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ISSN: 0976-8688
CODEN (USA): PSHIBD
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Polymers
Crosslinkers
Hyper cross linked Polystyrenes, Cyclodextrines and its derivatives like Methyl -Cyclodextrin, Alkyloxycarbonyl
Cyclodextrins, 2-Hydroxy Propyl -Cyclodextrins and Copolymers like Poly(valerolactone-allylvalerolactone),
Poly(valerolactone-allylvalerolactoneoxepanedione), Ethyl Cellulose and PVA
Diphenyl Carbonate, Diarylcarbonates, Diisocyanates, Pyromellitic anhydride, Carbonyldiimidazoles, Epichloridrine,
Glutarldehyde, Carboxylic acid dianhydrides, 2,2-bis(acrylamido) acetic acid and Dichloromethane
4. Preparation of Nanosponges
Nanosponges are prepared by means of following methods:
4.1. Emulsion Solvent Diffusion Method
Nanosponges can be prepared by using different proportions of ethyl cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol. The dispersed
phase containing ethyl cellulose and drug was dissolved in 20ml dichloromethane and slowly added to a definite
amount of polyvinyl alcohol in 150ml of aqueous continuous phase. The reaction mixture was stirred at 1000 rpm
for 2 hrs. The nanosponges formed were collected by filtration and dried in an oven at 400c for 24 hrs. The dried
nanosponges were stored in vacuum desiccators to ensure the removal of residual solvent [15].
4.2. From Hypercross-linked -Cyclodextrins
Nanosponges can be obtained by cross linking with different types of cyclodextrins (CDs) with a carbonyl or a
dicarboxylate compound as a cross linker [11]. The ratio of CDs can be varied during preparation to improve the
drug loading and to obtain a tailored release profile [16-18].
-cyclodextrin nanosponges were prepared as reported in the patent by Trotta and Tumiatti [19], 100 ml of Dimethyl
Formamaide (DMF) was placed in a round bottomed flask and 17.42g of anhydrous -CD was added to achieve
complete dissolution. Then 9.96 g of carbonyl di-imidazole (61.42mmol) was added and the solution was allowed
react for 4 hrs at 100oc. Once condensation polymerization was completed, the transparent block of hyper cross
linked cyclodextrin was roughly ground and an excess of de-ionised water added to remove DMF. Finally residual
by-products or unreacted reagents were completely removed by Soxhlet extraction with ethanol. The white powder
thus obtained was dried overnight in an oven at 60oc and subsequently grinded in a mortar. The fine powder
obtained was dispersed in water. The colloidal part that remained suspended in water was recovered and lyophilised.
The obtained nanosponges are sub-micron in dimension and with a spherical shape.
4.3. Solvent Method
Mix the polymer with a suitable solvent, in particular in a polar aprotic solvent such as dimethylformamide (DMF),
dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Then add this mixture to excess quantity of the cross-linker, preferably in
crosslinker/polymer molar ratio of 4 to 16. Carry out the reaction at temperature ranging from 10C to the reflux
temperature of the solvent, for time ranging from 1 to 48 hrs. Preferred cross linkers are carbonyl compounds
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Type of Dispersion
monodisperse standard
nearly monodisperse
mid range polydispersity
very polydisperse
The particle size can also be determined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Freeze Fracture Electron Microscopy (FFEM) [29].
7.3. Zeta Potential
Zeta potential is a measure of surface charge. It can be measured by using additional electrode in the particle size
equipment [22]. Also, laser doppler anemometry, zeta potential meter can be used [29].
7.4. Microscopy Studies
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) can be used to study the
morphology, surface topography and microscopic aspects of the drug, nanosponges and the product
(drug/nanosponges complex). The difference in crystallization state of the raw materials and the product seen under
electron microscope indicates formation of the inclusion complexes, even if there is a clear difference in
crystallization state of the raw material and the product obtained by co-precipitation [22, 30, 31].
7.5. Thin Layer Chromatography
In Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), the Rf values of a drug molecule diminishes to considerable extent and this
helps in identifying the complex formation between the drug and nanosponges [26, 32]. Inclusion complexation
between guest and host molecules is a reversible process. Consequently, the complex may separate completely in
guest and host molecules during the chromatographic process and only the spots of the guest and host molecules are
found on the TLC-plate [23].
7.6. Infra-Red Spectroscopy
Infra-Red spectroscopy is used to estimate the interaction between nanosponges and the drug molecules in the solid
state. Nanosponge bands often change only slightly upon complex formation and if the fraction of the guest
molecules encapsulated in the complex is less than 25%, bands which could be assigned to the included part of the
guest molecules are easily masked by the bands of the spectrum of nanosponges [33, 34]. The technique is not
generally suitable to detect the inclusion complexes and is less clarifying than other methods. The application of the
Infra-red spectroscopy is limited to the drugs having some characteristic bands, such as carbonyl or sulphonyl
groups. Infrared spectral studies give information regarding the involvement of hydrogen in various functional
groups. This generally shifts the absorbance bands to the lower frequency, increases the intensity and widens the
band caused by stretching vibration of the group involved in the formation of the hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bond at
the hydroxyl group causes the largest shift of the stretching vibration band [26].
7.7. Thermo-analytical Methods
Thermo-analytical methods determine whether drug substance undergoes some change before the thermal
degradation of the nanosponges. The change of the drug substance may be melting, evaporation, decomposition,
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Equation
Qt = Q0 + K0 t
Qt = Q0 + KH t1/2
Qt = KKPtn
Qt= At1/2 + Bt
Qt= KMBtn e(-et)
7.14. Resiliency
Resiliency (viscoelastic properties) of sponges can be modified to produce beadlets that are softer or firmer
according to the need of final formulation. Increased crosslinking tends to slow down the rate of release. Hence
resiliency of sponges will be studied and optimized as per the requirement by considering release as a function of
cross-linking with time [43].
7.15. True Density
True density of nanosponges can be determined using an ultra-pycnometer under helium gas [43].
8. Mechanism of Drug Release
The sponge particles have an open structure and the active is free to move in and out from the particles and into the
vehicle until equilibrium is reached. In case of topical delivery, once the finished product is applied to the skin, the
active that is already in the vehicle will be absorbed into the skin, depleting the vehicle, which will become
unsaturated, therefore disturbing the equilibrium. This will start a flow of the active from the sponge particle into the
vehicle and from it to the skin until the vehicle is either dried or absorbed (Figure 1). Even after that the sponge
particles retained on the surface of stratum corneum will continue to gradually release the active to the skin,
providing prolonged release over time [44].
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Antioxidants
Antipsychotics
Antiretrovirals
Antiulcer agents
Cardiac drugs
Diuretics
Gastro-prokinetic agent
Immunosuppressants
NSAIDs
Drugs
Lorazepam
Amiodarone hydrochloride
Azithromycin, Ciprofloxacin, Erythromycin, Ofloxacin, Sulfamethoxazole
Warfarin, Felbamate, Carbamazepine, Clonazepam, Oxycarbazepine
Primidone
Glibenclamide, Glipizide, Troglitazon
Phenytoin
Econazole, Griseofulvin, Itraconazole, Ketokonazole, Lansoprazol, Voriconazole
Albendazole, Mebendazole, Praziquantel
Terfenadine
Lovastatin, Atorvastatin, Fenofibrate
Felodipine, Nicardipine, Nifedipine, Nisoldipine
Camptothecin, Docetaxel, Etoposide, Exemestane, Flutamide, Irinotecan, Paclitaxel, Raloxifene, Tamoxifen,
Temozolamide, Topotecan
Resveratrol
Chlorpromazine hydrochloride
Indinavir, Nelfinavir, Ritonavir, Saquinavir
Lansoprazole, Omeprazole
Carvedilol, Digoxin, Talinolol
Chlorthalidone, Spironolactone
Cisapride
Cyclosporine, Sirolimus, Tacrolimus,
Dapsone, Diclofenac, Diflunisal, Etodolac, Etoricoxib, Flubiprofen, Ibuprofen, Indomethacin, Ketoprofen,
Mefenamic acid, Naproxen, Nimesulide, Oxaprozin, Piroxicam
Danazol, Dexamethazone
Atovaquone, Melarsoprol, Phenazopyridine, Ziprasidone
Steroids
Miscellaneous
The nanosponges are solid in nature and can be formulated as oral, parenteral, topical or inhalation dosage forms.
For the oral administration, the complexes may be dispersed in a matrix of excipients, diluents, lubricants and anticaking agents suitable for the preparation of capsules or tablets [9]. For the parenteral administration the complex
may be simply carried in sterile water, saline or other aqueous solutions. For topical administration they can be
effectively incorporated into topical hydrogel [15]. The nanosponge technology used in formulation of some drugs is
mentioned in the Table 5.
Table 5: Examples of drug nanosponges formulated
Drug
Nanosponge Vehicle
Indication
Tamoxifen
-cyclodextrin
Breast cancer
Dexamethasone
-cyclodextrin
Brain tumours
Econazole nitrate
Ethyl cellulose
Polyvinyl alcohol
Fungal infections
Itraconazole
-Cyclodextrin
copolyvidonum
Paclitaxel
-cyclodextrin
Cancer
Camptothecin
-cyclodextrin
Cancer
-cyclodextrin
Inflammation,
Cardiovascular
diseases,
Dermatitis,
Gonorrhoea,
Resveratrol
and
Fungal infections
Cytotoxicity
Drug release
Experiment
In-vitro/
In-vivo/
Mathematical Model
MCF-7 cell line
Dialysis bag
technique in-vitro
Irritation study
Rat
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Higuchi Model
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46
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Study
Saturation
solubility
Study
Cytotoxicity
Bioavailability
Haemolytic
activity
Cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity
Accumulation of
drug
in
the
buccal
mucosa of rabbit
Reference
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Ex-vivo
Permeation study
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Pig skin
Temozolamide
Antisense
Oligonucleotides
Poly
(valerolactoneallylvalerolactone)
and
poly
(valerolactoneallylvalerolactone
-oxepanedione)
Brain tumours
Sodium alginate
Poly L-lysine
Cancer therapy,
Viral infections,
Pathologic disorders
Drug
study
release
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Pharmacokinetic
Studies
In-vitro release
Acyclovir
Voriconazole
-cyclodextrin
Ethyl cellulose
Polyvinyl alcohol
Viral infections
Fungal infections
Cellular uptake
Cytotoxicity
Antiviral activity
Antifungal
activity
In-vitro
In-vivo
Bovine
serum
albumin (BSA)
-cyclodextrin
In-vitro and in
-vivo studies
Viral,
malignant,
autoimmune
diseases
In-vitro release
Mice
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Multicompartment
rotating cells with dialysis
membrane
Vero cells
Vero cells
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HSV-1 MRC
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Camptothecin, a plant alkaloid and a potent antitumor agent, has a limited therapeutic utility because of its poor
aqueous solubility, lactone ring instability and serious side effects. Cyclodextrins based nanosponges are a novel
class of cross-linked derivatives of cyclodextrin. They have been used to increase the solubility of poorly soluble
actives, to protect the labile groups and control the release [22].
10.5. In Anti-mycotic Therapy
Econazole nitrate, an antifungal agent used topically to relive the symptoms of superficial candidiasis,
dermatophytosis and skin infections available in cream, ointment, lotion and solution. Adsorption is not significant
when econazole nitrate is applied to skin and required high concentration of active agents to be incorporated for
effective therapy. Thus econazole nitrate nanosponges were fabricated by emulsion solvent diffusion method and
these nanosponges were loaded in hydrogel as a local depot for sustained drug release [15]. Itraconazole is a BCS
class-II drug that has a dissolution rate limited poor bioavailability, hence to enhance the solubility of it (eventually
for high bioavailability) in a work nanosponges of -cyclodextrin cross-linked with carbonate bonds were prepared
and loaded with itraconazole, where enhanced solubility is reported [17].
10.6. In Anti-viral Therapy
Nanosponges can be useful in the ocular, nasal and pulmonary administration routes. The selective delivery of
antiviral drugs or small interfering RNA (siRNA) to the nasal epithelia and lungs can be accomplished by
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CONCLUSION
With demand for innovative and highly efficient pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, the market holds
considerable potential for nanosponge technology based formulations and the versatility they offer. As formulators
consider new and creative ways to deliver actives, they can realize the full capabilities of these unique assets
providing enhanced safety, improved stability, reduced side effects, enhanced multi-functionality and improved
ingredient compatibility. Complemented by novel development approaches and creative formulation techniques,
nanosponge delivery systems can be a promising strategy for a new generation of pharmaceuticals and
cosmeceuticals. Nanosponges have many distinct advantages over existing conventional topical dosage forms for the
treatment of topical diseases; in addition it is a one of its kind technology for the controlled release by means of oral
as well as targeted drug delivery. So microsponge drug delivery system has got a lot of potential and is a very
emerging field which is needed to be explored further in the future with most research emphasis.
12. Future Perspectives
Nanosponge drug delivery system holds a promising opportunity in various pharmaceutical applications in the
upcoming future due to its unique characteristics; which makes it supple to design and develop novel product forms.
The actual challenge in future is the progression of the delivery systems for oral peptide and other susceptible
biomers. The use of bioerodible and biodegradable polymers for drug delivery is enabling it for the safe delivery of
the actives via diverse routes. As these porous systems have also been studied for drug delivery through pulmonary
route; which depicted that these system has effective drug release even in the scarce of the dissolution fluid, thus
colon targeted delivery may be able to expand like such as never before. Nanosponge particles can also be implied
in cell culture media, leading to a new loom in stem cell culture, cellular regeneration in the body and cytology.
REFERENCES
[1] Joseph T, Moore R, Report- Institute of Nanotechnology, 2008, 93.
[2] Duncan R, Nature Reviews Cancer, 2006, 6, 688-701.
[3] Gharib NN, Ashnagar A, Husseini F, Scientia Iranica, 2007, 14(4), 308-315.
[4] Deshmukh SS, Poddar SS, Int J Pharm Bio Sci, 2011, 2(1), 364-377.
[5] Trotta F, Cavalli R, Tumiatti W, Zerbinati O, Rogero C, Vallero R, Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of
cyclodextrin-based nanosponges, EP1 786 841 B1, 2007.
[6] David F, Nanosponge drug delivery system more effective than direct injection, www.physorg.com (Accessed
Aug. 22, 2014).
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