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(Linear arrays: the two-element array. N-element array with uniform amplitude
and spacing. Broad-side array. End-fire array. Phased array.)
1. Introduction
Usually the radiation patterns of single-element antennas are relatively wide,
i.e., they have relatively low directivity (gain). In long distance
communications, antennas with high directivity are often required. Such
antennas are possible to construct by enlarging the dimensions of the radiating
aperture (maximum size much larger than ). This approach however may lead
to the appearance of multiple side lobes. Besides, the antenna is usually large
and difficult to fabricate.
Another way to increase the electrical size of an antenna is to construct it as
an assembly of radiating elements in a proper electrical and geometrical
configuration antenna array. Usually, the array elements are identical. This
is not necessary but it is practical and simpler for design and fabrication. The
individual elements may be of any type (wire dipoles, loops, apertures, etc.)
The total field of an array is a vector superposition of the fields radiated by
the individual elements. To provide very directive pattern, it is necessary that
the partial fields (generated by the individual elements) interfere constructively
in the desired direction and interfere destructively in the remaining space.
There are five basic methods to control the overall antenna pattern:
a) the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular,
spherical, rectangular, etc.),
b) the relative placement of the elements,
c) the excitation amplitude of the individual elements,
d) the excitation phase of each element,
e) the individual pattern of each element.
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2. Two-element Array
Let us represent the electric fields in the far zone of the array elements in the
form
E1 M 1En1 (1 ,1 )
j kr1
e 2
E2 M 2 En 2 ( 2 ,2 )
r1
1 ,
j kr2
e 2
r2
(13.1)
2 .
(13.2)
r1
z
d
2
r
r2
d
2
Here,
M1 , M1
En1 , En 2
r1 , r2
1 , 2
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r1
z
d
2
d
2
r2
d
cos
2
Let us assume that:
1) the array elements are identical, i.e.,
En1 ( , ) En 2 ( , ) En ( , ) ,
(13.3)
2) they are oriented in the same way in space (they have identical
polarizations), i.e.,
1 2 ,
(13.4)
3) their excitation is of the same amplitude, i.e.,
M1 M 2 M .
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(13.5)
3
(13.6)
d
jk r cos j
1 jk r 2 cos j 2
2
2 ,
E MEn , e
e
r
j kd cos j kd cos
M jkr
2 e 2
2,
E e En , e 2
r
e jkr
kd cos
En ( , ) 2cos
E M
.
r
2
EF
(13.7)
AF
The total field of the array is equal to the product of the field created by a
single element located at the origin and the array factor (AF):
kd cos
AF 2cos
2
(13.8)
(13.9)
(13.10)
0 z
90
90
y
180
1 / 2 .
(13.11)
cos n (2n 1)
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cos cos n 0 ,
4
cos n (2n 1) 2 , n 0, 1, 2, .
A solution with a real-valued angle does not exist. In this case, the total field
pattern has only 1 null at 90 .
b) / 2
cos n 1 (2n 1)
cos ( n 0) 1 2 0 .
The solution for n 0 is the only real-valued solution. Thus, the total field
pattern has 2 nulls: at 1 90 and at 2 0 :
c) / 2
(cos n 1) (2n 1) ,
4
2
cos ( n 1) 1 2 .
(13.12)
(13.13)
is solved.
The element factor | cos | produces one null at
1 / 2 .
(13.14)
kd cos
(2
n
1)
, n 0, 1, 2...
2
2
2n 1 .
2 d
n arccos
(13.15)
When there is no phase difference between the two element feeds ( 0) , the
separation d must satisfy
d
2
in order at least one null to occur due to (13.15).
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(13.16)
to P
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d cos
10
N th e jk r N 1d cos
AF e j n 1 kd cos ,
(13.17)
n 1
AF e j n 1 ,
(13.18)
n 1
where kd cos .
From (13.18), it is obvious that the AFs of uniform linear arrays can be
controlled by the relative phase between the elements. The AF in (13.18)
can be expressed in a closed form, which is more convenient for pattern
analysis:
AF
e j
e jn ,
(13.19)
n 1
AF e j AF e jN 1 ,
e jN 1
AF j
e 1
AF
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N
j N
j
2
e 2
e
j
j j
e 2 e 2 e 2
N
j
e 2
N 1
j
sin N
2
.
sin
2
(13.20)
11
Here, N shows the location of the last element with respect to the reference
point in steps of the length d. The phase factor, exp j ( N 1) / 2 , is not
important unless the array output signal is further combined with the output
signal of another antenna. It represents the phase shift of the arrays phase
centre relative to the origin, and it would be equal to one if the origin were to
coincide with the array centre. As we aim at obtaining the normalized AF, we
will neglecting the phase factor, which gives
sin N
2 .
AF
sin
2
(13.21)
(13.22)
2
To normalize (13.22) or (13.21), we need the maximum of the AF. We re-write
(13.21) as
sin N
2
.
AF N
N sin
2
(13.23)
The function
f ( x)
sin( Nx)
N sin( x)
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sin N
2 .
AFn
N sin
2
(13.24)
1
0.9
f ( x)
0.8
sin( Nx)
N sin( x )
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
N 3
0.3
N 5
0.2
N 10
0.1
0
For small ,
N
sin
1 2
.
AFn
(13.25)
Nulls of the AF
To find the nulls of the AF, equation (13.24) is set equal to zero:
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N
sin 0
2
N
N
n kd cos n n , (13.26)
2
2
2n
d
N
n arccos
1
kd cos m m ,
2
2m , m 0,1, 2 .
2 d
m arccos
(13.28)
(13.29)
When (13.28) is true, AFn 1, i.e., these are not maxima of minor lobes. The
index m shows the maximums order. It is usually desirable to have a single
major lobe, i.e. m = 0 only. This can be achieved by choosing d / sufficiently
small. Then the argument of the arccosine function in (13.29) becomes greater
than unity for m 1, 2 and equation (13.29) has a single real-valued solution:
.
2
d
0 arccos
(13.30)
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2.782
h arccos
.
N
2 d
(13.31)
(13.32)
sin(x)/x
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
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N
sin 1 kd cos (2 s 1) ,
2
2
2
(13.33)
2s 1
s arccos
or
N
2 d
(13.34)
2s 1
arccos
2
N
2 d
(13.35)
1
sin( N / 2)
N sin( / 2)
kd cos
0.9
f ( )
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
N 3
0.3
N 5
0.2
N 10
0.1
0
4. Broadside Array
kd cos m 0 .
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(13.36)
16
0 .
(13.37)
The uniform linear array has its maximum radiation at 90 , if all array
elements have their excitation with the same phase.
To ensure that there are no maxima in other directions (grating lobes), the
separation between the elements d must be smaller than the wavelength:
d .
(13.38)
kd cos
cos 2 cos .
(13.39)
(13.40)
m
, m 1, 2 .
g arccos
(13.41)
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An end-fire array is an array, which has its maximum radiation along the
axis of the array ( 0,180) . It may be required that the array radiates only in
one direction either 0 or 180 . For an AF maximum at 0 ,
kd cos
kd 0 ,
kd , for max 0 .
(13.42)
(13.43)
kd cos
180
kd 0 ,
(13.44)
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It was already shown that the 0th order maximum (m=0) of AFn occurs when
kd cos 0 0 .
(13.45)
This gives the relation between the direction of the main beam 0 and the phase
difference . The direction of the main beam can be controlled by the phase
shift . This is the basic principle of electronic scanning for phased arrays.
When the scanning is required to be continuous, the feeding system must be
capable of continuously varying the progressive phase between the elements.
This is accomplished by ferrite or diode shifters (varactors).
Example: Derive the values of the progressive phase shift as dependent on
the direction of the main beam 0 for a uniform linear array with d / 4 .
From equation (13.45):
kd cos0
cos 0 cos 0
4
2
-90
60
-45
120
+45
180
+90
h 1,2 arccos
2.782
.
N
(13.46)
20
HPBW h1 h 2 ,
(13.47)
2.782
2.782
HPBW arccos
kd
cos
arccos
kd
cos
0
0
2 d
N
N
2 d
(13.48)
Since k 2 / ,
2.782
2.782
. (13.49)
Nkd
Nkd
HPBW arccos cos 0 0.443
L d
arccos cos 0 0.443
.
L
d
(13.50)
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(13.51)
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