Vibration Based Condition Monitoring

Session 2011-2015

Authors
Abdul Wahab
Hafiz Sikandar Hayat

11-ME-70
11- ME-142

Supervisor
Dr Shahab Khusnood
Dean Faculty of M&AE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

TAXILA

Vibration Based Condition Monitoring

Author
Abdul Wahab
Hafiz Sikandar Hayat

11-ME-70
11- ME-142

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering

Supervisor:
DR Shahab Khusnood
Dean Faculty of M&AE

External Examiner Signature: ___________________________________________

Thesis Supervisor Signature: ____________________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

TAXILA

DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated with the sense of gratitude to our parents, who taught us that the
best kind of knowledge to have is that which is learned for its own sake.
It is also dedicated to our teachers, who taught us that even the largest task can be
accomplished if it is done one step at a time.

UNDERTAKING
We certify that research work titled Vibration Based Condition Monitoring is our own
work. The wok has not been presented elsewhere for assessment. The material in this
project that has been used from the other resources, it has been properly
acknowledged/referred.

Abdul Wahab
Hafiz Sikandar Hayat

11-ME-70
11-ME-142

Countersigned by:

Dr Shahab Khusnood
Dean Faculty of M&AE Department

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to almighty Allah who enabled us to complete this dissertation in time.
Enormous thanks to all those personalities, who helped and encouraged us in the
accomplishment of this project. We are particularly grateful to our advisor Dr. Shahab
Khushnood for extending the most sincere guidance and help in the connection with this
project. His comments and questions were very beneficial for us at every stage of this
project. We are highly thankful to Sir Masood, Assistant Mechanical Engineer, OGDCL
who spared their valuable time to guide us in difficulties and providing all the available
resources for establishing project set up.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication .3
UNDERTAKING..4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...5
Abstract:.9
Chapter I: Introduction.10
1.1 Background..10
1.2 Maintenance Strategies10
1.2.1 Breakdown Maintenance...10
1.2.2 Preventive Maintenance ....11
1.2.3 Condition Based Maintenance...12
1.3 Condition Monitoring Methods...13
1.3.1 Machinery Vibration.13
1.4 Advantages of Condition Monitoring...14
Chapter 2: Vibration Technology15
2.1 Vibration Technology.15
2.2 Vibration as an Indicator of Machinery Condition.15
2.3 WHAT IS VIBRATION16
2.3.1 CAUSES of VIBRATION16
2.3.2 Unbalance..17
2.3.3 Mechanical looseness.........................18
2.3.4 Misalignment..........................19
2.4 Vibration and Machine Life..........................20
2.5 Why worry about a machine's vibration...20
2.6 The Vibration Predictive Maintenance Program.....................22
2.6.1 Detection22
6

2.6.2 Analysis..26
2.6.3 Correction.................26
2.7 Additional Applications for Vibration Detection & Analysis.................27
Chapter 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION..30
3.1 Characteristics of Vibration...............30
3.2 Vibration frequency..32
3.2.1 Significance of Vibration Frequency..33
3.3 Complex vibration.36
3.4 Vibration Amplitude..........37
3.4.1 Vibration Displacement...38

3.4.2 Vibration Velocity.......43

3.4.3 Vibration Acceleration46
3.5 When to Use Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration50
3.5.1 When to Use Displacement as an Indicator of Stress problem...50
3.5.2 When to Use Vibration Velocity as an Indicator of Fatigue problem..51
3.5.3 When to Use Vibration Acceleration as an Indicator of Fatigue problem...51
Chapter 4: VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS..........52
4.1 Vibration Measurements54
4.2 Vibration Transducers54
4.2.1 Displacement Transducers..55
4.2.2 Velocity Transducers..57
4.2.3 Accelerometers...60
Chapter 5: Fourier Series62
5.1 Fourier Series64
5.2 Introduction to Fast Fourier Transform..64
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5.3 Problems with Fast Fourier Transform.66

5.4 Solution to FFT is Short Term Fourier Transform67
Chapter 6: Methodology69
6.1 Vibration Standards69
6.2 Use of ISO Standard 2372 (10816)70
6.3 Practical Test Model...71
6.4 Machinery Health Analyzer...72
6.4.1 Features .73
6.5 Conventional Vibration Analysis74
6.6 Experimentation...75
Chapter 7: Results..76
7.1 Problem...76
7.2 Vibration Analysis...77
7.2.1 Generator Outboard Vertical...77
7.2.2 Generator outboard Horizontal78
7.2.3 Engine Outboard Horizontal79
7.2.4 Engine Outboard Vertical80
7.2.5 Engine outboard Axial81
7.3 Conclusion:...82
List of Figures....83
List of Tables..84
References..85

Abstract:
This project is based on a Diesel Generator suffering with the vibration problems installed
at the Qadirpur gas field of OGDCL. The vibration analysis of that engine is done by using
the machinery health analyzer. On the basis of these results the intensity and cause of
vibration is found. This project shows that vibration based condition monitoring is a very
useful maintenance technique through which fault is detected and then diagnosed before it
cause any catastrophic failure. Condition monitoring is based on being able to monitor the
current condition and predict the future condition of machines while in operation. Thus it
means that information must be obtained externally about the internal effects while the
machines are in operation.
Condition monitoring consists of three faces which are fault detection, fault diagnosis and
fault prognosis. A machine in standard condition has a certain vibration signature. Fault
development changes that signature in a way that can be related to the fault. The fault is
measured by using a number of transducers like displacement transducers, velocity
transducers and acceleration transducers. This fault is then diagnosed, on the basis of
which the remaining useful life of machine is predicted. Condition monitoring reacts very
quickly to the sudden change and gives the best potential for protecting critical and
expensive equipment. This technique provides a detailed analysis to get much more
advance warning of impending failure and thus plan the maintenance work and production
to maximize availability of equipment.

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
High system availability is the most effective lever for increasing productivity. This is why
it is important to identify potential sources of error early and to perform scheduled
maintenance at the right time within the production cycle.
The measurement of various parameters such as vibration, bearing temperature, oil
pressure, and performance related to the mechanical condition of machinery is called
condition monitoring. This information is used to predict whether a breakdown is about to
occur in the very near future. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. Condition
Monitoring Systems are ideal for monitoring mechanical components. You have all your
machines and the entire system constantly in view. This facilitates predictive maintenance,
allowing you to plan and implement maintenance operations in due time.

1.2 Maintenance Strategies

In general, there are three ways to maintain machinery.
1. Breakdown Maintenance
2. Preventive Maintenance (Time Based)
3. Condition Based Maintenance (Predictive Maintenance)
1.2.1 Breakdown Maintenance
Breakdown maintenance involves the repair or replacement of equipment and components
after they have failed. This kind of management strategy can be contrasted with preventive
and predictive maintenance, which are designed to avoid equipment failures. The
10

breakdown maintenance approach is typically employed when failures are unlikely to

result in workplace injuries or excessive downtime, though the costs associated with
emergency repairs are often prohibitive.
This type of maintenance technique have several advantages which are:
Lower initial costs
Requires fewer staff
No planning needed
This type of maintenance technique have several disadvantages which are:
One of the main disadvantages of this technique is the unpredictability of when issues may
occur. Secondly, machine allowed to run to failure generally require more extensive repair
than would have been necessary if the problem had been detected and corrected early.
Some failure may be catastrophic, requiring total replacement of the machine which
decreased production.
1.2.2 Preventive Maintenance (Time Based)
In time-based preventive maintenance, the maintenance tasks are planned and performed
depending on the time-dependent intervals determined. Under this program, each critical
machine is shut down after a specified period of operation and partially or completely
dismantled for a thorough inspection & and replacement of worn part if any.
This approach to machinery maintenance, too, has disadvantages. First, to periodically
dismantle every critical piece of equipment in the plant can be expensive and time
consuming. Second, the interval between periodic inspections is difficult to predict. If the
program is so successful that no machinery failures occur, it may be that the interval is too
short & money & production is being wasted. If the interval is still too long, costly failure
may occur.
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1.2.3 Condition Based Maintenance (Predictive Maintenance)

Predictive maintenance attempts to detect the onset of a degradation mechanism with the
goal of correcting that degradation prior to significant deterioration in the component or
equipment. The diagnostic capabilities of predictive maintenance technologies have
increased in recent years with advances made in sensor technologies. These advances,
breakthroughs in component sensitivities, size reductions, and most importantly, cost, have
opened up an entirely new area of diagnostics to the O&M practitioner.
Shut down for repairs can be scheduled for a convenient time.
A work scheduled, together with the requirement of personnel, tools and
replacement parts car be prepared before the shutdown.
Extensive damage to the machine resulting from the forced failure can be
avoided.
Repair time can be kept to minimum, resulting in reduced machinery downtime.
Machine in good operating condition can continue to run as long as no problem
develop. Time and money are not wasted dismantling machines that are already
operating properly.

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1.3 Condition Monitoring Methods

Condition monitoring is based on being able to monitor the current condition and predict
the future condition of machines while in operation. Thus it means that information must
be obtained externally about the internal effects while the machines are in operation.
There are many machinery parameters that can be measures and trended to detect the onset
of problems. Some of these include.
1. Machinery Vibration
2. Lubrication Oil analysis
3. Infrared Technology
4. Ultrasonic Testing
5. Motor Current Analysis
6. Bearing Temperature
In addition, machinery performance characteristics such as flow rate and pressure can also
be monitored to detect problem. In the case of machine tools, the inability to produce a
quality product in terms of surface finish or dimensional tolerance is usually an indication
of problems. All of these techniques have value and merit. However, the one characteristic
that is a common to practically all the machine is vibration.
1.3.1 Machinery Vibration
A machine in standard condition has a certain vibration signature. Fault development
changes that signature in a way that can be related to the fault. The fault is measured by
using a number of transducers like displacement transducers, velocity transducers and
acceleration transducers. This fault is then diagnosed, on the basis of which the remaining

13

useful life of machine is predicted. This has been given rise to the term Mechanical
Signature Analysis.
1.4 Advantages of Condition Monitoring
There are many advantages of condition monitoring. Some of these are listed below.
Maximise machine productivity
Minimise unscheduled downtime
Safely extend overhaul intervals
Extend bearing service life
Improve product quality
Increased machine life
Reduce product cost

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Chapter 2
Vibration Technology
2.1 Vibration Technology
Machines of some kind are used in nearly every aspect of our daily lives; from the vacuum
cleaner and washing machine we use at home, to the industrial machinery used to
manufacture nearly every product we use on a daily basis. When a machine fails or breaks
down, the consequences can range from annoyance to financial disaster, or personal injury
and possible loss of life. For this reason, the early detection, identification and correction
of machinery problems is paramount to anyone involved in the maintenance of industrial
machinery to insure continued, safe and productive operation.

2.2 Vibration as an Indicator of Machinery Condition

How many times have you touched a machine to see if it was "running right"? With
experience, you have developed a "feel" for what is normal and what is abnormal in terms
of machinery vibration. Even the most inexperienced driver knows that something is wrong
when the steering wheel vibrates or the engine shakes. In other words, it's natural to
associate the condition of a machine with its level of vibration.
2.2 Significant
Since not everyone has the long-term experience needed to judge a machine's condition
based on how it feels, various instruments have been developed over the years to measure
the actual level or amount of vibration. In addition, human perception of touch and feel is
somewhat limited, and there are many common problems such as the early stages of
bearing and gear failure that are generally out of the range of human perception. Thus,
modern instrumentation for measuring vibration on rotating and reciprocating machinery
15

not only minimizes the need for extensive experience, but makes it possible to detect
developing problems that are outside the range of human senses of touch and hearing.
Further, human perception differs from individual to individual. What one person may
consider as bad, another may consider as normal. Attempting to trend changes in
machinery condition using human perception is nearly impossible, since it is nearly
impossible to put a documented number on "how it feels".
To overcome this problem, instrumentation has been developed to actually measure a
machine's vibration level and assign it a numerical value. This tool not only overcomes the
limitations of inexperience, but it addresses the limitations of human perception as well.

2.3 WHAT IS VIBRATION?

Vibration can be defined as simply the cyclic or oscillating motion of a machine or
machine component from its position of rest.
2.3.1 CAUSES of VIBRATION
Forces generated within the machine cause vibration. These forces may:
1. Change in direction with time, such as the force generated by a rotating unbalance.
2. Change in amplitude or intensity with time, such as the unbalanced magnetic forces
generated in an induction motor due to unequal air gap between the motor armature
and stator (field).
3. Result in friction between rotating and stationary machine components in much the
same way that friction from a rosined bow causes a violin string to vibrate.
4. Cause impacts, such as gear tooth contacts or the impacts generated by the rolling
elements of a bearing passing over flaws in the bearing raceways.

16

2.3.2 Unbalance
The horizontal, vertical and axial vibration signatures presented in figure given below
illustrate typically Amplitude v/s Frequency analysis data resulting from an unbalance
condition. It can be noted that the predominant vibration occurs at 2200 CPM
corresponding to the 2200 RPM fan speed. Since the amplitude of vibration in the axial
direction is relatively low compared to the radial amplitude, a bent shaft or misalignment is
not indicated. The appearance of small of small amplitude at the harmonic frequencies in
common and does not necessarily any unusual problems such as Mechanical looseness.

Figure 1 waveform showing Unbalance

17

2.3.3 Mechanical looseness

The vibration may be the result of loose mounting bolts, excessive bearing clearance, a
crack or break in the structure or bearing pedestal, a rotor which is loose on the shaft, or
some other loose machine component. The vibration characteristic mechanical looseness
will not occur unless there is some other exciting force such as unbalance and
misalignment can result in large amplitude of looseness vibration. The vibration due to
looseness can be detected from Amplitude Vs Frequency when talking the reading in
vertical direction.

Figure 2 waveform showing Mechanical looseness

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2.3.4 Misalignment
Misalignment is an extremely common problem. Misalignment even with flexible coupling,
results in two forces, axial and radial vibration. The significant characteristic of
misalignment and bent shaft is that vibration will be noted in both the radial and axial
direction. As a result, a comparatively axial vibration is the best indication of misalignment
or a bent shaft.

Figure 3 waveform showing Misalignment

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2.4 VIBRATION AND MACHINE LIFE

L10 LIFE (HOURS) = (16,666/RPM) * (RATE/LOAD) 3

Where:

RPM = Machine rotating speed in Revolutions per Minute

RATE = Rated load capacity of the bearing (lbs.)

LOAD = Actual load on the bearing.

From the above relation, it can be seen that bearing load, including dynamic load from
vibratory sources such as unbalance and misalignment, has a significant effect on bearing
life and, ultimately, machine life. Further, the amount of vibration exhibited by a machine
is directly proportional to the amount of force generated. In other words, if the unbalance
force is doubled, the resultant vibration amplitude will be doubled also. Or, if the
unbalance force is cut in half, the unbalance-generated vibration will be cut in half also.

2.5 Why worry about a machine's vibration

Increased dynamic forces (loads) reduce machine life.
Amplitudes of machinery vibration are directly proportional to the amount of
dynamic forces (loads) generated. If you double the force, you double the
vibration.
Logically then, the lower the amount of generated dynamic forces, the lower
the levels of machinery vibration and the longer the machine will perform.
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Of course, there are other reasons to strive for low levels of machinery vibration besides
increasing the time between failures. In the case of precision machine tools, maintaining
low levels of vibration is necessary in order to manufacture quality products from a
dimensional tolerance and surface finish quality standpoint. In residences, office
buildings and hospitals, low levels of vibration of heating, ventilation, air conditioning
and other machinery is necessary to avoid human annoyance. With few exceptions,
when the condition of a machine deteriorates, one of two (and possibly both) things will
generally happen:
1. The dynamic forces generated by the machine will increase in intensity, causing an
increase in machine vibration. Wear, corrosion or a build-up of deposits on the rotor may
increase unbalance forces. Settling of the foundation may increase misalignment forces or
cause distortion, piping strains, etc.
2. The physical integrity (stiffness) of the machine will be reduced, causing an increase in
machine vibration.
Loosening or stretching of mounting bolts, a broken weld, a crack in the foundation,
deterioration of the grouting, increased bearing clearance through wear or a rotor loose on
its shaft will result in reduced stiffness to control even normal dynamic forces.
Thus, it should be obvious that an increase in machinery vibration is a positive indicator of
developing problems. In addition, each mechanical or operational problem generates
vibration in its own unique way. As a result, it is also possible to identify the specific
nature of the problem by simply measuring and noting its vibration characteristics. The
techniques of identifying specific defects and problems is presented in the section on
VIBRATION ANALYSIS.
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2.6 The Vibration Predictive Maintenance Program

A vibration predictive maintenance program consists of three logical steps:
Detection
Analysis
Correction
2.6.1 Detection
The first step of the program, detection, simply involves measuring and trending vibration
levels at marked locations on each machine included in the program on a regularly
scheduled basis. Typically, machines are checked on a monthly basis. However, more
critical machines may be checked more frequently or, perhaps, continually with
permanently installed on-line vibration monitoring systems. The objective is to reveal
significant increases in a machine's vibration level to warn of developing problems. A
simple, hand-held vibration meter can be used to take a measurement of a machine's
vibration level. The instrument includes a transducer that is held or attached to the bearing
cap of the machine. The transducer converts the machine vibration into an equivalent
electrical signal that is read on the meter as a vibration level. It is very important to know
where and how to take vibration readings. Regular vibration readings taken with these
"manual monitoring" instruments can be logged on a data sheet. This sheet includes a
drawing of the machine to help the vibration technician identify measurement locations and
positions. The form also includes provisions for recording the data in both tabular form as
well as graphic trends to provide a clear history of the machine's condition. Any noted
increase in the level of vibration is a positive warning of developing problems.

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For programs that include only a small number of machines and measurement points, a
manually operated instrument and data recording system, such as that described above,
may be quite adequate. However, for programs that may include literally hundreds or,
perhaps, thousands of machines and measurement points, a computerized data collection
system is generally needed to not only minimize data collection time, but to minimize data
evaluation as well. The typical system consists of a predictive maintenance software
program installed in the computer and a compatible vibration instrument for collecting
data in the field. Most systems not only provide for collecting and trending overall levels
of machinery vibration, but also the detailed analysis data necessary to identify specific
machinery faults.
The first step is to set up the program in the computer software that will include:
Listing all machines to be included in the program.
1. Identifying the bearing locations where readings will be taken on each machine.
2. Identifying the directions (horizontal, vertical and axial) where readings will
be taken on each machine.
3. Identify the vibration parameters that will be measured at each location.
4. Parameters other than vibration such as bearing temperature, speed (RPM),
amps, pressures, flow rates, etc., may be incorporated as well.
5. Establish alarm or warning levels for each measurement.
6. Establish details for "spectral" (FFT) data needed for vibration analysis.
7. Organize machines into workable groups or "routes".
8. Establish a schedule for data collection for each group of machines.

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At first glance, this may seem like a tedious and time consuming process. However, most
vibration predictive maintenance software programs on the market today are very "user
friendly" with numerous features that greatly simplify the process of setting up the
program. Typically, a program can be set up for as many as 100 motor-pump systems in
as little as an hour. Establishing measurement locations, alarm levels and analysis
parameters requires additional training and/or experience.
Once the program has been set up in the computer software, the next step is to collect
data. Based on the established schedule, a group of machines is selected and "loaded"
into the vibration data collector instrument from the computer program. With the
instrument loaded, the operator proceeds to the assigned area and turns the instrument on.
The display on the instrument screen will direct the operator to the specific machine,
measurement location and transducer direction for the measurement. Once the transducer
is in place, the operator simply pushes the "store" button on the instrument to collect the
data. Once the reading has been taken, the operator pushes a button to reveal the next
required measurement. This process is repeated until all measurements on the route have
been collected. After the data has been collected, the operator returns to the computer and
"down-loads" the data to the predictive maintenance software, following a few simple
instructions. Once the collected data has been down-loaded, numerous reports can be
generated to reveal those machines that have experienced a significant increase in
vibration or have exceeded a preset alarm level, indicating developing problems. A report
is generated that identifies the specific machines, measurement points, vibration levels,
alarm levels and percentage change from the last reading for those machines with
developing problems. Another useful report is the graphic trend. This allows the operator

24

to see how the vibration reading has progressed over a period of time, to determine
whether an increase in vibration has been gradual or sudden. Sudden increases in
vibration are generally regarded as potentially more serious than those that have steadily
increased over a period of weeks or months. Alarms and trends are only a few of the
many reports that can be generated by modern-day vibration predictive maintenance
software programs. The automated data collectors and computerized data handling
systems basically serve the same purpose as the simple hand-held vibration meter and
data sheet. However, the automated systems allow the computer to do what it does best,
and that is to "crunch" the numbers in a highly efficient and rapid manner. With a data
collector, one technician can take vibration readings on many machines throughout a
plant in a much shorter period of time.

Although most general machinery can be protected with periodic checks of vibration,
some machines may not be well suited to "manual monitoring" techniques. High
performance machinery such as steam and gas turbines, high-speed centrifugal
compressors and pumps can develop problems very quickly, with little or no preliminary
warning. Machines such as these may require continuous, on-line monitoring.

25

2.6.2 Analysis
Once machinery problems have been detected by manual or on- line monitoring, the
obvious next step is to identify the specific problem(s) for scheduled correction. This is
the purpose of vibration analysis - to pinpoint specific machinery problems by revealing
their unique vibration characteristics.
In most cases, the same data collector instrument and software used for routine vibration
surveillance and trending can be used to obtain the detailed vibration characteristics
needed to pinpoint the specific problem.
2.6.3 Correction
Once problems have been detected and identified, required corrections can be scheduled
for a convenient time. Of course, in the meantime, any special requirements for repair
personnel (including outside repair facilities), replacement parts and tools can be
arranged in advance to insure that machine downtime is kept to an absolute minimum.
If the vibration problem is diagnosed as unbalance, in many cases the same instrument
used to detect and analyze the problem can be used to perform in-place balancing.

26

2.7 Additional Applications for Vibration Detection & Analysis

Although this paper emphasizes the use of vibration control for predictive maintenance,
there are many additional applications that include:
Incoming Inspection: Many companies perform vibration and balance checks on newly
purchased or rebuilt machines and machine components. Inspection of such items as gear
boxes, motors, couplings, pump and fan rotors, etc., ensure that they meet quality
standards.
One company recently reported setting up a test facility to check the quality of new
replacement bearings. Another company tests new as well as rebuilt machine tool
spindles to make sure they perform properly before installation.
These companies have learned through experience that detecting faulty components
before they are installed is easier and considerably less costly than tracing the problem
after installation and start up.
2.7.1 Machinery Acceptance Standards:
Over the past three decades, many industries as well as manufacturing, engineering and
standards organizations and government agencies have established vibration acceptance
levels for newly installed machinery. Some of these standards include:
American Petroleum Institute (API)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
U.S. Government Services Administration (GSA) U.S. Veterans Administration
(VA)
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) National Gear

27

By including maximum acceptable levels of vibration in machinery purchase, repair and

installation specifications, you can be assured that a piece of equipment will be in good
operating condition and meet anticipated performance and reliability expectations.
2.7.2 Quality Control:
Many manufacturers use vibration detection and analysis techniques in various ways to
minimize waste and to insure the quality of their products. Detecting, pinpointing and
correcting excessive vibration in machine tools improves product quality and also
increases tool life. Balancing of grinding wheels in-place following replacement or truing
saves time and assures continued productivity and product quality. Of course, vibration
detection and analysis techniques apply directly to the products being manufactured as
well as the machinery used in their production. Vibration testing of assembled machines
and components leads directly to improved product quality. Dynamic balancing of
rotating assemblies is an important element in the correction phase of a complete
predictive maintenance program. However, the same procedures and instrumentation can
be used in the production of new or rebuilt machinery. Without question, most reputable
manufacturers of rotating and reciprocating machinery include dynamic balancing as a
normal part of the manufacturing process.

28

2.7.3 Engineering:
Vibration detection and analysis play important roles in the development and testing of
new or prototype machines. Vibration measurements provide overall performance data.
Analysis techniques reveal troubles that might be the result of improper installation and
adjustment as well as improper design.
2.7.4 Field Service:
In spite of the many engineering tests and quality control inspections, vibration problems
do occur once a machine is delivered, installed and brought into service.
Such problems may include:
Damage to the machine during transportation or installation
Improper alignment of couplings or pulleys
Weak or inadequate base or foundation
Resonance of the machine or a machine component
Distortion due to "soft foot" or piping strain
Machine operating outside designed performance parameters
Improper design of related components such as piping, duct work, etc.
Due to the multitude of problems that can result in vibratory forces, a complete vibration
analysis of the complete installation is often the only way to clearly define the source of a
problem and the corrective action required for its solution.

29

Chapter 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

3.1 Characteristics of Vibration

Vibration is simply defined as "the cyclic or oscillating motion of a machine or machine
component from its position of rest or its neutral position. Whenever vibration occurs,
there are actually four 4 forces involved that determine the characteristics of the
vibration. These forces are:
The exciting force, such as unbalance or misalignment.
The mass of the vibrating system, denoted by the symbol (M).
The stiffness of the vibrating system, denoted by the symbol (K).
The damping characteristics of the vibrating system, denoted by the symbol
(C).
The exciting force is trying to cause vibration, whereas the stiffness, mass and damping
forces are trying to oppose the exciting force and control or minimize the vibration.
Perhaps the simplest and easiest way to demonstrate and explain vibration and its
measurable characteristics is to follow the motion of a weight suspended by a spring.
This is a valid analogy since all machines and their components have weight (mass),
spring-like properties (stiffness) and damping.

30

Figure 4 Vibration characteristics

3.1.1 Cycle
The motion of the mass from top to bottom range and back to the initial starting
position in the vertical direction is referred to as one cycle, and it has all the
characteristics needed to define the vibration. Continued motion of the spring-mass
system will simply be repeating these measurable characteristics.
3.1.2 Period of Vibration
The amount of time required to complete one full cycle of the vibration is called the period
of the vibration. If, for example, the machine completes one full cycle of vibration in
1/60th of a second, the period of vibration is said to be 1/60th of a second.

31

The characteristics needed to define the vibration include:

1. Frequency
2. Displacement
3. Velocity
4. Acceleration
5. Phase

We discuss these characteristics one by one.

3.2 Vibration frequency

Vibration frequency is simply a measure of the number of complete cycles that occur in a
specified period of time such as "cycles-per-second" (CPS) or "cycles-per-minute"
(CPM). Frequency is related to the period of vibration by this simple formula:
Frequency = 1/Period
In other words, the frequency of a vibration is simply the "inverse" of the period of the
vibration. Thus, if the period of time required to complete once cycle is 1/60th of a
second, then the frequency of the vibration would be 60 cycles-per-second or 60 CPS.
In the real world of vibration detection and analysis, it is not necessary to determine the
frequency of vibration by observing the vibration time waveform, noting the period of the
vibration and then taking and calculating the inverse of the period to find the frequency although this can be done. Nearly all modern-day data collector instruments and vibration
analyzers provide a direct readout of the vibration frequencies being generated by the
machine.

32

Although vibration frequency may be expressed in cycles per second or CPS, the
common practice is to use the term Hertz (abbreviated Hz) in lieu of CPS. This is in
honor of Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, a 19th century German physicist who is credited with
discovering electromagnetic radiation. Thus, a vibration with a frequency of 60 CPS
would actually be expressed as 60 Hz.
Although vibration frequency can be measured and expressed in Hertz (Hz), for most
machinery vibration work, vibration frequency is measured in cycles-per-minute,
abbreviated CPM. Expressing vibration frequency in terms of CPM makes it much easier
to relate this characteristic to the rotational speed of the machine that is normally
expressed in revolutions- per-minute or RPM. Thus, if a machine operates at 3600 RPM,
it is much more meaningful to know that a vibration occurs at 3600 CPM (1 x RPM) than
60 Hz. Of course CPM and Hz can be easily converted to one another as follows:
Given a frequency expressed in Hz, you can convert it to CPM:
CPM = Hertz x 60 Seconds/Minute
Given a frequency expressed in CPM, you can convert it to Hz:
Hertz = CPM/60 Seconds/Minute
3.2.1 Significance of Vibration Frequency
When a vibration problem exists, a detailed analysis of the vibration should be performed
to identify or pinpoint the specific cause. This is where knowing the frequency of
vibration is most important. Vibration frequency is a very valuable analysis or diagnostic
tool.

33

The forces that cause vibration are usually generated through the rotating motion of the
machine's parts. Because these forces change in direction or amplitude according to the
rotational speed (RPM) of the machine components, it follows that most vibration
problems will have frequencies that are directly related to the rotational speeds. To
illustrate the importance of vibration frequency, assume that a machine, consisting of a
fan operating at 2400 RPM and belt driven by a motor operating at 3600 RPM, is
vibrating excessively at a measured frequency of 2400 CPM (1 x fan RPM), this clearly
indicates that the fan is the source of the vibration and not the motor or belts.
Following chart lists the most common vibration frequencies as their relate to rotating
speed (RPM) along with the common causes for each frequency. To illustrate how this
chart is used, if the frequency of excessive vibration was found to be 1 x RPM, the first
row will be the possible causes. So by using this chart, along with the fact that the
frequency of excessive vibration is 1 x RPM, the number of possible causes has been
reduced to only ten form literally hundreds. Vibration analysis is truly a process of
elimination. Additional tests and measurements can be taken to further reduce the number
of possible causes of a vibration problem. However, it should be obvious that knowing
the frequency of vibration and how the frequency relates to the rotating speed of the
machine components is truly the first step in the analysis process.

34

Frequency In Term Of
RPM

Most likely cause

Other Possible Causes & Remarks

1.

Misalignment or bent shaft if high axial

vibration

1xRPM

2.

Resonance

3.

Reciprocating forces

4.

Electrical problem

5.

Bad belts if RPM of belt

1.

Misalignment if highly axial vibration

2.

Reciprocating forces

Mechanical

3.

Resonance

Looseness

4.

Bad belts if 2x RPM of belt

Unbalance

2xRPM

Usually a combination of misalignment and

3xRPM

Misalignment

excessive axial clearness. (Looseness).

1. Bad drive Belts

Less than 1xRPM

Oil whirl

2. Background vibration
3. Sub-harmonic vibration

High Frequency

Bad

bearing

Not

harmonically

anti-friction

Related frequency)

1. Bearing vibration may be unsteady

2. Cavitation
3. Improper lubrication
4. Rubbing

Synchronous

Electrical Problem

( A.C Line frequency)

Common electrical problems include broken rotor

bars, eccentric rotor, unbalance phases in a polyphase system, unequal air gap.

2x synch. frequency

Torque Pulses

Rare as a problem unless resonance.

Table 1 Problem Detection Vibration

35

In summary, it is important to realize that different machinery problems cause different

frequencies of vibration and that is the significance of knowing the frequency of vibration.

3.3 Complex vibration

A simple vibration is the one which only has one frequency. In reality, machines can
often have several causes of vibration, which each cause having its own unique frequency.
Whenever more than one frequency of vibration present, the result is called a complex
vibration.
Some of more common terms describing vibration frequencies in a complex vibration are
listed below.
Predominant Frequency
Predominant frequency is the frequency of vibration having the highest amplitude or
magnitude.
Synchronous Frequency
Synchronous frequency is the frequency that occur at 1x RPM.
Sub-synchronous Frequency
Sub-synchronous frequency is the vibration frequency occurring at a frequency below
1xRPM.
Fundamental Frequency
Fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency or first frequency normally associated
with a particular problem or cause.
Harmonic Frequency
A harmonic frequency is a frequency that is an exact whole number multiple of a
fundamental frequency. For example, a vibration that occur at a frequency of two times

36

the fundamental gear mesh frequency would be called the second harmonic frequency of
gear mesh frequency.
Order Frequency
An order frequency is the same as a harmonic frequency.
Sub-harmonic Frequency
Sub-harmonic frequency is an exact sub-multiple (1/2, 1/3, 1/4 etc.) Of a fundamental
frequency. For example, a vibration with a frequency with a frequency of exactly 1/2 the
fundamental gear mesh frequency would be called the sub harmonic of gear mesh
frequency. Vibration at frequencies of exactly 1/2, 1/3, , of the rotating speed frequency
would be called sub harmonic frequencies; and these can also be called sub-synchronous
frequencies. However not all sub-synchronous frequencies are sub-harmonic. For
example, a vibration with a 43% of the running speed frequency is a sub-synchronous
frequency but it is not a sub harmonic frequency.

3.4 Vibration Amplitude

As mentioned earlier, vibration frequency is a diagnostic tool, needed to help identify or
pinpoint specific mechanical or operational problems. Whether or not a vibration
frequency analysis is necessary, depends on how "rough" the machine is shaking. If the
machine is operating smoothly, knowing the frequency or frequencies of vibration
present is not important. The magnitude of vibration or how rough or smooth the machine
vibration is, is expressed by its vibration amplitude. Vibration amplitude can be measured
and expressed as:

37

1. Displacement
2. Velocity
3. Acceleration
The following paragraphs describe each of these units of vibration amplitude, their
significance and applications.
3.4.1 Vibration Displacement
Figure shows the time waveform generated by the up-and-down motion of the springmass system. The vibration displacement is simply the total distance traveled by the
vibrating part from one extreme limit of travel to the other extreme limit of travel. This
distance is also called the "peak-to-peak displacement".
Peak-to-peak vibration displacement is normally measured in units called mils, where one
mil equals one-thousandth of an inch (1 mil = 0.001 inch). A measured vibration
amplitude of 10 mils simply means that the machine is vibrating a total distance of 0.010
inches peak-to-peak.

Figure 5 Vibration displacement

38

In Metric units, the peak-to-peak vibration displacement is expressed in micrometers

(sometimes called microns), where one micrometer equals one-thousandth of a millimeter
(1 micrometer = 0.001 millimeter).

General Machinery Vibration Severity Chart

Figure 6 General Machinery Vibration Severity Chart (English Unit)

39

Figure 7 General Machinery Vibration Severity Chart (Metric Unit)

40

Interpreting the Severity Charts

When one examine the displacement severity charts in figures, it should become apparent
that there is no absolute vibration limit above which the machine will fail and below
which will run indefinitely.
Whats the difference between GOOD and Smooth, for example, or, Rough and
Slightly Rough? It is impossible to establish absolute vibration limits. However, in
setting up a predictive maintenance program, it is necessary to establish some severity
criteria or limits above which action will be taken. Vibration level in the Good region
or below generally indicated satisfactory operation and no significant problem. Machines
in this category can be scheduled for a routine vibration checks until such time that
excessive vibration or a significant increase in normal vibration detected. General
machines with vibration levels in the Fair and slightly Rough regions typically have
minor problems that warrant an analysis to determine the cause correction at the earliest
convenient opportunity, in the interim, the interval of periodic check should be reduced to
maintain closer surveillance. Of course, preparations for correction such as obtaining
needed parts, tool and scheduling of repair personnel should be carried out as well, to
keep repair downtime to an absolute minimum. Machine with vibration levels in the
Rough region or above should be analyzed immediately for cause determination and
shut down at the earliest opportunity for correction.

41

When it is not known that whether a machines vibration level is normal or indicative of
developing trouble, one can:
1. Compare the machines vibration characteristics with other identical or similar
machines. If a machine has a level of vibration 2 or 3 times higher than that of
similar machines, some problems are usually indicated, and through analysis
should be carried out to pin-point the cause of correction.
2. Check the machines vibration on a frequent and regular basis. Normally,
machines that have significant problems will show sign of deterioration through
increasing levels of vibration. If this is the case, a thorough analysis should be
performed at the earliest opportunity to pinpoint the cause for correction. On
the other hand, if the vibration level remain unchanged over a long period of
time, that vibration may be considered as normal or inherent for the type of
equipment.
The Problem with Displacement
Although measurements of vibration displacement have been used for many years to
evaluate machinery condition, the fact that it is necessary to know the frequency as well,
makes the use of displacement somewhat cumbersome when dealing with a vibration
predictive maintenance program that may include virtually hundreds of machines and
literally thousands of measurements. In addition, it has already been shown that
machinery vibration is not always simple or occurring at only one frequency. In many
cases, machinery vibration will be complex, consisting of many frequencies. In such
cases, it is nearly impossible to use vibration displacement to judge the "overall"
condition of a machine. It must be remembered that each source of vibration contributes
42

to the ultimate fatigue of machine components, and the "overall" condition of the
machine can only be determined by an overall measurement of vibration that takes into
account all frequencies of vibration. This is accomplished by measuring VIBRATION
VELOCITY.
3.4.2 Vibration Velocity
It was pointed out earlier that the vast majority of machine failures caused by vibration
problems are fatigue failures. And, the time required to achieve fatigue failure is
determined by both how far an object is deflected (displacement) and the rate of
deflection (frequency). Of course, displacement is simply a measure of the distance
traveled and frequency is a measure of the number of times the "trip" is taken in a given
period of time such as a minute or second. If it is known how far one must travel in a
given period of time, it is a simple matter to calculate the speed or velocity required. Thus,
a measure of vibration velocity is a direct measure of fatigue. In short:

Figure 8 Vibration Velocity

Fatigue = Displacement x Frequency,

Velocity = Displacement x Frequency,

Thus: Velocity = Fatigue.

43

Vibration velocity is a measurement of the speed of movement of a machine or machine

component as it undergoes oscillating motion. Since the weight is moving, it must be
moving at some speed determined by the displacement and frequency. However, the
speed of the weight is constantly changing. At the upper and lower limits of travel, the
velocity is zero (0), since the weight must come to a stop before it can go in the opposite
direction. The velocity is the greatest or at its peak as the object passes through the
neutral position. Velocity is definitely a characteristic of the vibration, but since it is
constantly changing throughout the cycle, the highest or "peak" velocity is selected for
measurement.
Vibration velocity is expressed in inches-per-second peak (in/sec-pk) for English units. In
Metric units, vibration velocity is expressed in millimeters-per-second peak.
The fact that vibration velocity is a direct indicator of fatigue and vibration severity is
clearly indicated by the General Machinery Vibration Severity Charts. Figures (). Note
that the diagonal lines that separate the different regions of severity are constant velocity
values. For example, the line dividing the ROUGH and VERY ROUGH regions has
a velocity value of 0.628 in/sec-peak (16mm/sec). Thus, a machine having a measured,
vibration velocity in excess of 0.628 in/sec would be considered VERY ROUGH,
regardless of the vibration frequency. The benefits and advantages of measuring vibration
velocity instead of vibration displacement include:
1. Vibration velocity is a direct indicator of fatigue since it takes into account both
displacement and frequency.
2. It is not necessary to know the frequency of vibration in order to evaluate the
severity of vibration velocity since frequency is already a part of velocity.

44

3. A measurement of overall vibration velocity is a valid indicator of the overall

condition of a machine whether the vibration is simple (one frequency) or
complex (more than one frequency).
For the reasons listed above, vibration velocity has become the industry standard for
evaluating machinery condition based on vibration. As a word of caution, it is not
possible to use the velocity measurement solely to establish absolute vibration tolerance
levels on machines.
OVERALL VELOCITY GUIDELINES FOR VIBRATION SEVERITY
Overall

Classification

Description

Very Rough

Sever, vibration, potentially unsafe. Make immediate detail vibration

vibration
velocity peak
0.6 in/sec

analysis to identify trouble. Excessive vibration may cause oil film

breakdown.
0.3 to 0.6 in/sec

Rough

Potentially damage vibration. Make a detail vibration analysis to

identify trouble. Rapid wear expected. Schedule for repair.

0.2 to 0.3 in/sec

Slightly

Faulty likely. Make a detail vibration analysis. Continue periodic

Rough

checks. Schedule repair is necessary.

0.1 to 0.2 in/sec

Average

Minor fault. Continue routine periodic check.

0.05

Smooth

Well balanced. Typically of well balanced, well aligned equipment.

to

0.1

in/sec
0 to 0.05 in/sec

Make routine periodic checks.

Very Smooth

Exceptional. Extremely well balanced, well aligned equipment. Make

routine periodic checks.

Table 2 Overall Velocity Guidelines for Vibration Severity

45

3.4.3 Vibration Acceleration

The speed or velocity of a vibrating object is constantly changing. At the extreme limits
of travel the velocity is zero (0) since the object must stop momentarily to change
direction. Of course, each time the object comes to a stop at the limit of travel, it must
"accelerate" to pick up speed as it travels towards the other extreme limit of travel.
VIBRATION ACCELERATION is another important characteristic of vibration that can
be used to express the amplitude or magnitude of vibration. Technically, acceleration is
simply the rate of change of velocity.

Figure 9 Vibration Acceleration

Referring to the time waveform plot of the vibrating spring- mass system, the
acceleration of the weight is maximum or at its peak value at the upper limit of travel
where the velocity is zero (0). As the velocity of the weight increases, the rate of change
of velocity or acceleration decreases. At the neutral position, the weight has reached its
maximum or peak velocity and at this point, the acceleration is zero (0). After the
Weight passes through the neutral position, it must begin to slow down or "decelerate" as
it approaches the lower limit of travel. At the lower limit of travel the rate of change of
velocity (acceleration) is, again, at its peak value.

46

As with velocity, since the value of vibration acceleration is constantly changing, the
highest or peak acceleration is selected for measurement.
Since vibration acceleration is technically the rate of change of vibration velocity (in/secpeak or mm/sec-peak), it follows that the units of vibration acceleration could be
expressed in in/sec/sec-peak or mm/sec/sec-peak. This can also be written as:
in/sec/sec = in/sec2
Or
mm/sec/sec = mm/sec2
However, by international agreement, levels of machinery vibration acceleration are
expressed in units of "G's", where one (1) "G" is the acceleration produced by the Earth's
gravitational force at sea level. By international agreement, the values of 980.665
cm/sec/sec, 386.087 in/sec/sec and 32.1739 feet/sec/sec have been established as the
standard acceleration values due to Earth's gravity at sea level. Thus, a measured
vibration acceleration of 1-G peak would be approximately 386 in/sec/sec (980
cm/sec/sec).
It should be kept in mind that the Earth's gravitational force (G) has little to do with a
machine's vibration amplitude. A machine with mechanical and/or operational problems
will vibrate regardless of where it is located - on Earth or in gravity-free outer space. The
accepted practice of expressing vibration acceleration amplitudes in G's is simply one of
convenience and familiarity. As with vibration amplitudes expressed in displacement and
velocity, some guidelines are needed to evaluate vibration amplitudes measured in G's
acceleration. The chart in figure () has been developed after many year of experience on
all type of types of industrial machinery. It should be noted that judging or evaluating

47

vibration acceleration (G) measurements is similar to evaluating vibration displacement

measurements in that it is necessary to know the specific frequency of vibration. For
example, from the chart in figure (10), a vibration acceleration of 1.0 G occurring at a
frequency of 18,000 CPM (300 Hz) would fall in the SLIGHTY ROUGH range, whereas
a vibration of 1.0 G at a frequency of 60,000 CPM (10,000 Hz) would fall between the
GOOD and VERY GOOD regions of the chart. It should be noted that the vibration
acceleration severity chart in figure (10) only covers high frequencies of vibration i.e.
above 18,000 CPM. The reason for this will be explained in the following sections.

Figure 10 Vibration Acceleration (Gs) Severity chart.

48

3.5 When to Use Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

From the preceding discussions, it should be apparent that the magnitude or amplitude of
machine vibration can be expressed in units of displacement, velocity, or acceleration. In
addition, it was pointed out that the vast majority of machine failures were the result of
fatigue, that vibration velocity was a direct measure of the fatigue aspect of vibration and
that most machinery vibration acceptance standards were, in fact, based on vibration
velocity measurements. The obvious question at this point should be: "Why measure
vibration displacement or acceleration?" Actually, the answer is quite simple. Although
the vast majority of machinery failures are due to fatigue, as it is directly related to
vibration velocity, there are two other causes or "mechanisms" of machinery failure: stress and force. These two parameters are directly related to vibration displacement and
acceleration, respectively.
3.5.1 When to Use Displacement as an Indicator of Stress problem
The fatigue failure of machine components from repeated cycles of flexing and the direct
relationship between vibration velocity and fatigue have been explained in the preceding
sections of this chapter. However, due to brittleness, many machine components may
crack or break if simply bent or deflected (displaced) beyond a certain limit. High
amplitudes of vibration displacement may cause mounting bolts to snap, welds to give
way or concrete bases and foundations to crack-not because of fatigue, but simply
because they were deflected beyond their yield points. When high amplitude of vibration
displacement usually occurs that result in stress failure is typically at very low vibration
frequencies generally below 600 CPM (10 Hz). For example, consider a machine that has
a vibration displacement of 100 mils occurring at a frequency of only 50 CPM. Using the

49

conversion formula in figure (6), the corresponding velocity is found to be only 0.26
in/sec. According to the severity guidelines, in figures (6) a vibration velocity of only
0.26 in/sec would be probably be considered between the FAIR and SLIGHTY ROUGH
regions and not a cause for immediate concern. However, it must be remembered that the
machine is being deflected 100 mils which is 0.1 inch. Under these conditions, failure
will most likely occur due to stress (displacement) rather than fatigue (velocity). For this
reason, whenever it is anticipated that vibration frequencies may be present at frequencies
below 600 CPM (10Hz), measurements of vibration displacement are recommended.
3.5.2 When to Use Vibration Velocity as an Indicator of Fatigue problem
As a general rule, fatigue failures typically result from vibration frequencies between
approximately 600 CPM (10 Hz) and 120,000 CPM (2000 Hz). Therefore, when
vibration frequencies within this range are anticipated, measurements of vibration
velocity are recommended.
3.5.3 When to Use Vibration Acceleration as an Indicator of Fatigue problem
The concept of relating stress to displacement and fatigue to velocity is fairly simple and
straightforward. Perhaps the easiest way to demonstrate force as a cause of trouble is to
simply consider striking an object with a hammer. The impact may not cause significant
displacement or velocity; however, resultant damage can be considerable. From our
earliest science classes we were taught that force equals mass times acceleration (F = M x
A). From this simple formula, it is apparent that vibration acceleration is directly
proportional to vibratory force. And, since vibration acceleration increases proportional
to the square of vibration frequency, very large vibratory forces can occur at high
frequencies of vibration even though the displacement and velocity amplitudes may be

50

quite small. To illustrate, assume that a machine has a measured vibration velocity of
0.25 in/sec-pk, occurring at a frequency of 600,000CPM (2000Hz), perhaps due to a gear
problem. The resultant vibration acceleration is found to be over 40 Gs.
Again, according to the severity guidelines in figures (6), a vibration velocity of only
0.25 in/sec would be considered within the FAIR to SLIGHTY ROUGH regions.
However, according to the vibration acceleration severity chart in figure (10), the Gs is
off the chart and would be considered EXTREAMLY ROUGH. In this case, failure
will be most likely result extremely forces and not stress and fatigue. Excessive forces
generally cause deformation of the surface of machine components such as gear teeth and
rotating element bearings. High forces can also cause the lubricating film to break down,
resulting in friction, heat generation and ultimate failure. Because of the importance of
vibratory forces at high frequencies, vibration acceleration measurements (G's) are
recommended whenever vibration frequencies above 120,000 CPM (2000 Hz) are
anticipated. Probably the most common source of such high frequencies are gear-mesh
frequencies and harmonics or multiples of gear mesh frequencies on high-speed gear
drives.
3.6 Contours of Equal Severity
Perhaps the best way to summarize the application for displacement, velocity and
acceleration measurement is to examine Contours of Equal Severity chart in figures (6,
10). This chart shows the frequency ranges over which each parameter of vibration
amplitude best indicates the severity of vibration. From the chart, it can be seen at low
frequencies, below 600 CPM, vibration displacement, by far, the best indicator of
vibration severity from a stress standpoint. This is not say that velocity or even

51

acceleration could not be used at frequency below 600 CPM; however, the allowable
levels of velocity and acceleration below 600 CPM would be considerably lower than
they would at match higher frequencies. For example, according to the chart, a vibration
acceleration of only 0.051 Gs at a frequency of 60,000 CPM.
Similarly, although vibration acceleration is obviously the best indicator of severity from
a force stand point at high frequencies, (above 60,000), this does not mean that velocity,
and displacement could not be used. However, according the chart, a vibration
displacement of only 0.1 mil at 60,000 CPM would be equal in severity to a vibration
displacement of 10.0 mils at a frequency of 600 CPM. The chart also shows that the most
linear indicator of vibration severity over the frequency range from 600 CPM to 60,000
CPM (10 Hz to 1,000) is velocity. Although this chart tends to indicate that vibration
acceleration should be for frequencies above 60,000 CPM (1000 Hz), experience has
proven that vibration velocity is quite useful at even much higher frequencies and its use
is recommended to at least 120,000 CPM (2,000 Hz), in fact, many experienced vibration
technicians have reported using vibration velocity measurements for vibration
frequencies as high as 240,000 CPM (4,000 Hz) with excellent results.

52

Chapter 4
VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS
4.1 VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS
To be able to measure vibration of a machine, some technical equipment is necessary. In
practice, various tools are used, from simple instruments measuring overall vibration to
multi-channel analyzer equipped with numerous features that facilitate not only the
measurement itself but also the analysis of the measured data.
In this chapter, the typical scheme of vibration analyzer and various types of sensors that
are used for vibration measurements will be introduced. Furthermore, analysis and
evaluation of the vibration measurements will be described.
4.1.1Analyzer
Basic scheme of the analyzer used for vibration measurements is in Fig. (11) The
analogue signal from the vibration sensor passes through the input amplifier, anti-aliasing
filter and A/D converter, where it is digitized and enters the data buffer. From the buffer
it can be displayed either as a time waveform or can be further processed by the Fourier
transform to obtain frequency spectrum. Individual functional units of the analyzer will
be discussed in detail in the following topics.

53

Figure 11 Block diagram for analyzer

4.2 Vibration Transducers

There are three quantities describing the vibratory motion can be measured. Depending
on the measured quantity, sensors are divided into:
1. Displacement transducers (proximity probes)
2. Velocity probes (velometers)
3. Accelerometers
Usable frequency response and dynamic range differ for various types of sensors. The
dynamic range of a sensor is the range of amplitudes of the measured quantity that can be
measured by the sensor. Choosing the right type of sensor depends both on the
application (for example, whether shaft vibration or vibration of machine case are
measured) and on the frequency range of interest. As shown in Figure (13) the noncontact displacement sensors have the upper frequency limit at approximately 2000 Hz.

54

But already in the range from 1000 to 2000 Hz, measurements performed by non-contact
proximity probes are very suspicious because it is not possible to adequately eliminate
the influence of unevenness of the shaft surface, which is comparable to the measured
displacements. Velocity transducers are limited because of their design to frequencies of
approximately 10-1500 Hz. Accelerometers that can measure frequencies lower than 1
Hz to about 30 kHz have the widest frequency range.
Further on, the individual types of sensors, their typical applications and mode of
operation will be described.

Figure 12 Ranges of Vibration Transducers

55

4.2.1 Displacement Transducers

There are several types of sensors to measure displacement, distance or position. The
oldest type is probably a contact mechanical slider; nowadays, the often used type is a
non-contact sensor based on eddy currents - proximity probe which operates on the base
of change of Foucault currents - the resistance of the material changes due to the change
in distance. Other types, such as laser, ultrasonic, capacitive or inductive sensors, also
exist. Displacement sensors are quite complex systems; so, they are only used for shaft
vibration measurement - they measure vibrations of shaft relative to a part of stator,
usually relative to the bearing housing.
The proximity probe based on eddy currents measures the distance between the sensor tip
and a conductive surface. The measuring system comprises the sensor and the proximate
(see Fig.). The oscillator in proximitor generates high-frequency alternating current that
passes through a coil embedded in the sensor tip and creates high-frequency
electromagnetic field around the tip of the sensor. Bias voltage used to be -10 Vdc, but
may be up to -24 Vdc (depending on the manufacturer); an alternating component has a
frequency of about 1.5 MHz (depending on the manufacturer). The electromagnetic field
in the coil induces eddy (Foucault) currents in the conductive material. These eddy
currents absorb energy from the system, resulting in the change in impedance of the coil.
Instant distance to the target surface would modulate itself onto this wave and then is
demodulated. With respect to the high frequency of the electromagnetic field, the entire
measurement is strongly dependent on the total resistance (all of ohmic, inductive and
capacitive resistance). Cables leading the high frequency signal are produced in strict
tolerances of electrical values and their length cannot be modified. Any damage to the

56

cable or the shield threatens the quality of measurements. After affecting the carrier wave
and eddy current by the variable distance of the target surface during the vibration, the
signal is led back to the demodulator. Then - now already low-frequency - the signal is
led to the evaluation unit.

Figure 13 Displacement Transducer

If the distance between the tip of the sensor and the conductive surface is constant, output
voltage depends on the frequency of the electromagnetic field, the conductivity of the
measured material and its magnetic permeability. Its obvious that sensors of this type are
supplied according to a particular shaft material and may not be used for the shaft made
of different material. In Fig. (14) An example of the sensitivity characteristics of the same
probe to different target materials is shown. A common value of sensitivity is 8 mV/m.

57

Figure 14 Sensitivity Characteristics

It is therefore appropriate to have a sizing agent, which is simple - the micrometer screw
and a bracket for the target material. In addition, it is very important to specify the type of
probe with regard to the target material while purchasing the probe.
Note: These probes have a relatively small range of distances in which the output signal
is linear (typically in the range 0.25 to 2.3 mm). From a user perspective, this means that
the probe should be set in the middle of the zone with linear response at rest. The
manufacturer gives recommendations - both in mm and in bias voltage on the probe at
rest. Graph of voltage as a function of the gap (calibration curve) is supplied together
with the probe. Proximity probes are compact devices without any moving parts, so they
provide the same output regardless of the position in which they are mounted. Usually,
two proximity probes rotated by 90 are used (see Fig.). The use of proximity probes will
be described in more detail in the section 2.4 dealing with the shaft vibration.

58

4.2.2 Velocity Transducers

Velocity transducers have been used as vibration sensors for rotating machinery for a
long time and they are still in use in many applications. They operate on the principle of
electromagnetic induction: when the coil moves in magnetic field, voltage is generated on
the coil outlets. This induced voltage is caused by energy transfer from the magnetic field
to the coil. The amount of the induced voltage is directly proportional to the relative
speed between the coil and the magnetic field. Velocity transducer is designed so that this
relative speed reflects velocity of vibration of the measured machine.
Velocity transducer (see Fig.15) needs no external device for its functioning. It has two
main components:

Permanent magnet that is fastened to the sensor's housing and therefore with the
case of the measured machine (when properly mounted).

Coil (hollow bobbin wrapped with wire) which is hanged on very soft springs and
which due to its inertia remains at rest, while the permanent magnet vibrates with
the case. Sometimes the wire is wound on the bobbin two-way to distract external
electric fields.

Usable frequency range of the velocity transducer is determined by mechanical

parameters of its components. Spring stiffness and material damping and the weight of
the coil determine the sensor response at low frequencies. Usually, the resonant
frequency of the sensor is below 10 Hz and the usable frequency range is 10 to 1000 Hz.
To increase the resonant frequency damping, the sensor housing can be filled with oil.

59

During installation, the sensitivity axis of the transducer should be considered - due to the
effects of gravitational forces, sensors specified for measuring in vertical direction should
have different design from those specified for horizontal direction. Velocity transducers
are very sensitive to lateral vibration (other than in the sensitive axis direction) - the coil
could get in touch with the sensor housing and cause damage of the sensor. The place for
sensor mounting should be adjusted so that the surface was straight and slightly larger
than the base of the sensor.

Figure 15 Velocity Transducer

Velocity transducers have the advantage that they are low-cost and quite sensitive; the
disadvantage is that because of their fragile design they are susceptible to shocks and are
not suitable for "manual" measurements, they are used only permanently mounted on the
machine case using screw. Velocity transducers of modern type are laser sensors that
operate on the base of the Doppler Effect. They are very expensive and not commonly
used in diagnostics.

60

4.2.3 Accelerometers
Nowadays, an accelerometer is used as a basic vibration sensor, particularly for
measuring on stationary parts of the equipment (rotating machinery), as it has minimum
disadvantages in comparison with previous types of sensors (such as the one that it
cannot measure at 0 Hz). If velocity or displacement is needed, this information can be
obtained by integrating the signal from the accelerometer.

Figure 16 Accelerometers
The principle of accelerometer operation is that deformation of a plate of piezoelectric
ceramic material results in an electrical charge, magnitude of which is directly
proportional to the deformation. The ceramic plate is placed between two masses, one of
which is inertia (seismic) reference mass and the other is firmly attached to the sensor
case and therefore to the case of the measured machine (see Fig.16). The seismic mass is
flexibly supported; pre-stressed bolt with piezo ceramic plate is here considered as a
spring, so that the stiffness to the mass ratio of this system is large and the resonant
frequency of the sensor itself is very high.

61

When the measured machine vibrates, the mass firmly attached to the transducer case
also vibrates, while the reference inertial mass remains at rest. This creates a force
applied to the piezoelectric element that deforms and creates an electrical charge that is
proportional to the acceleration of the machine case. Thus, the accelerometer measures
absolute vibrations (stationary inertial mass is the reference) unlike proximity probes that
measure relative vibrations (vibration of the rotor relative to the stator, which itself may
vibrate).
Due to the fact that accelerometers do not contain any moving parts, they are durable and
reliable and do not require frequent calibration check as velometers. Their installation on
the machine case is easy, they can be used in a wide range of frequencies (from 0.1 Hz to
30 kHz) and they have large dynamic range. Designs for high operating temperatures are
also available.

62

Chapter 5
Fourier Series
5.1 Fourier Series
In mathematics, a Fourier series decompose periodic functions or periodic signals into the
sum of a (Possibly infinite) set of simple oscillating functions, namely sine and cosines
(or complex exponentials). The study of Fourier series is a branch of Fourier analysis

5.2 Introduction to Fast Fourier Transform

A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform
(DFT) and its inverse. A Fourier transform converts time (or space) to frequency and
vice versa. FFT rapidly computes such transformations. As a result, fast Fourier
transforms are widely used for many applications in engineering, science and
mathematics.

63

Figure 17 FFT of a Given Waveform

With respect to the various imitating properties associated with FFT signal processing,
there are four general approaches that can be used to alleviate the situation.

Windowing

Zero Padding

Longer data recorded (not always helpful)

System expert (may often add significantly to the value and trustworthiness of the
analysis results)

The FFTs properties and the limitations are directly related to the incomplete co-ordinate
system that it attaches to the data. Use of the FFT is equivalent to assuming that the
original continuous time signal is periodic and that the period is equal to the observation
time. This forces the spectral estimate to exist at a finite number of frequencies as
opposed to continuum.

64

For problems where sensitivity to frequency drift, resolution or leakage is crucial, other
spectral estimators with more elaborate co-ordinate system should be considered. Unless
the co-ordinate system the co-ordinate system for a measured space associated with a
signal processing technique matches the system space, the performance of the technique
cant be expected to be ideal. Better performance can be generally be expected from a
longer co-ordinate system.
5.3 Problems with Fast Fourier Transform
When using FFT analysis to study the frequency spectrum of signals, there are limits on
resolution between different frequencies, and on detectability of a small signal in the
presence of a large one.
There are two basic problem: the fact that we can only measure the signal for a limited
time; and the fact that the FFT only calculates results for certain discrete frequency value
(the FFT bins). The limit on measurement time is fundamental to any frequency
analysis technique: the frequency sampling is peculiar to numerical method like the FFT.
The first problem arises because the signal can only be measured for a limited time.
Nothing can be known about the signals behavior outside the measured interval. We
have to assume something about the signal outside the measure interval, and the Fourier
transform makes an implicit assumption that the signal is repetitive: that is. The signal
within the measured time repeats for all time. Most real signals will have discontinuities
at the ends of the measured time, and when the FFT assume the signal repeats it will
assume discontinuities that are not really there. Since sharp discontinuities have broad
frequency spectra, there will cause the signals frequency spectrum to be spread out.

65

5.4 Solution to FFT is Short Term Fourier Transform

5.4.1 Windowing
The process of measuring a signal for a finite time is equivalent to multiplying the signal
by rectangular function of unit amplitude: the rectangular function lasting for the duration
of measurement time.
The signal is measured during a finite measurement time or Windowing. This idea leads
to the rectangular function being called a rectangular window. This leads to the idea of
multiplying the signal within the measurement time by some function that smoothly
reduces the signal to zero at the end points: hence avoiding discontinuous altogether. The
process of multiplying the signal data by a function that smoothly approaches zeros at
both ends, is called windowing and the multiplying function is called a window
function. There are two common situation: detection of a spectral component in the
presence of broadband noise; or distinguishing between narrow band spectral components.
The choice of window function may be different in the two cases of detection or
resolution. To help in choosing a suitable window function some quantities measure are
needed.
5.4.2Equivalent noise bandwidth
A given FFT bin includes contributions from other frequencies including accumulated
broadband noise. To detect a narrow band signal in the presence of noise, we want to
minimize the noise. This can be done by using a narrow bandwidth window function. The
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth (EN B) of the window measures the noise performance of
the window. It is the width of a rectangle filter which would accumulate the same noise
power with the same peak power gain. This is a fruitful concept, and easy to visualize.

66

Coherent power gain

'Coherent Power Gain' measures the reduction in signal power due to the window
function suppressing a coherent signal at the ends of the measurement interval. Again,
this measurement relates to the model of the FFT as a bank of filters matched to each
frequency sample. For an ideal discrete line frequency component, the 'noiseless' signal
contribution to the FFT bin is proportional to the signal amplitude. The proportionality
factor is the sum of the window terms, which is just the DC gain of the window. The
'Coherent Gain' is the square of this, or in other words the coherent power gain is the
square of the sum of the window terms.

67

Chapter 6
Methodology
6.1 Vibration Standards
Following are few important vibration standards that we use during the vibration analysis.
ANSI S2.1
Vibration and Shock - Vocabulary
ANSI S2.2
Methods for the Calibration of Shock and Vibration Pickups
ANSI S2.7
Method for Specifying the Characteristics of Auxiliary

analog Equipment for Shock

and Vibration Measurements

ANSI S2.7
Balancing Terminology
ANSI S2.13
Mechanical Vibration of Non-Reciprocating Machines - Measurements on Rotating
Shafts and Evaluation
ANSI S2.16
Vibration Noise Measurements and Acceptance Criteria of Shipboard Equipment

68

6.2 Use of ISO Standard 2372 (10816)

ISO 2372 (10816) Standards provide guidance for evaluating vibration severity in
machines operating in the 10 to 200 Hz (600 to 12,000 RPM) frequency range. Examples
of these types of machines are small, direct-coupled, electric motors and pumps,
production motors, medium motors, generators, steam and gas turbines, turbocompressors, turbo-pumps and fans. Some of these machines can be coupled rigidly or
flexibly, or connected through gears. The axis of the rotating shaft may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined at any angle. Use the chart below combined with additional factors
described in this manual to judge the overall vibration severity of your equipment.

Figure 18 Vibration severity as per ISO 10816

69

6.3 Practical Test Model

Figure 19 Test Model

6.3.1 Specifications:
Model# P173481
Rpm= 1529
Power= 500kw
Fuel used = Diesel

70

6.4 Machinery Health Analyser

The CSI 2130 stands alone as the industry-leading vibration data collector, but its
capabilities also include:
Advanced Vibration Analysis
Cross-Channel Analysis
Transient Analysis
Dynamic Balancing
Laser Shaft Alignment
Motor Monitoring

Figure 20 Machinery Health Analyzer

71

Routine data and corrective maintenance jobs can be uploaded to the companion AMS
Suite: Machinery Health Manager Software for analysis and reporting.
6.4.1 Features
Data collection, vibration analysis, alignment and balancing in a single unit
Embedded intelligence unlocks powerful technology solutions
Compact, rugged design holds up to any plant environment
Intuitive operation shortens the learning curve for faster implementation
Modular format allows you to add capabilities as your needs change
Upload data to AMS Suite for a single view of machinery health
Atex, FM, CSA Rated versions available.

Figure 21 Machinery Health Analyzer 2

72

6.5 Conventional Vibration Analysis

In conventional vibration analysis we did not use any equipment but rather rely on the
basics of analysis. This analysis is usually done when the problem is not very serious. We
followed the following steps to do a visual analysis of this diesel generator suffering with
the vibration problem.
First of all we run the machine on-load and off-load to see the behaviour of
machine on both conditions.
In second step we check all the nuts and bolts of the machine. Especially we
check the foundations of machine because in most cases machine vibrates due to
the loose foundations.
In third step we check the cracks in different parts of machine because when
cracks occur it cause the unbalance in the machine which is the major reason of
vibration in the machines.
In fourth step we check the fuel supply and the strains to make sure that there is
no hurdle in the supply because the hurdles in the supply also cause vibration.
In the next step we check all the filters to make sure that they are working
properly.
In the last step we apply their gages to check the settings of engine. When we did
it we realized that the settings of actuator are different than the default settings.
We adjust them according to the default settings and the problem was solved and
engines vibration reduced and it seems ok.

73

6.6 Experimentation
When the problem is not solved with the visual inspection and the conventional vibration
analysis then we did a thorough vibration analysis of that Diesel Generator using the
machinery health analyzer. We performed the vibration analysis on six different points
which are as follows:
Generator outboard Vertical
Generator outboard Horizontal
Engine Outboard Horizontal
Engine Outboard Vertical
Engine outboard Axial

Figure 22 Engine outboard Horizontal and Vertical

74

Chapter 7
Results
7.1 Problem
During our internship here at (OGDCL Qadirpur gas field) an emergency diesel generator
got vibration problems. The generator has two parts Cummins G3 engine which is the
prime mover of the generator and the alternator (model# P173481) which transfers the
mechanical energy into electrical energy. We did the vibration Analysis on the different
parts of the generators and on the basis of this analysis we determine the cause of the
vibration.
The factors which were mainly focused during the analysis were:
RMS Value.
Frequency in orders.
Acceleration
Time.
For each part of the analysis we obtain two types of plots
Pot between RMS value and Frequency in orders.
Plot between Acceleration and Time.
Through these graphs we detect either the vibration is present in that engine part or not.
After we measure the severity of the vibration and at the last we found out the cause of
the vibration in that part of the generator.

75

7.2 Vibration Analysis

30 - DG Set
-G2V Generator Outboard Vertical

50

10
8

Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:16:20
OVERALL= 9.43 V-DG
RMS = 9.38
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1529. (25.48 Hz)

.50

10.50

7.00

6.00

6.50

5.00

4.00

3.50

2.50

1.50

RMS Vel ocity i n mm/ Sec

7.2.1 Generator Outboard Vertical

0
0

12

15

18

Frequency in Orders

Acceleration in G-s

3
2

Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:16:20
RMS = .5859
PK(+/-) = 2.40/2.25
CRESTF= 4.09

FAULT

ALERT

0
-1

ALERT

-2

FAULT

-3
0

50

100

150

200

Time in mSecs

Figure 23 Generator Outboard Vertical

Comments:
RMS velocity has maximum value of 7.5 mm/s which shows according to
previous table that vibration severity is slightly rough at generator outboard
vertical.
As RMS velocity has maximum value at a frequency which is 0.5 multiple of
rpm. So most likely cause will be Oil whirl.
Other possible causes will be:
Bad drive Belts
Background vibration
Sub-harmonic vibration

76

50

18

30 - DG Set
-G2H Generator Outboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:16:03
OVERALL= 15.64 V-DG
RMS = 15.44
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1528. (25.46 Hz)

1.50

15
12

7.00

6.50

4.00

3.50

2.50

2.00

1.00

.50

.23

RMS Vel ocity i n mm/ Sec

7.2.2 Generator outboard Horizontal

0
0

Frequency in Orders

Acceleration in G-s

3
2

Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:16:03
RMS = .7081
PK(+/-) = 1.92/2.61
CRESTF= 3.68

FAULT

ALERT

0
-1

ALERT

-2

FAULT

-3
0

50

100

150

200

Time in mSecs

Figure 24 Generator outboard Horizontal

Comments:
RMS velocity has maximum value of 13.5 mm/s which shows according to
previous table that vibration severity is rough at generator outboard vertical.
As RMS velocity has maximum value at a frequency which is 1.5 multiple of
rpm. So most likely cause will be unbalance.
Other possible causes will be
Misalignment or bent shaft
Resonance
Reciprocating forces
Electrical problem

77

50

30 - DG Set
-E1H Engine Outboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:06:47
OVERALL= 6.20 V-DG
RMS = 6.18
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1527. (25.44 Hz)

8.51

2.50

6.00

3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50

2.00
1.50

1.00

RMS Vel ocity i n mm/ Sec

7.2.3 Engine Outboard Horizontal

0
0

12

15

18

21

Frequency in Orders

Acceleration in G-s

10

Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:06:47
RMS = 2.31
PK(+/-) = 8.40/6.69
CRESTF= 3.63

5
FAULT
ALERT
ALERT
FAULT

-5

-10
0

50

100

150

200

Time in mSecs

Figure 25 Engine Outboard Horizontal

Comments:
RMS velocity has maximum value of 3.5 mm/s which shows according to
previous table that vibration severity is average at generator outboard vertical.
As RMS velocity has maximum value at a frequency which is 2 multiple of rpm.
So most likely cause will be misalignment.
Other possible causes are
Misalignment if highly axial vibration
Reciprocating forces
Resonance

78

50

30 - DG Set
-E1V Engine Outboard Vertical
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:00:52
OVERALL= 7.70 V-DG
RMS = 7.68
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1528. (25.46 Hz)

.50

1.50

5
4

5.99
6.00
6.50

4.00

2.00
2.50

.69
1.00

RMS Vel ocity i n mm/ Sec

7.2.4 Engine Outboard Vertical

0
0

12

15

18

21

Frequency in Orders

Acceleration in G-s

3
2

Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:00:52
RMS = .4361
PK(+/-) = 1.53/1.57
CRESTF= 3.59

FAULT

ALERT

0
-1

ALERT

-2

FAULT

-3
0

50

100

150

200

Time in mSecs

Figure 26 Engine Outboard Vertical

Comments:
RMS velocity has maximum value of 5.5 mm/s which shows according to
previous table that vibration severity is slightly rough at generator outboard
vertical.
As RMS velocity has maximum value at a frequency which is 0.5 multiple of
rpm. So again most likely cause will be oil whirl.
Other possible causes are
Bad drive Belts
Background vibration
Sub-harmonic vibration

79

30 - DG Set
-E1A Engine Outboard Axial

50

8.50

24
20

Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:17:07
OVERALL= 26.68 V-DG
RMS = 26.61
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1525. (25.41 Hz)

15.00

16

15.50

11.50
12.00

8.00

9.00
9.50
10.00

12

4.00

RMS Vel ocity i n mm/ Sec

7.2.5 Engine outboard Axial

0
0

12

15

18

21

Acceleration in G-s

Frequency in Orders
16
12

Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:17:07
RMS = 4.39
PK(+/-) = 14.45/14.25
CRESTF= 3.29

8
4
FAULT
ALERT
ALERT
FAULT

0
-4
-8
-12
-16
0

50

100

150

200

Time in mSecs

Figure 27 Engine outboard Axial

Comments:
RMS velocity has maximum value of 26.61 mm/s which shows according to
previous table that vibration severity is very rough at generator outboard Axial.
As RMS velocity has maximum value at a frequency which is 3 multiple of rpm.
So most likely cause will be misalignment.
In this part of the Generator the severity of vibration was highest so this part was causing
the maximum vibration in generator. The cause of vibration in this part was misalignment
of shaft. So, we can say that misalignment of shaft was the main cause of the vibration in
that diesel generator.

80

7.3 Conclusion:
After observing all the graphs that we obtained from the vibration analysis on different
parts of generator we found out that Maximum vibration is observed at the Engine
outboard Axial. So, axial vibration in this case was greater than the radial vibration. We
know that the axial vibration occurs due to the misalignment of shaft. So, misalignment
of shaft was the main cause of the vibration in the generator. Hence through the vibration
analysis we point out the main cause of the vibration in the generator. Hence we can
conclude that the through condition monitoring we can easily describe the place and
cause of vibration which makes vibration tackling easier and accurate. Also, through
condition monitoring we can predict the fault before it occur so that we can make plans to
counter this problem and can save the machine from damage.

81

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 waveform showing Unbalance.17

Figure 2 waveform showing Mechanical looseness...18
Figure 3 waveform showing Misalignment....19
Figure 4 Vibration characteristics...31
Figure 5 Vibration displacement.38
Figure 6 General Machinery Vibration Severity Chart (English Unit)..39
Figure 7 General Machinery Vibration Severity Chart (Metric Unit)40
Figure 8 Vibration Velocity...43
Figure 9 Vibration Acceleration46
Figure 10 Vibration Acceleration (Gs) Severity chart..49
Figure 11 Block diagram for analyzer....55
Figure 12 Ranges of Vibration Transducers...56
Figure 13 Displacement Transducer...58
Figure 14 Sensitivity Characteristics..59
Figure 15 Velocity Transducer...61
Figure 16Accelerometers62
Figure 17 FFT of a Given Waveform.65
Figure 18 Vibration severity as per ISO 10816..70
Figure 19 Test Model..71
Figure 20 Machinery Health Analyzer72
Figure 21 Machinery Health Analyzer 2.73
Figure 22 Engine outboard Horizontal and Vertical...75
Figure 23 Generator Outboard Vertical..77
Figure 24 Generator outboard Horizontal...78
Figure 25 Engine Outboard Horizontal..79
Figure 26 Engine Outboard Vertical...80
Figure 27 Engine outboard Axial81

82

List of Table

Table 1 Problem Detection Vibration................................................................................35

Table 2 Overall Velocity Guidelines for Vibration Severity.45

83

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API 579/ASME FFS-1: "Fitness-For-Service" (2007)

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J. Rafiee and P.W. Tse, Use of autocorrelation in wavelet coefficients for fault

diagnosis, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 23 (2009) 155472.

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ASTM D6595-00: "Standard Test Method for Determination of Wear Metals and

Contaminants in Used Lubricating Oils or Used Hydraulic Fluids by Rotating Disc

Electrode Atomic Emission Spectrometry" (2011)
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J Michael Robichaud: "Reference Standards for Vibration Monitoring and

Analysis"
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Liu, Jie; Wang, Golnaraghi (2008). "An extended wavelet spectrum for bearing

fault diagnostics". IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement 57 (12):

28012812. doi:10.1109/tim.2008.927211.
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Jar dine, A.K.S.; Lin, Banjevic (2006). "A review on machinery diagnostics and

prognostics implementing condition-based maintenance". Mechanical Systems and

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BS ISO 18431-1: "Mechanical vibration and shock. Signal processing - General

introduction" (2005)
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BS ISO 18431-2: "Mechanical vibration and shock. Signal processing - Time

domain windows for Fourier Transform analysis" (2004)

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