an object, like a box,
the net force is equal to the sum of the two forces.
Net force = 0
Force 1
Force 2
Force 2
Net force
When two unequal forces act in opposite directions on the box, the
net force is the difference of the two forces.
563
Gravity
Determining Weights
in Newtons
Procedure:
1. Stand on a bathroom scale
and measure your weight.
2. Hold a large book, stand on
the scale, and measure the
combined weight of you and
the book.
3. Repeat step #2 using a chair,
heavy coat, and a fourth
object of your choice.
Analysis
1. Subtract your weight from
each of the combined
weights to calculate the
weight of each object in
pounds.
2. Multiply the weight of each
object in pounds by 4.4 to
calculate its weight in
newtons.
3. Calculate your own weight
in newtons.
Figure 8
After the ball has been hit, it will
move along the ground in a
straight line, until it is acted on
by another force.
564
CHAPTER 19
One force you are familiar with is gravity. If you hold a basketball and then let it go, it falls to the ground. The force pulling
the ball down to the ground is gravity. Gravity is the pull that all
objects exert on each other. When you dropped the basketball,
Earth pulled it downward.
Objects like Earth and the basketball dont have to be touching to exert a gravitational pull on each other. However, the
force of gravity between two objects becomes weaker as the
objects get farther apart. Also, the gravitational force is weaker
between objects of less mass, such as you and this book, compared to objects of greater mass, such as you and Earth
Atoms at
surface of book
Applied force
Friction
Atoms at
surface of table
Figure 9
Figure 10
The cart has inertia and resists
moving when you push it.
565
mass: m 0.5 kg
force: F 10 N
acceleration: a
10 N/0.5 kg 20 m/s2
Practice Problem
You push a 20-kg crate with a force of 40 N. What is the crates
acceleration?
For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.
566
Force
Force
Acceleration
Acceleration
Figure 11
567
VISUALIZING
NEWTONS LAWS AND SPACE TRAVEL
Figure 13
568
Force
from boat
Force
from
person
Section
Figure 14
When you jump off a boat, your
feet exert a force on the boat,
which pushes it backward. The
boat also exerts a force on your
feet, which pushes you forward.
Assessment
1. Using a computer, make a table listing Newtons laws of motion. For each law, include
the definition and give at least one example
from your everyday life. Do not use examples already listed in the chapter.
2. Does a force act on a car if it moves at a
constant speed while turning? Explain.
3. You throw a ball to your friend. If the ball
has a mass of 0.15 kg and it accelerates
at 20 m/s2, what force did you exert on
the ball?
4. Think Critically Give at least two examples of using inertia to your advantage.
569
SECTION
Work and
Simple Machines
Work
Define work.
Distinguish the different types of
simple machines.
Explain how machines make work
easier.
Vocabulary
work
simple machine
compound machine
mechanical advantage
pulley
lever
inclined plane
Force
Motion
Motion
570
Figure 15
Work is done only when an object moves
in the direction of the applied force.
You do work when you lift a box
upward, because the box moves upward.
Even though the box moves forward,
your arms are exerting an upward force
and do no work.
Calculating Work
To do work a force must be applied and an object must
move. The greater the force that is applied that makes an object
move, the more work that is done. Which of these tasks would
involve more worklifting a shoe from the floor to your waist
or lifting a pile of books the same distance? Even though the
shoe and the books move the same distance, more work is done
in lifting the books because it takes more force to lift the books.
The work done can be calculated from the equation below.
work force distance
If W represents the work done, F stands for the force applied, and
d stands for distance, this equation can be written as follows:
WFd
The force is measured in newtons (N), and the distance is
measured in meters (m). Work, like energy, is measured in
joules (J). The joule is named for James Prescott Joule, a nineteenth-century British physicist who showed that work and
energy are related. To lift a baseball from the ground to your
waist requires about 1 J of work.
Practice Problem
Using a force of 50 N, you push a computer cart 10 m across a classroom floor. How much work did you do?
For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.
SECTION 3 Work and Simple Machines
571
What is a machine?
Figure 16
The can opener changes the
small force of your hand on the
handles to a large force on the
blade that cuts into the can.
How many machines have you used today? Why did you use
them? A machine is a device that makes work easier. The can
opener like the one in Figure 16 is a machine that changes a
small force applied by your hand into a larger force that makes it
easier to open the can.
A simple machine is a machine that uses only one movement. A screwdriver is an example of a simple machine. It only
requires one motionturning it. Simple machines include the
inclined plane, wedge, screw, lever, wheel and axle, and pulley. A
compound machine is a combination of simple machines. The
can opener is a compound machine that combines several simple machines. Machines can make work easier in two ways. They
can change the size of the force you apply. They also can change
the direction of the force.
How do machines make work easier?
572
The Pulley
To raise a window blind, you pull down on a cord. The blind
uses a pulley to change the direction of the force. A pulley is an
object with a groove, like a wheel, with a rope or chain running
through the groove. A pulley changes the direction of the input
force. A rope thrown over a railing can be used as a pulley. A
simple pulley such as the one shown in Figure 17A, changes only
the direction of the force, so its mechanical advantage is 1.
It is possible to have a large mechanical advantage if more
than one pulley is used. A double-pulley system like the one in
Figure 17B has a mechanical advantage of 2. Each supporting
rope holds half of the weight, so you need to supply only half
the input force to lift it.
100 N
100 N
50 N
50 N
Observing Mechanical
AdvantagePulleys
Procedure
1. Give broomsticks or dowels
to two students to hold. Tie
a 3-m long rope to the middle of one stick. Wrap the
rope around both sticks four
times, leaving about 0.5 m
gap between the sticks.
2. While the two students
gently pull the broomsticks
apart, have the third student gently pull on the rope.
3. Observe what happens.
Repeat using only two
wraps of the rope and then
using eight wraps.
Analysis
1. Describe what you observed.
Could the students hold the
sticks apart?
2. Compare and contrast the
results with two, four, and
eight turns of the rope
around the pulleys.
50 N
Figure 17
A pulley changes the direction of
the input force and can decrease
the input force.
100 N
100 N
573
Figure 18
A lever is classified according to the
location of the input force, output
force, and fulcrum.
Fo
Fi
Fo
Fi
Fo
Fi
Sometimes a screwdriver
is used as a first-class lever. The
fulcrum is between the input and
output forces.
The Lever
Probably the first simple machine invented by humans was
the lever. A lever is a rod or plank that pivots about a fixed point.
The pivot point is called the fulcrum. Levers can increase force or
increase the distance over which a force is applied. There are
three types, or classes, of levers. The three classes depend on the
position of the input force, output force, and the fulcrum.
In a first-class lever, the fulcrum is located between the input
force and output force. Usually a first-class lever is used to
increase force, like the screwdriver in Figure 18A.
If the output force is between the input force and the fulcrum, like the wheelbarrow in Figure 18B, the lever is a secondclass lever. The output force always is greater than the input
force for this type of lever.
A hockey stick, like the one in Figure 18C, is a third-class
lever. In a third-class lever, the input force is located between the
output force and the fulcrum. The mechanical advantage of a
third-class lever always is less than one. A third-class lever
increases the distance over which the input force is applied.
574
Axle
Wheel
the narrow base of the knob. Its much easier to turn the larger
knob. A doorknob is an example of a wheel and axle. Look at
Figure 19. A wheel and axle is made of two round objects that
are attached and rotate together about the same axis. The larger
object is called the wheel and the smaller object is the axle. The
mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle can be calculated by
dividing the radius of the wheel by the radius of the axle.
Fi
Fo
Figure 19
The radius of the wheel is
greater than the radius of the
axle. The mechanical advantage
of the wheel and axle is greater
than one.
Figure 20
It is much easier to load this
couch into a truck using a ramp.
Even though they push it a
greater distance, it requires
less force.
575
Figure 21
Section
Assessment
576
Motion
Materials
small ball or marble
meter stick or tape measure
stopwatch
graph paper
Goals
Demonstrate the motion of a ball with
of the ball.
Procedure
1. Place the ball on the floor or a smooth, flat
surface.
gentle push.
577
Methods of Travel
ow long does it take you to get to the other side of town? How long does it take to
get to the other side of the country? If you were planning a road trip from New
York City to Los Angeles, how long would it take? How would your trip change if you
flew instead? When you plan a trip or vacation, it is useful to first estimate your travel
time. Travel time depends on the vehicle you use, how fast you travel, the route you
take, and even the terrain. For example, driving over rugged mountains can take
longer than driving over flat farmland. With this information, you can plan your trip so
you arrive at your final destination on time.
Form a Hypothesis
Whats the fastest way to get from one place to another? Is flying always better than
driving? What would you encounter along the way that could change your travel
time? Form a hypothesis about what is the fastest form of travel.
Goals
Research travel times.
Compare travel times for different
methods of travel.
Evaluate the fastest way to travel
between two locations.
Design a table to display your findings and communicate them to other
students.
Data Source
Go to the
Glencoe Science Web site at
science.glencoe.com for more information on travel times, methods
of travel, distances between locations,
and data from other students.
578
Plan
1. Choose a starting point and a final
destination.
2. Identify the routes commonly
used between these two locations.
3. Study the common forms of travel
between these two locations.
4. Research how to estimate travel
time. What factors can make your
trip take more or less time?
Draw Conclusions
1. Compare your findings to those of your classmates and data posted on the Glencoe Science
Web site. What is the farthest distance investigated? The shortest?
2. What factors can affect travel time for the different methods? How would your travel time be
different if you didnt have a direct flight?
3. Infer how the average speed of an airplane
flight would change if you included your trips to
and from the airport and waiting time in your
total travel time.
ACTIVITY
579
Fastest Facts
Did you know...
Natures fastest
creature is the peregrine
falcon. It swoops down on
its prey, traveling at speeds
of more than 300 km/h.
That tremendous speed
enables the peregrine falcon
to catch and kill other birds,
which are its main prey.
580
1,582.7 s
100
9.79 s
50
0
100
Go Further
Do library research to find the top speeds of four or five land animals.
Create a bar graph that compares the speeds.
SCIENCE STATS
581
Chapter
19
XX
Study Guide
Section 1 Motion
1. Speed, velocity, and acceleration are ways to
describe motion.
2. Average speed is the distance traveled
divided by the time.
3. Acceleration
describes how
velocity changes
with time. An
object is accelerating when either
its speed or direction of motion
changes. Is the
ball in this photo
accelerating? Explain.
4. Acceleration can be calculated by dividing
the change in speed by the time.
582
FOLDABLES
Chapter
19
XX
Study Guide
Changing
direction of
effort force
and
and
Changing
direction of
effort force
Not changing
direction of
effort force
example
example
2nd class
lever
Inclined
plane
Wheel
and axle
Vocabulary Words
a. acceleration
b. average speed
c. compound
machine
d. force
e. friction
f. inclined plane
g. inertia
Not changing
size of effort
force
example
3rd class
lever
Simple
pulley
Using Vocabulary
h. instantaneous
speed
i. lever
j. mechanical
advantage
k. pulley
l. simple machine
m. velocity
n. work
Study Tip
After each days lesson, make a practice quiz for
yourself. Later, when youre studying for the test,
take the practice quizzes you created.
1. inertia, force
2. acceleration, velocity
3. lever, pulley
4. force, work
5. work, simple machine
6. average speed, velocity
7. friction, force
8. force, mechanical advantage
9. average speed, instantaneous speed
10. simple machine, compound machine
CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE
583
Chapter
19
Assessment
Speed
Time
584
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
Chapter
19
15
Assessment
Test Practice
Distance (km)
2
3
Time (h)
TECHNOLOGY
Go to the Glencoe Science Web site at
science.glencoe.com or use the
Glencoe Science CD-ROM for additional
chapter assessment.
Block
Mass
Force
100 kg
980 N
10 kg
98 N
1 kg
9.8 N
Time to
Reach
Ground
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
585