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Landscape
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Therearetwomainmeaningsforthewordlandscape:
itcanrefertothevisiblefeaturesofanareaofland,or
toanexampleofthegenreofpaintingthatdepictssuch
anareaofland.[1]Landscape,inbothsenses,includes
thephysicalelementsoflandformssuchas(ice
capped)mountains,hills,waterbodiessuchasrivers,
lakes,pondsandthesea,livingelementsoflandcover
includingindigenousvegetation,humanelements
includingdifferentformsoflanduse,buildingsand
structures,andtransitoryelementssuchaslightingand
weatherconditions.
Combiningboththeirphysicaloriginsandthecultural
overlayofhumanpresence,oftencreatedover
millennia,landscapesreflectalivingsynthesisof
peopleandplacethatisvitaltolocalandnational
identity.Thecharacterofalandscapehelpsdefinethe
selfimageofthepeoplewhoinhabititandasenseof
placethatdifferentiatesoneregionfromotherregions.
Itisthedynamicbackdroptopeopleslives.Landscape
canbeasvariedasfarmland,alandscapepark,or
wilderness.
Theearthhasavastrangeoflandscapes,includingthe
icylandscapesofpolarregions,mountainous
landscapes,vastariddesertlandscapes,islandsand
coastallandscapes,denselyforestedorwooded
landscapesincludingpastborealforestsandtropical
rainforests,andagriculturallandscapesoftemperate
andtropicalregions.
Landscapemaybefurtherconsideredunderthe
followingcategories:landscapeart,culturallandscape,
landscapeecology,landscapeplanning,landscape
assessmentandlandscapedesign.Theactivitythat
modifiesthevisiblefeaturesofanareaoflandis
namedlandscaping.

Contents
1 Definitionandetymology
2 Physicallandscape
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape

Aprairie:Badlands
NationalPark,South
Dakota,USA.

TundrainSiberia,
Russia.

Tropicalrainforest,Fatu
HivaIsland,Marquesas
Islands,French
Polynesia.

Taiga(Borealforest),
Alaska,US.

Adesert:Therainshadow Awetland:ViruBogin
regionofTirunelveli,
LahemaaNationalPark
India.
inEstonia.

TheAletschGlacier,the
largestglacierinthe
SwissAlps.

Largefieldsofmodern
farmland,Dorset,
England

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4
5
6
7

2.1 Geomorphology:Thephysical
evolutionoflandscape
2.1.1 Listofdifferenttypesof
landscape
2.2 Landscapeecology
2.3 Landscapearchaeology
2.4 Culturallandscape
Humanconceptionsandrepresentationsof
landscape
3.1 Landscapegardens
3.2 Landscapearchitecture
3.3 Landscapeandliterature
3.3.1 Theearliestlandscape
literature
3.3.2 Topographicalpoetry
3.3.3 TheRomanticerainBritain
3.3.4 Europe
3.3.5 NorthAmerica
3.4 Asia
3.4.1 China
3.5 Landscapeart
3.5.1 Landscapephotography
3.5.2 Landscapepainting
Galleryoflandscapepaintingsfrom
differentperiods
Seealso
References
Externallinks

Definitionandetymology

AutumnlandscapeinRybiniszki,
Latvia,watercolorbyStanisaw
Masowski,1902(NationalMuseum
inWarsaw,Poland)

Thereareseveraldefinitionsofwhatconstitutesalandscape,
dependingoncontext.Incommonusagehowever,alandscaperefers
eithertoallthevisiblefeaturesofanareaofland(usuallyrural),
oftenconsideredintermsofaestheticappeal,ortoapictorial
representationofanareaofcountryside,specificallywithinthe
genreoflandscapepainting.Whenpeopledeliberatelyimprovethe
aestheticappearanceofapieceoflandbychangingcontoursand
vegetation,etc.itissaidtohavebeenlandscaped,[1]thoughthe
resultmaynotconstitutealandscapeaccordingtosomedefinitions.

Thewordlandscape(landscipeorlandscaef)arrivedinEngland
andthereforeintotheEnglishlanguageafterthefifthcentury,
followingthearrivaloftheAngloSaxonsthesetermsreferredtoa
systemofhumanmadespacesontheland.Theterm"landscape"
emergedaroundtheturnofthesixteenthcenturytodenoteapaintingwhoseprimarysubjectmatterwas
naturalscenery.[2]"Land"(awordfromGermanicorigin)maybetakeninitssenseofsomethingtowhich
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peoplebelong(asinEnglandbeingthelandoftheEnglish).[3]Thesuffix"scape"isequivalenttothemore
commonEnglishsuffix"ship."[3]Therootsof"ship"areetymologicallyakintoOldEnglishsceppanor
scyppan,meaningtoshape.Thesuffixschaftisrelatedtotheverbschaffen,sothatshipandshapearealso
etymologicallylinked.Themodernformoftheword,withitsconnotationsofscenery,appearedinthelate
sixteenthcenturywhenthetermlandschapwasintroducedbyDutchpainterswhousedittoreferto
paintingsofinlandnaturalorruralscenery.Theword"landscape",firstrecordedin1598,wasborrowed
fromaDutchpainters'term.[4]Thepopularconceptionofthelandscapethatisreflectedindictionaries
conveysbothaparticularandageneralmeaning,theparticularreferringtoanareaoftheEarth'ssurfaceand
thegeneralbeingthatwhichcanbeseenbyanobserver.Anexampleofthissecondusagecanbefoundas
earlyas1662intheBookofCommonPrayer:
CouldwebutclimbwhereMosesstood,
Andviewthelandscapeover.
(GeneralHymns,verse536).[5]
Thereareseveralwordsthatarefrequentlyassociatedwiththewordlandscape:
Scenery:Thenaturalfeaturesofalandscapeconsideredintermsoftheirappearance,esp.when
picturesque:spectacularviewsofmountainscenery.[1]
Setting:Inworksofnarrative(especiallyfictional),itincludesthehistoricalmomentintimeand
geographiclocationinwhichastorytakesplace,andhelpsinitiatethemainbackdropandmoodfora
story.[6]
Picturesque:Thewordliterallymeans"inthemannerofapicturefittobemadeintoapicture",and
usedasearlyas1703(OxfordEnglishDictionary),andderivedfromanItaliantermpittoresco,"inthe
mannerofapainter".GilpinsEssayonPrints(1768)definedpicturesqueas"atermexpressiveof
thatpeculiarkindofbeauty,whichisagreeableinapicture"(p.xii).
Aview:"Asightorprospectofsomelandscapeorextendedsceneanextentorareacoveredbythe
eyefromonepoint"(OED).
Wilderness:Anuncultivated,uninhabited,andinhospitableregion.[1]SeealsoNaturallandscape.
Cityscape(alsotownscape):Theurbanequivalentofalandscape.Inthevisualartsacityscape(urban
landscape)isanartisticrepresentation,suchasapainting,drawing,printorphotograph,ofthe
physicalaspectsofacityorurbanarea.
Seascape:Aphotograph,painting,orotherworkofartwhichdepictsthesea,inotherwordsan
exampleofmarineart.

Physicallandscape
Geomorphology:Thephysicalevolutionoflandscape
Geomorphologyisthescientificstudyoftheoriginandevolutionoftopographicandbathymetricfeatures
createdbyphysicalorchemicalprocessesoperatingatornearEarth'ssurface.Geomorphologistsseekto
understandwhylandscapeslookthewaytheydo,tounderstandlandformhistoryanddynamicsandto
predictchangesthroughacombinationoffieldobservations,physicalexperimentsandnumericalmodeling.
Geomorphologyispracticedwithinphysicalgeography,geology,geodesy,engineeringgeology,
archaeologyandgeotechnicalengineering.Thisbroadbaseofinterestscontributestomanyresearchstyles
andinterestswithinthefield.[7]
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ThesurfaceofEarthismodifiedbyacombinationofsurfaceprocessesthatsculptlandscapes,andgeologic
processesthatcausetectonicupliftandsubsidence,andshapethecoastalgeography.Surfaceprocesses
comprisetheactionofwater,wind,ice,fire,andlivingthingsonthesurfaceoftheEarth,alongwith
chemicalreactionsthatformsoilsandaltermaterialproperties,thestabilityandrateofchangeof
topographyundertheforceofgravity,andotherfactors,suchas(intheveryrecentpast)humanalteration
ofthelandscape.Manyofthesefactorsarestronglymediatedbyclimate.Geologicprocessesincludethe
upliftofmountainranges,thegrowthofvolcanoes,isostaticchangesinlandsurfaceelevation(sometimes
inresponsetosurfaceprocesses),andtheformationofdeepsedimentarybasinswherethesurfaceofEarth
dropsandisfilledwithmaterialerodedfromotherpartsofthelandscape.TheEarthsurfaceandits
topographythereforeareanintersectionofclimatic,hydrologic,andbiologicactionwithgeologic
processes.
Listofdifferenttypesoflandscape
Desert,Plain,Taiga,Tundra,Wetland,Mountain,Mountainrange,Cliff,Coast,Littoralzone,Glacier,Polar
regionsofEarth,Shrubland,Forest,Rainforest,Woodland,Jungle.

PanoramaoftheChanedesPuysfromPuydeDmeinwinter.MassifCentral,France.Anexampleofhowpast
volcanicactivityshapedalandscape

Landscapeecology
Landscapeecologyisthescienceofstudyingandimprovingrelationshipsbetweenecologicalprocessesin
theenvironmentandparticularecosystems.Thisisdonewithinavarietyoflandscapescales,development
spatialpatterns,andorganizationallevelsofresearchandpolicy.[8][9][10]
Landscapeisacentralconceptinlandscapeecology.Itis,however,definedinquitedifferentways.For
example:[11]CarlTrollconceivesoflandscapenotasamentalconstructbutasanobjectivelygivenorganic
entity,aharmonicindividuumofspace.[12]ErnstNeef[13]defineslandscapesassectionswithinthe
uninterruptedearthwideinterconnectionofgeofactorswhicharedefinedassuchonthebasisoftheir
uniformityintermsofaspecificlanduse,andarethusdefinedinananthropocentricandrelativisticway.

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AccordingtoRichardFormanandMichaelGodron,[14]alandscapeisaheterogeneouslandareacomposed
ofaclusterofinteractingecosystemsthatisrepeatedinsimilarformthroughout,wherebytheylistwoods,
meadows,marshesandvillagesasexamplesofalandscapesecosystems,andstatethatalandscapeisan
areaatleastafewkilometreswide.JohnA.Wiens[15]opposesthetraditionalviewexpoundedbyCarlTroll,
IsaakS.Zonneveld,ZevNaveh,RichardT.T.Forman/MichelGodronandothersthatlandscapesarearenas
inwhichhumansinteractwiththeirenvironmentsonakilometrewidescaleinstead,hedefines
'landscape'regardlessofscaleas"thetemplateonwhichspatialpatternsinfluenceecological
processes".[16]Somedefine'landscape'asanareacontainingtwoormoreecosystemsincloseproximity.[17]

Landscapearchaeology
Landscapearchaeologyorlandscapehistoryisthestudyoftheway
inwhichhumanityhaschangedthephysicalappearanceofthe
environmentbothpresentandpast.Landscapegenerallyrefersto
bothnaturalenvironmentsandenvironmentsconstructedbyhuman
beings.[18]Naturallandscapesareconsideredtobeenvironmentsthat
havenotbeenalteredbyhumansinanyshapeorform.[19]Cultural
landscapes,ontheotherhand,areenvironmentsthathavebeen
alteredinsomemannerbypeople(includingtemporarystructures
MedievalRidgeandFurrowabove
andplaces,suchascampsites,thatarecreatedbyhumanbeings).[20]
WoodStanway,Gloucestershire,
Amongarchaeologists,thetermlandscapecanrefertothemeanings
England.
andalterationspeoplemarkontotheirsurroundings.[20][21]Assuch,
landscapearchaeologyisoftenemployedtostudythehumanuseof
landoverextensiveperiodsoftime.[21][22]LandscapearchaeologycanbesummedupbyNicoleBranton's
statement:
"thelandscapesinlandscapearchaeologymaybeassmallasasinglehouseholdorgardenoraslarge
asanempire",and"althoughresourceexploitation,class,andpowerarefrequenttopicsoflandscape
archaeology,landscapeapproachesareconcernedwithspatial,notnecessarilyecologicalor
economic,relationships.Whilesimilartosettlementarchaeologyandecologicalarchaeology,
landscapeapproachesmodelplacesandspacesasdynamicparticipantsinpastbehavior,notmerely
setting(affectinghumanaction),orartifact(affectedbyhumanaction)".[18]

Culturallandscape
TheconceptofculturallandscapescanbefoundintheEuropeantraditionoflandscapepainting.[24]From
the16thcenturyonwards,manyEuropeanartistspaintedlandscapesinfavorofpeople,diminishingthe
peopleintheirpaintingstofiguressubsumedwithinbroader,regionallyspecificlandscapes.[25]
ThegeographerOttoSchlteriscreditedwithhavingfirstformallyusedculturallandscapeasan
academictermintheearly20thcentury.[26]In1908,Schlterarguedthatbydefininggeographyasa
Landschaftskunde(landscapescience)thiswouldgivegeographyalogicalsubjectmattersharedbynoother
discipline.[26][27]Hedefinedtwoformsoflandscape:theUrlandschaft(transl.originallandscape)or
landscapethatexistedbeforemajorhumaninducedchangesandtheKulturlandschaft(transl.'cultural
landscape')alandscapecreatedbyhumanculture.Themajortaskofgeographywastotracethechangesin
thesetwolandscapes.
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ItwasCarlO.Sauer,ahumangeographer,whowasprobablythemost
influentialinpromotinganddevelopingtheideaofcultural
landscapes.[28]Sauerwasdeterminedtostresstheagencyofcultureasa
forceinshapingthevisiblefeaturesoftheEarthssurfaceindelimited
areas.Withinhisdefinition,thephysicalenvironmentretainsacentral
significance,asthemediumwithandthroughwhichhumancultures
act.[29]Hisclassicdefinitionofa'culturallandscape'readsasfollows:
Theculturallandscapeisfashionedfromanatural
landscapebyaculturalgroup.Cultureistheagent,the
naturalareaisthemedium,theculturallandscapeisthe
result.

TheBatadriceterraces,TheRice
TerracesofthePhilippine
Cordilleras,thefirstsitetobe
includedintheUNESCOWorld
HeritageListculturallandscape
categoryin1995. [23]

Aculturallandscape,asdefinedbytheWorldHeritageCommittee,is
the"culturalproperties[that]representthecombinedworksofnatureandofman."[30]
TheWorldHeritageCommitteeidentifiesthreecategoriesofculturallandscape,rangingfrom(i)those
landscapesmostdeliberately'shaped'bypeople,through(ii)fullrangeof'combined'works,to(iii)those
leastevidently'shaped'bypeople(yethighlyvalued).ThethreecategoriesextractedfromtheCommittee's
OperationalGuidelines,areasfollows:[31]
1."Alandscapedesignedandcreatedintentionallybyman"
2.an"organicallyevolvedlandscape"whichmaybea"relict(orfossil)landscape"ora"continuing
landscape"and
3.an"associativeculturallandscape"whichmaybevaluedbecauseofthe"religious,artisticorcultural
associationsofthenaturalelement".

Humanconceptionsandrepresentationsoflandscape
Landscapegardens
TheChinesegardenisalandscapegardenstylewhichhasevolved
overthreethousandyears.Itincludesboththevastgardensofthe
ChineseemperorsandmembersoftheImperialFamily,builtfor
pleasureandtoimpress,andthemoreintimategardenscreatedby
scholars,poets,formergovernmentofficials,soldiersandmerchants,
madeforreflectionandescapefromtheoutsideworld.Theycreate
anidealizedminiaturelandscape,whichismeanttoexpressthe
harmonythatshouldexistbetweenmanandnature.[32]Atypical
Chinesegardenisenclosedbywallsandincludesoneormore
Stourheadgarden,Wiltshire,England
ponds,scholar'srocks,treesandflowers,andanassortmentofhalls
andpavilionswithinthegarden,connectedbywindingpathsand
zigzaggalleries.Bymovingfromstructuretostructure,visitorscanviewaseriesofcarefullycomposed
scenes,unrollinglikeascrolloflandscapepaintings.[33]
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TheEnglishlandscapegarden,alsocalledEnglishlandscapeparkor
simplythe'Englishgarden',isastyleofparklandgardenintendedto
lookasthoughitmightbeanaturallandscape,althoughitmaybe
veryextensivelyrearranged.ItemergedinEnglandintheearly18th
century,andspreadacrossEurope,replacingthemoreformal,
symmetricaljardinlafranaiseofthe17thcenturyastheprincipal
styleforlargeparksandgardensinEurope.[34]TheEnglishgarden
(andlaterFrenchlandscapegarden)presentedanidealizedviewof
nature.ItdrewinspirationfrompaintingsoflandscapesbyClaude
LorraineandNicolasPoussin,andfromtheclassicChinesegardens
oftheEast,[35]whichhadrecentlybeendescribedbyEuropean
travellersandwererealizedintheAngloChinesegarden,[35]andthe
philosophyofJeanJacquesRousseau(17121778).
TheEnglishgardenusuallyincludedalake,sweepsofgentlyrolling
lawnssetagainstgrovesoftrees,andrecreationsofclassical
temples,Gothicruins,bridges,andotherpicturesquearchitecture,
designedtorecreateanidyllicpastorallandscape.Theworkof
JichangGardeninWuxi(15061521)
Lancelot"Capability"BrownandHumphryReptonwasparticularly
influential.Bytheendofthe18thcenturytheEnglishgardenwas
beingimitatedbytheFrenchlandscapegarden,andasfarawayasSt.Petersburg,Russia,inPavlovsk,the
gardensofthefutureEmperorPaul.Italsohadamajorinfluenceontheformofthepublicparksand
gardenswhichappearedaroundtheworldinthe19thcentury.[36]

Landscapearchitecture
Landscapearchitectureisamultidisciplinaryfield,
incorporatingaspectsofbotany,horticulture,thefinearts,
architecture,industrialdesign,geologyandtheearthsciences,
environmentalpsychology,geography,andecology.The
activitiesofalandscapearchitectcanrangefromthecreationof
publicparksandparkwaystositeplanningforcampusesand
corporateofficeparks,fromthedesignofresidentialestatesto
thedesignofcivilinfrastructureandthemanagementoflarge
wildernessareasorreclamationofdegradedlandscapessuchas
minesorlandfills.Landscapearchitectsworkonalltypesof
structuresandexternalspacelargeorsmall,urban,suburban
andrural,andwith"hard"(built)and"soft"(planted)materials,
whilepayingattentiontoecologicalsustainability.

CentralPark,NewYorkCity,US,
designedbyFrederickLawOlmsted.

Fortheperiodbefore1800,thehistoryoflandscapegardening(latercalledlandscapearchitecture)islargely
thatofmasterplanningandgardendesignformanorhouses,palacesandroyalproperties,religious
complexes,andcentersofgovernment.AnexampleistheextensiveworkbyAndrLeNtreatVauxle
VicomteandatthePalaceofVersaillesforKingLouisXIVofFrance.Thefirstpersontowriteofmakinga
landscapewasJosephAddisonin1712.ThetermlandscapearchitecturewasinventedbyGilbertLaing
Measonin1828andwasfirstusedasaprofessionaltitlebyFrederickLawOlmstedin1863.Duringthe
latter19thcentury,thetermlandscapearchitectbecameusedbyprofessionalpeoplewhodesigned
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landscapes.FrederickLawOlmstedusedtheterm'landscapearchitecture'asaprofessionforthefirsttime
whendesigningCentralPark,NewYorkCity,US.Herethecombinationoftraditionallandscapegardening
andtheemergingfieldofcityplanninggavelandscapearchitectureitsuniquefocus.Thisuseoftheterm
landscapearchitectbecameestablishedafterFrederickLawOlmsted,Jr.andothersfoundedtheAmerican
SocietyofLandscapeArchitects(ASLA)in1899.

Landscapeandliterature
Theearliestlandscapeliterature
PossiblytheearliestlandscapeliteratureisfoundinAustralian
aboriginalmyths(alsoknownasDreamtimeorDreaming
stories,songlines,orAboriginaloralliterature),thestories
traditionallyperformedbyAboriginalpeoples[37]withineachof
thelanguagegroupsacrossAustralia.Allsuchmythsvariously
tellsignificanttruthswithineachAboriginalgroup'slocal
landscape.TheyeffectivelylayerthewholeoftheAustralian
continent'stopographywithculturalnuanceanddeeper
meaning,andempowerselectedaudienceswiththe
accumulatedwisdomandknowledgeofAustralianAboriginal
ancestorsbacktotimeimmemorial.[38]

TheDjabugaylanguagegroup'smythical
being,Damarri,transformedintoa
mountainrange,isseenlyingonhisback
abovetheBarronRiverGorge,looking
upwardstotheskies,withinnortheast
Australia'swettropicalforestedlandscape

IntheWestpastoralpoetryrepresenttheearliestformof
landscapeliterature,thoughthisliterarygenrepresentsanidealizedlandscapepeopledbyshepherdsand
shepherdesses,andcreates"animageofapeacefuluncorruptedexistenceakindofprelapsarianworld".[39]
ThepastoralhasitsoriginsintheworksoftheGreekpoetTheocritus(c.316c.260BC).TheRomantic
periodpoetWilliamWordsworthcreatedamodern,morerealisticformofpastoralwithMichael,APastoral
Poem(1800).[40]
Anearlyformoflandscapepoetry,Shanshuipoetry,developedinChinaduringthethirdandfourth
centuriesA.D.[41]
Topographicalpoetry

TheValeofBlackmore,themainsetting
forThomasHardy'snovelTessofthe
d'Urbervilles.HambledonHilltowards
StourtonTower

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Topographicalpoetryisagenreofpoetrythatdescribes,and
oftenpraises,alandscapeorplace.JohnDenham's1642poem
"Cooper'sHill"establishedthegenre,whichpeakedin
popularityin18thcenturyEngland.Examplesoftopographical
versedate,however,totheLateClassicalperiod,andcanbe
foundthroughouttheMedievaleraandduringtheRenaissance.
Thoughtheearliestexamplescomemostlyfromcontinental
Europe,thetopographicalpoetryinthetraditionoriginating
withDenhamconcernsitselfwiththeclassics,andmanyofthe
varioustypesoftopographicalverse,suchasriver,ruin,or
hilltoppoemswereestablishedbytheearly17thcentury.[42]
AlexanderPope's"WindsorForest"(1713)andJohnDyer's
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"GrongarHill'(1762)aretwootheroftmentionedexamples.GeorgeCrabbe,theSuffolkregionalpoet,also
wrotetopographicalpoems,asdidWilliamWordsworth,ofwhichLineswrittenafewmilesaboveTintern
Abbeyisanobviousexample.[43]Morerecently,MatthewArnold's"TheScholarGipsy"(1853)praisesthe
Oxfordshirecountryside,andW.H.Auden's"InPraiseofLimestone"(1948)usesalimestonelandscapeas
anallegory.[44]
Subgenresoftopographicalpoetryincludethecountryhousepoem,writtenin17thcenturyEnglandto
complimentawealthypatron,andtheprospectpoem,describingtheviewfromadistanceoratemporal
viewintothefuture,withthesenseofopportunityorexpectation.Whenunderstoodbroadlyaslandscape
poetryandwhenassessedfromitsestablishmenttothepresent,topographicalpoetrycantakeonmany
formalsituationsandtypesofplaces.KennethBaker,inhis"IntroductiontoTheFaberBookofLandscape
Poetry,identifies37varietiesandcompilespoemsfromthe16ththroughthe20thcenturiesfromEdmund
SpensertoSylviaPlathcorrespondenttoeachtype,from"WalksandSurveys,"to"Mountains,Hills,and
theViewfromAbove,"to"ViolationofNatureandtheLandscape,"to"SpiritsandGhosts."[45]
Commonaestheticregistersofwhichtopographicalpoetrymakesuseincludepastoralimagery,thesublime,
andthepicturesque,whichincludeimagesofrivers,ruins,moonlight,birdsong,andclouds,peasants,
mountains,caves,andwaterscapes.
Thoughdescribingalandscapeorscenery,topographicalpoetryoften,atleastimplicitly,addressesa
politicalissueorthemeaningofnationalityinsomeway.Thedescriptionofthelandscapetherefore
becomesapoeticvehicleforapoliticalmessage.Forexample,inJohnDenham's"Cooper'sHill,"the
speakerdiscussesthemeritsoftherecentlyexecutedCharlesI.[46]
TheRomanticerainBritain
OneimportantaspectofBritishRomanticismevident
inpaintingandliteratureaswellasinpoliticsand
TheVisiononMountSnowdon
philosophywasachangeinthewaypeopleperceived
andvaluedthelandscape.Inparticular,afterWilliam
...andonthe
shore
Gilpin'sObservationsontheRiverWyewaspublished
Ifoundmyselfofahugeseaofmist,
in1770,theideaofthepicturesquebegantoinfluence
Whichmeekandsilentrestedatmyfeet.
artistsandviewers.Gilpinadvocatedapproachingthe
Ahundredhillstheirduskybacks
landscape"bytherulesofpicturesquebeauty,"[47]
upheaved
Alloverthisstillocean,andbeyond,
whichemphasizedcontrastandvariety.Edmund
Far,farbeyond,thevapoursshot
Burke'sAPhilosophicalEnquiryintotheOriginofOur
themselves
IdeasoftheSublimeandBeautiful(1757)wasalsoan
Inheadlands,tongues,andpromontory
influentialtext,aswasLonginus'OntheSublime(early
shapes,Intothesea,therealsea,that
A.D.,Greece),whichwastranslatedintoEnglishfrom
seemed
Todwindleandgiveupitsmajesty,
theFrenchin1739.Fromthe18thcentury,atastefor

Usurpeduponasfarassightcouldreach.
thesublimeinthenaturallandscapeemergedalongside
theideaofthesublimeinlanguagethatiselevated
fromThePrelude(1805),Book13,lines4151.
rhetoricorspeech.[48]Atopographicalpoemthat
byWilliamWordsworth
influencedtheRomantics,wasJamesThomson'sThe
Seasons(172630).[49]Thechanginglandscape,
broughtaboutbytheindustrialandagriculturalrevolutions,withtheexpansionofthecityanddepopulation
ofthecountryside,wasanotherinfluencesonthegrowthoftheRomanticmovementinBritain.Thepoor
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conditionofworkers,thenewclassconflicts,andthepollutionoftheenvironmentallledtoareaction
againsturbanismandindustrialisationandanewemphasisonthebeautyandvalueofnatureand
landscape.[50]However,itwasalsoarevoltagainstaristocraticsocialandpoliticalnormsoftheAgeof
Enlightenment,aswellareactionagainstthescientificrationalisationofnature.[51]
ThepoetWilliamWordsworthwasamajorcontributortotheliteratureoflandscape,[52]aswashis
contemporarypoetandnovelistWalterScott.Scott'sinfluencewasfeltthroughoutEurope,aswellason
majorVictoriannovelistsinBritain,suchasEmilyBronte,MrsGaskell,GeorgeEliot,andThomasHardy,
aswellasJohnCowperPowysinthe20thcentury.[53][54]MargaretDrabbleinAWriter'sBritainsuggests
thatThomasHardy"isperhapsthegreatestwriterofrurallifeandlandscape"inEnglish.[55]
Europe
AmongEuropeanwritersinfluencedbyScottwereFrenchmenHonordeBalzacandAlexandreDumasand
ItalianAlessandroManzoni.[56]Manzoni'sfamousnovelTheBetrothedwasinspiredbyWalterScott's
Ivanhoe.[57]
NorthAmerica
AlsoinfluencedbyRomanticism'sapproachtolandscapewastheAmericannovelistFenimoreCooper,who
wasadmiredbyVictorHugoandBalzacandcharacterizedasthe"AmericanScott.[58]

Asia
China
LandscapeinChinesepoetryhasoftenbeencloselytiedtoChineselandscapepainting,whichdeveloped
muchearlierthanintheWest.Manypoemsevokespecificpaintings,andsomearewritteninmoreempty
areasofthescrollitself.Manypaintersalsowrotepoetry,especiallyinthescholarofficialorliterati
tradition.LandscapeimageswerepresentintheearlyShijingandtheChuci,butinlaterpoetrytheemphasis
changed,asinpainting]]totheShanshui(Chinese:lit."mountainwater")stylefeaturingwild
mountains,riversandlakes,ratherthanlandscapeasasettingforahumanpresence.[41]Shanshuipoetry
traditionalChinese:simplifiedChinese:developedinChinaduringthethirdandfourth
centuriesAD[41]andleftmostofthevariedlandscapesofChinalargelyunrepresented.Shanshuipainting
andpoetryshowsimaginarylandscapes,thoughwithfeaturestypicalofsomepartsofSouthChinathey
remainpopulartothepresentday.
FieldsandGardenspoetry(simplifiedChinese:traditionalChinese:pinyin:tinyunsh
WadeGiles:t'ienyuanshihliterally:"fieldsandgardenspoetry"),inpoetry)wasacontrastingpoetic
movementwhichlastedforcenturies,withafocusedonthenaturefoundingardens,inbackyards,andin
thecultivatedcountryside.FieldsandGardenspoetryisoneofmanyClassicalChinesepoetrygenres.One
ofthemainpractitionersoftheFieldsandGardenspoetrygenrewasTaoYuanming(alsoknownasTao
Qian(365427),amongothernamesorversionsofnames).[59]TaoYuanminghasbeenregardedasthefirst
greatpoetassociatedwiththeFieldsandGardenspoetrygenre.[60]
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Landscapeart
Landscapephotography
Manylandscapephotographsshowlittleornohumanactivityand
arecreatedinthepursuitofapure,unsullieddepictionofnature[61]
devoidofhumaninfluence,insteadfeaturingsubjectssuchas
stronglydefinedlandforms,weather,andambientlight.Aswith
mostformsofart,thedefinitionofalandscapephotographis
broad,andmayincludeurbansettings,industrialareas,andnature
photography.NotablelandscapephotographersincludeAnsel
Adams,GalenRowell,EdwardWeston,BenHeine,MarkGray
andFredJudge.
Landscapepainting

TheTetonsandtheSnakeRiver(1942)
photographbyAnselAdams

Theearliestformsofart
aroundtheworlddepict
littlethatcouldreallybecalledlandscape,althoughgroundlinesand
sometimesindicationsofmountains,treesorothernaturalfeatures
areincluded.Theearliest"purelandscapes"withnohumanfigures
arefrescosfromMinoanGreeceofaround1500BCE.[62]Hunting
scenes,especiallythosesetintheenclosedvistaofthereedbedsof
theNileDeltafromAncientEgypt,cangiveastrongsenseofplace,
buttheemphasisisonindividualplantformsandhumanandanimal
SalomonvanRuisdael,"Viewof
figuresratherthantheoveralllandscapesetting.Foracoherent
Deventer"(1657).
depictionofawholelandscape,someroughsystemofperspective,
orscalingfordistance,isneeded,andthisseemsfromliterary
evidencetohavefirstbeendevelopedinAncientGreeceintheHellenisticperiod,althoughnolargescale
examplessurvive.MoreancientRomanlandscapessurvive,fromthe1stcenturyBCEonwards,especially
frescosoflandscapesdecoratingroomsthathavebeenpreservedatarchaeologicalsitesofPompeii,
Herculaneumandelsewhere,andmosaics.[63]
TheChineseinkpaintingtraditionofshanshui("mountainwater"),or"pure"landscape,inwhichtheonly
signofhumanlifeisusuallyasage,oraglimpseofhishut,usessophisticatedlandscapebackgroundsto
figuresubjects,andlandscapeartofthisperiodretainsaclassicandmuchimitatedstatuswithinthe
Chinesetradition.
BoththeRomanandChinesetraditionstypicallyshowgrandpanoramasofimaginarylandscapes,generally
backedwitharangeofspectacularmountainsinChinaoftenwithwaterfallsandinRomeoftenincluding
sea,lakesorrivers.Thesewerefrequentlyusedtobridgethegapbetweenaforegroundscenewithfigures
andadistantpanoramicvista,apersistentproblemforlandscapeartists.
AmajorcontrastbetweenlandscapepaintingintheWestandEastAsiahasbeenthatwhileintheWestuntil
the19thcenturyitoccupiedalowpositionintheacceptedhierarchyofgenres,inEastAsiatheclassic
Chinesemountainwaterinkpaintingwastraditionallythemostprestigiousformofvisualart.However,in
theWest,historypaintingcametorequireanextensivelandscapebackgroundwhereappropriate,sothe
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theorydidnotentirelyworkagainstthedevelopmentoflandscapepaintingforseveralcenturies
landscapeswereregularlypromotedtothestatusofhistorypaintingbytheadditionofsmallfigurestomake
anarrativescene,typicallyreligiousormythological.
DutchGoldenAgepaintingofthe17thcenturysawthedramaticgrowthoflandscapepainting,inwhich
manyartistsspecialized,andthedevelopmentofextremelysubtlerealisttechniquesfordepictinglightand
weather.ThepopularityoflandscapesintheNetherlandswasinpartareflectionofthevirtual
disappearanceofreligiouspaintinginaCalvinistsociety,andthedeclineofreligiouspaintinginthe18th
and19thcenturiesalloverEuropecombinedwithRomanticismtogivelandscapesamuchgreaterandmore
prestigiousplacein19thcenturyartthantheyhadassumedbefore.
InEngland,landscapeshadinitiallybeenmostlybackgroundstoportraits,typicallysuggestingtheparksor
estatesofalandowner,thoughmostlypaintedinLondonbyanartistwhohadnevervisitedthesite.the
EnglishtraditionwasfoundedbyAnthonyvanDyckandother,mostlyFlemish,artistsworkinginEngland.
Bythebeginningofthe19thcenturytheEnglishartistswiththehighestmodernreputationsweremostly
dedicatedlandscapists,showingthewiderangeofRomanticinterpretationsoftheEnglishlandscapefound
intheworksofJohnConstable,J.M.W.TurnerandSamuelPalmer.Howeverallthesehaddifficulty
establishingthemselvesinthecontemporaryartmarket,whichstillpreferredhistorypaintingsand
portraits.[64]
InEurope,asJohnRuskinsaid,[65]andSirKennethClark
confirmed,landscapepaintingwasthe"chiefartisticcreationofthe
nineteenthcentury",and"thedominantart",withtheresultthatin
thefollowingperiodpeoplewere"apttoassumethatthe
appreciationofnaturalbeautyandthepaintingoflandscapeisa
normalandenduringpartofourspiritualactivity"[66]
TheRomanticmovementintensifiedtheexistinginterestin
ThomasCole"TheCourseofEmpire
landscapeart,andremoteandwildlandscapes,whichhadbeenone
TheArcadianorPastoralState",US,
recurringelementinearlierlandscapeart,nowbecamemore
1836.
prominent.TheGermanCasparDavidFriedrichhadadistinctive
style,influencedbyhisDanishtraining.Tothisheaddedaquasi
mysticalRomanticism.Frenchpainterswereslowertodeveloplandscapepainting,butfromaboutthe
1830sJeanBaptisteCamilleCorotandotherpaintersintheBarbizonSchoolestablishedaFrench
landscapetraditionthatwouldbecomethemostinfluentialinEuropeforacentury,withtheImpressionists
andPostImpressionistsforthefirsttimemakinglandscapepaintingthemainsourceofgeneralstylistic
innovationacrossalltypesofpainting.
IntheUnitedStates,theHudsonRiverSchool,prominentinthemiddletolate19thcentury,isprobablythe
bestknownnativedevelopmentinlandscapeart.Thesepainterscreatedworksofmammothscalethat
attemptedtocapturetheepicscopeofthelandscapesthatinspiredthem.TheworkofThomasCole,the
school'sgenerallyacknowledgedfounder,hasmuchincommonwiththephilosophicalidealsofEuropean
landscapepaintingsakindofsecularfaithinthespiritualbenefitstobegainedfromthecontemplationof
naturalbeauty.SomeofthelaterHudsonRiverSchoolartists,suchasAlbertBierstadt,createdless
comfortingworksthatplacedagreateremphasis(withagreatdealofRomanticexaggeration)ontheraw,
eventerrifyingpowerofnature.ThebestexamplesofCanadianlandscapeartcanbefoundintheworksof
theGroupofSeven,prominentinthe1920s.[67]EmilyCarrwasalsocloselyassociatedwiththeGroupof
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Seven,thoughwasneveranofficialmember.AlthoughcertainlylessdominantintheperiodafterWorld
WarI,manysignificantartistsstillpaintedlandscapesinthewidevarietyofstylesexemplifiedbyNeil
Welliver,AlexKatz,MiltonAvery,PeterDoig,AndrewWyeth,DavidHockneyandSidneyNolan.
ThetermneoromanticismisappliedinBritisharthistory,toalooselyaffiliatedschooloflandscape
paintingthatemergedaround1930andcontinueduntiltheearly1950s.[68]Thesepainterslookedbackto
19thcenturyartistssuchasWilliamBlakeandSamuelPalmer,butwerealsoinfluencedbyFrenchcubist
andpostcubistartistssuchasPabloPicasso,AndrMasson,andPavelTchelitchew(ClarkandClarke
2001Hopkins2001).Thismovementwasmotivatedinpartasaresponsetothethreatofinvasionduring
WorldWarII.ArtistsparticularlyassociatedwiththeinitiationofthismovementincludedPaulNash,John
Piper,HenryMoore,IvonHitchens,andespeciallyGrahamSutherland.Ayoungergenerationincluded
JohnMinton,MichaelAyrton,JohnCraxton,KeithVaughan,RobertColquhoun,andRobertMacBryde
(Button1996).

Galleryoflandscapepaintingsfromdifferentperiods

Raphael,Madonnain
theMeadow(1505
1506).

Landscapewithscenefrom
theOdyssey,Rome,c.60
40BC.

ClaudeLorrain,Landscape
withApolloGuardingthe
HerdsofAdmetusand
Mercurystealingthem
(1645).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape

SpringinKiangnan(1547)
byWenChengMing(1470
1559)(lowerhalfdetail).

AlbertBierstadt,The
Matterhorn(circa1867).

VincentvanGogh,Wheat
FieldsatAuversUnder
CloudedSky(1890).

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PabloPicasso,1908,
Paysageauxdeuxfigures
(LandscapewithTwo
Figures)

PaulNash,Wire(1918).

CarlBrandt:"reskutan,
landscape",1921(Sweden)

EmilyCarr,OddsandEnds,
1939(BritishColumbia,
Canada)

Seealso
Australianaboriginalmythology,Mythologies
oftheindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericas,
Aboriginalsacredsite
CanalandDam
Environmentalhealth,Ecologicalhealth,
Biodiversity,Landscapeecology,Pollution,
andErosion
Grandtour,Tourism,andEcotourism
Hardscape,Urbandesign,andUrbanpark
Horticulture,Gardendesign,Japanesegarden,
Persiangarden,Listoflandscapegardens,and
Softscape
JohnMuir

JohnMuir
Landscapemythology
Mining,CornwallandWestDevonMining
Landscape(ThisisaWorldHeritagesite)
Panorama
Senseofplace
Taskscape

References
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Scottishsociety,Manzoniconfinedhimselftothissinglemasterpiece."
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LibraryandArchivesCanada
68.ItwasfirstlabeledinMarch1942bythecriticRaymondMortimerintheNewStatesman.

Externallinks
Guardianpodcasts:"Landscapeandliterature"

WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtolandscapes.
Lookuplandscapein
Wiktionary,thefree
dictionary.

(http://www.theguardian.com/books/audio/2010/aug/04/jonathanrabanlandscapeliterature)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landscape&oldid=709149678"
Categories: Landscape Topography
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon9March2016,at12:07.
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