Science

Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the body.
Stomata: The tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves through which leaves exchange gases, are surrounded by guard
cells.
The carbohydrates ultimately get converted into starch (also a carbohydrate). The presence of starch in leaves indicates the
occurrence of photosynthesis.
The carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These are used to synthesise other components of food such as proteins
and fats. Proteins are nitrogenous substances which contain nitrogen
Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the plant in green stems and green branches. The
desert plants have green stems which carry out photosynthesis & scale- or spine-like leaves to reduce loss of water by
transpiration
Algae contain chlorophyll which gives them the green colour
Cuscuta (Amarbel): yellow tubular structures (plant) twining around the stem and branches of a tree, does not have chlorophyll, is a
parasite as it deprives the host of valuable nutrients.
Insectivorous plant: both autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition
Fungi are saprotrophs as they derive nutrition from dead, decaying matter. E.g. yeast, mashroom. They secrete digestive juices
on the dead and decaying matter and convert it into a solution. Then they absorb the nutrients from it. Fungi also grow on pickles,
leather, clothes and other articles that are left in hot and humid weather for long time. Fungal spores are generally present in the air.
When they land on wet and warm things they germinate and grow
Symbiotic relationship : e.g certain root-living fungi & trees. The tree provides nutrients to the fungus and, in return, receives help
from it to take up water and nutrients from the soil. In lichens, an alga (chlorophyll-containing partner), and a fungus live
together. The fungus provides shelter, water and minerals to the alga and, in return, the alga provides food which it prepares by
photosynthesis.
The different modes of feeding in animals: Scraping (Ant), chewing, brewing, capturing and swallowing, sucking (mosquito) etc.
Bees and humming-birds suck the nectar of plants. Starfish feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate
Nutrition process in humans---(1) Ingestion (2) Digestion (3) Absorption (4) Assimilation (5) Egestion
The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal (digestive tract) ---buccal cavity, oesophagus, stomach, liver , Gall
bladder, stomach, Pancreas, Small intestine, Large intestine , Rectum ,Anus + secretory glands.
Tooth decay: if we do not clean our teeth and mouth after eating, many harmful bacteria also begin to live and grow in it. These
bacteria break down the sugars present from the leftover food and release acids. The acids gradually damage the teeth and causes
tooth decay.
Mastication: Mixing of saliva with chewed food is called mastication
Diarrhoea: The need to pass watery stool frequently. It may be caused by an infection, food poisoning or indigestion, very common
in India, particularly among children, excessive loss ofwater and salts from the body. the patient should be given Oral Rehydration
Solution (ORS)--plenty of boiled and cooled water with a pinch of salt and sugar dissolved in it.
The main digestive glands (i) salivary glands, (ii) liver and (iii) pancreas. The stomach wall and the wall of the small intestine also
secrete digestive juices.
In plants, the carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch, which serves as the internal energy
reserve to be used as and when required by the plant. Similarly in us, some of the energy derived from the food we eat is stored in our
body in the form of glycogen.

In the buccal cavity, digestion of carbohydrates, such as starch, begins. The salivary amylase in saliva breaks down the starch into
sugars.
Liver (reddish brown) is the largest gland in the body, pancreas: cream colored gland
In the stomach, the digestion of protein starts. The gastric glands present in inner lining of the stomach secret mucous,
hydrochloric acid and pepsin. The mucous protects the lining of the stomach. The acid kills many bacteria that enters along
with the food and makes the medium in the stomach acidic and helps the pepsin to act. The digestive juices break down the
proteins into simpler substances.
In the small intestine, the bile (imp for fat digestion) secreted from the liver & stored in gall bladder, the pancreatic juice
containing enzymes like trypsin & lipase from the pancreas and the digestive juice from the intestinal wall complete the
digestion of all components of food. The digested food is absorbed in the blood vessels from the small intestine. Inner wall of the
small intestine has thousands of finger-like outgrows called villi which increase the surface area for absorption of food. The absorbed
substances are transported via the blood vessels to different parts of the body.
In the large intestine, water and some salts are absorbed from the undigested food. The undigested and unabsorbed residues are
expelled out of the body as faeces through the anus.

ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP
molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

_
Ruminants: Grazing animals like cows, buffaloes and deer. They quickly ingest, swallow their leafy food and store it in the rumen
(a part of the stomach). Here the food gets partially digested & is called cud. Later, the cud returns to the mouth in small lumps &
the animal chews it peacefully.
Amoeba ingests its food with the help of its false feet or pseudopodia. The food is digested in the food vacuole.
Fats in goats milk are much simpler than those in cows milk. Therefore, the goats milk is much easier to digest than the cows milk.
Physical change: No new substance is formed. A substance undergoes a change in its physical properties, generally reversible.
ExampleMelting of ice, lighting of bulb, mixing of sugar with water
Chemical Change: One or more new substances are formed by chemical reaction, irreversible.
ExampleBurning of coal, photosynthesis, setting of curd
Baking Soda: NaHCO3

Natural indicator litmus is extracted from lichens.

physical properties of matter: Properties such as shape, size, colour and state
blue vitriol (nila thotha): Crystals of copper sulphate pent hydrate (CuSO4.5H2O)
are blue

When a candle burns, both physical and chemical changes take place.
On burning candle, the wax melts but can be solidified again on cooling. This
shows that melting of wax is a physical change, also produces light and some
gases like CO2. Hence, burning of wick of the candle is a chemical change.
Anemometer: wind speed
The cramps occur when muscle cells respire anaerobically. The partial
breakdown of glucose produces lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid
causes muscle cramps. Hot water bath or massage improves circulation of blood
so the supply of oxygen to the muscle cells increases which results in the
complete breakdown of lactic acid into CO2 and water.(in muscle)
Yeast (a single-celled organism) produce alcohol during its respiration
process (anaerobic). In the absence of oxygen, glucose breaks down into alcohol
and CO2 and produce energy. It is, therefore, used to make wine and beer.
Breathing Rate = Number of times a person breathes (inhalation+exhalation)
per minute.
Our avg BR at rest: 15-18 times/minute. Heavy exercise: up to 25 times/minute.
The oxygen we inhale is used to breakdown glucose into CO2 and water. Energy
is released in the process.
In earthworm, the exchange of gases occurs through the moist skin. In fishes it
takes place through gills and in insects through the tracheae. Frogs have a pair of lungs like human beings + can also breathe through
their skin. During respiration in plants, each part can independently take in oxygen from the air and give out CO2
Blood is a liquid, which has cells of various kinds suspended in it.
Plasma is the fluid part of the blood, RBC contain haemoglobin, a red pigment which makes blood appear red, binds with oxygen
and transports it to all the parts of the body and ultimately to all the cells. WBC fight against germs that may enter our body. Platelets
form clot.
Inhalation: Air is drawn in, ribs move out, diaphragm moves down
Exhalation: Opposite
Arteries: carry blood from the heart to all parts, thick elastic walls as blood flow is rapid & at a high pressure.
Veins: carry blood from all parts back to the heart, thin walled

An adult human being normally

passes about 1-1.8 L of urine in 24 hours. The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5%
urea and 2.5% other waste products.
Xylem: vascular tissue for the transport of water & nutrients in plants.
Phloem: vascular tissue for the transport of food to the various parts of the plant
Excretory system of humans consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder,
and urethra.
Dialysis: process when blood is filtered periodically through an artificial kidney in
case of kidney failure.
Transpiration generates a force which pulls up water absorbed by the roots from the
soil, to reach the stem and leaves.
Reproductive parts of a Plant: Flower
Methods of Asexual reproduction:
Fragmentation (algae), Budding (yeast, corals, sponges), Spore Formation
(fungi, moss, ferns, moulds), Vegetative propagation (rose, potato)
Plants male reproductive part: Stamen: It consists of filament & anther. Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gamete.
Plants female reproductive part: Pistil: It consists of stigma, style & ovary. Ovary contains 1 or more ovules. The female gamete or
egg is formed in an ovule.
Fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. Fertilised egg is called zygote. Zygote develops into an embryo.
Fruit is the mature ovary whereas ovule develops into a seed, which contains the developing embryo.
Odometer: Measures the distance moved by the vehicle.

Convex lens

Virtual, erect, & magnified if placed closer.

Can form real & inverted image
Concave lens
Virtual, erect, & smaller image
Plane mirror
Virtual, erect, same size
Concave mirror
Smaller as well as larger, real as well as virtual e.g Torches, headlights of vehicles
Convex mirror
Virtual, Side mirrors in vehicles
Sorters disease: a fatal blood disease of Wool industry, caused bya bacteria caled Anthrax,
Hierarchy of classification

Kingdom
Examples

Monera
Bacteria

Protista
Diatoms

Fungi
Yeast

Plantae

Animalia

Blue-Green Algae
Mycoplasma
Features

Prokaryotes
Unicellular
Autotrophs/Hetero
Cell Wall in some

Plant Classification (Division)

Division
Thallophyta
Examples
Algae such as
Spirogyra
Ulothrix
Cladophora
Chara
Features
Not well
differentiated body

Animal
Classification
(Phylum)

Spongilla
Euplectelea
Sycon

Coelenterata
(Cnidaria)

Hydra
Jellyfish
Corals
Sea Anemone

Platyhelminthes
(flatworms)

Tape worm
Planaria
Liverfluke

Nematoa
(familiar or parasitic
worm)

Arthropoda

Mushroom
Penicillium
Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Heterotroph
Cell Wall
Present, called
Chitin

Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Autotroph
Cell Wall
Present

Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Heterotroph
Cell Wall
Absent

Bryophyta
Moss (Funaria)
Marchantia

Pteridophyta
Fern,
Horse-tail
Marsilea

Gymnosperm
Pine,
Deodar

Angiosperm

Differentiated but w/o

specialized vascular
tissue

Differentiated &
vascular tissues
No seeds, naked
embryos called
spores

Differentiated &
vascular tissues;
Bear Naked seed

Differentiated &
vascular tissues;
Bear seeds inside
fruits,
Flowering plant

Example

Porifera
(Sponges)

Annelida

Protozoa(Amoeba,
paramecium)
Eukaryotic
Unicellular
Auto/Hetero

1) Filarial worm
(Elephantisis)
2) Roundworm or
pinworm of intestine
3) Ascaris
4) Wucheraria
Earthworm
Leech
Nereis
Scorpian

Features
Cellular
level
of
organizatio
n
Tissue
level
of
organizatio
n

Holes or pores all over the body, Non-motile, marine not in fresh
water

No true body
Cavity between
epidermis &
gastrodermis

Live in water; non-motile

2 layers of cell (diploplastic)
Bilateral symmetry,
Troploblastic, flattened body, free-living
(Planaria), parasitic (tapewaorm, liverfluke)

Pseudo cavity (Coelom),

Bilateral symmetry,
Troploblastic, cylindrical body
Tissue present but no real organ
True body Cavity, Extensive organ differentiation
Bilaterally symmetrical,
Troploblastic
Arthropod=> jointed legs,

(Largest group)

Mollusca

Echinodermata

Protochordata

Vertebrata

Butterfly
Housfly
Prawn
Spider
Centipede
Octopus
Snails
Mussels
Sea Urchin
Star Fish
Sea Cucumber
Feature Star
Balanoglosuus
Herdmania
Amphioxux
Pisces
Amphibia
Reptilia
Aves (birds)
Mammalia

Aves (Birds)
Warm blooded, 4 chambered heart
Lay eggs
e.g. White Stork, Ostrich (struthio camelus),

Pisces (fish)
1. Cold blooded
2. Exclusively aquatic
3. Lay eggs
4. Scales or plates on Skin,
Streamlined Body
5. 2 chambered heart
6. Gills
7. Skeleton ofOnly cartilage (Sharks)
Cartilage + bones (Tuna, Rohu)
Mandarin fish, Angler Fish, Lion
fish, Electric ray (torpedo), Sting
ray, Dog Fish,Rohu, Seahorse,
climbing perch, flying fish

Bilaterally symmetrical, segmented

Bilaterally symmetrical, little segmentation

Spiny skinned, free-living marine animal, Hard CaCO3 structure as
skeleton,
Troploblastic, have a coelomic cavity
Notochord Present in at least larval form but very rudimentary,
Bilaterally symmetrical,
Troploblastic & have a coelom
Notochord replaced by true vertebral column, internal skeleton,
Bilaterally symmetrical,
Troploblastic

Mammals
Warm blooded, 4 chambered heart
Direct birth to young ones,
Mammary gland
Rats, Cats, Bat , whale
Exception:
1. Lay eggs(Platypus, Echidna/Spiny Anteaters)
2. V.poorly developed young ones (Kangaroos)

Amphibian
Cold blooded
Means those living 2 lives
(water+land)
3. Lay eggs
4. No scales on body, Mucus glands on
skin (Smooth Skinned),
5. 3 chambered heart
6. Lungs as well gills,
(Born in water so have gills, later on
develops lungs)
1.
2.

Salamander, toad, frog (common + tree)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Reptiles
Cold Blooded
Born on land, no need to lay eggs in water
Lay eggs
Scales on body

5.
6.

3 chambered heart (except crocodile=4)

Lungs

Turtle, Chameleon, Snake, Crocodile, flying

lizard, house wall lizard

Synthetic fibre : a polymer, obtained by chemical processing of petrochemicals.

Advantage: dry up quickly, are durable, less expensive, readily available and easy to maintain.
disadvantage : melt on heating, can be disastrous if the clothes catch fire, it. The fabric melts and sticks to the body of the person
wearing it. One should not wear synthetic clothes while working in in the kitchen or in a laboratory.

Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton.

Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre
Plastic is non-reactive,light, strong and durable, poor conductors, light weight, lower price, good strength and easy handling.
Extensive use in the health-care industry, packaging of tablets, threads used for stitching wounds, syringes, doctors gloves and a
number of medical instruments.
_ Special plastic cookware is used in microwave ovens
_ Teflon used for nonstick coating on cookwares, on which oil and water do not stick
Synthetic fibre
Rayon

Nylon

Polyester

Properties
Source: wood pulp (cellulose)
mixed with cotton to make bed sheet or silk to make smooth and silky cloth in textile industry
mixed with wool to make carpet
can be dyed in a wide variety of colours.
in reinforced tyre, bangles and surgical dressing
was the first fully synthetic fibre.
strong, elastic and light, stronger than a steel wire.
lustrous and easy to wash.
So became very popular for making clothes.
socks, ropes, tents, toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping bags, curtains, parachutes and ropes for rock
climbing, fishing net, sari socks and tie
does not get wrinkled easily, remains crisp, easy to wash. So, quite suitable for making dress material, for
making sail for sail boat and conveyor belts
PET, a very familiar form of polyester,is used for making bottles, utensils, films, wires

Acrylic

Terylene, a popular polyester, can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be woven like any other yarn.
They are light and soft like wool. The y are crimpy (wavy) and straight like Polyster thus appear to be
bulky and look like wool
sweaters ,shawls or blankets

Thermoplastics
plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be
bent easily
used for manufacturing toys, combs and various types of
containers.
e.g Polythene and PVC
Polythene (Poly+ethene) is used for making commonly
used polythene bags.

Thermosetting
plastics which when moulded once, can
not be softened by heating
e.g. bakelite and melamine
Bakelite :
poor conductor of heat& electricity.
used for making electrical switches, handles of various utensils, etc.
Melamine.
resists fire, can tolerate heat better than other plastics.
used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire
The uniforms of firemen have coating of melamine plastic to make
them flame resistant.

Different Phases of evolution are:

Precambrian- Soft bodied invertebrate animals in warm water, but land areas were devoid
of animals.
Cambrian-Most of vertebrate animals including 1000 species were evolved in the seas but
they are not found in present times. No land animals.
Silurian- corals evolved.
Devonian- Fern vegetation and vertebrate animals (mites, spiders etc.)
Carboniferous- Reptiles (Snakes etc.)
Permian- insects evolved.
Triassic- mammals evolved from reptiles, flies and termites also appeared on land.
Cretaceous- Flying reptiles, feathered and featherless birds.
Eocene: Modern mammals such as elephants, horses, rhinoceros.

Phytostabilization is a type of phytoremediation in which leachable constituents are

absorbed and bound into the plant structure and form unstable mass of plant where they
remain trapped and do not enter the environment.
Phytoextraction, Phytostablization and Rhizofiltration, which are types of
phytoremediation, are used to remove metals from soil and groundwater.
It is considered more safe but is not faster than traditional processes. Slow process of
phytoremediation is often cited as a disadvantage as it often takes many years to halve
metal contamination in soi

In terms of Strength:Electrical Force > Magnetic Force > Gravitational Force

Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of two major
types: wire bound resistors and carbon resistors. Wire bound resistors are made by
winding the wires of an alloy, viz., manganin, constantan, nichrome or similar ones. The
choice of these materials is dictated mostly by the fact that their resistivities are relatively
insensitive to temperature.

Consider the following statements regarding Monkey Fever which was recently observed in
Kerala:
1. The virus causing the disease is transmitted to humans through the bite of a tick.
2. Monkeys and small mammals are common hosts of the virus.
3. The disease is also known as Kyasanur forest disease (KFD).

Rotavirus It is a most common causative agent of moderate-to-severe diarrhoea (MSD) among

infants below 11 months age group in India. Spreads from person to person due to bacterial and
parasiting agents that are primarily transmitted through contaminated food or water. In India,
diarrhoea caused by rotavirus, kills nearly 80 thousand children under the age of 5 years and up
to
10 lakh hospitalizations each year. Rotavirus can be transmitted by the faecal-oral route.

Japanese Encephalitis requires four things

1.
2.
3.
4.

Pigs with flavivirus (Amplifying host).

Rice fields (Mosquito breeding ground)
Culex mosquitos (carrier)
Human (The innocent victim)

Flavivirus reproduces in pigs but doesnt infect them. So, Pigs are amplifying hosts. (also
water birds)
Mosquitoes belonging to the Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex vishnui groups they
usually breed in flooded rice fields.
These Culex mosquitoes are normally zoophilic, i.e. they prefer to take blood meals from
animals rather than from humans.
These Mosquitoes usually prefer to drink the blood of such pigs. But when the population
of such mosquitoes increases exponentially (during rainy season, around August), human
biting rate increases.

And thus Flavivirus gets transferred from pigs to humans and damages our brain= inflation
of brain = Japanese Encephilitis.
Man is the dead end host, i.e. JE is not transmitted from one infected person to other

The swine flu virus H1N1 type A influenza, is a human disease.

Its a zoonotic disease which originally was transmitted from pigs to humans and now spreads
from one human to another.
One can prevent infection by maintaining basic hygiene and wearing a proper surgical mask
during flu season. The number of cases shoots up during the summers and monsoon seasons.
Risk Factors
Swine flu is a respiratory illness caused by the swine influenza virus (SIV). The pandemic of swine
flu was caused by the SIV sub type H1N1. But other subtypes H1N2, H1N3, H3N1, H3N2 and
H2N3 can also cause the illness. The virus was termed H1N1 because it mainly exhibited two
types of antigens hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1.
The illness is originally known to affect pigs. It is known to have spread to humans who came in
direct contact with pigs. The virus is transmitted from person to person through the same
medium as other flu viruses. The virus is not transmitted directly by eating cooked pork.
Since swine flu can directly be transmitted from one person to another through air droplets,
people who fail to follow proper hygiene, especially in crowded places are at a high risk of
contracting the virus.

Increase in CO 2 leads to warmer ocean surface temperature creating a larger vapor-pressure difference between the sea
surface and the adjacent atmosphere. Hence, increasing the evaporation rate.
Afforestation leads to more interception of precipitation and evaporation.
The lesser the humidity of air, greater the rate of evaporation.

In terms of range:Gravitational force > Magnetic force > Electrical force