You are on page 1of 10

Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155

Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy


Situating cultural policy essay 1
How have debates surrounding media ownership and political influence
changed in an era of globalization?

This paper will examine the role of governments in regulating media

ownership and address elements that contribute to the ever changing

balance of media ownership concentration and its political influence in this

era of media globalization. Laws and regulations that govern foreign and

cross-ownership of media are dynamically shifting for a number of reasons

that include financial interests, protecting the public, promoting national

culture or even resisting cultural imperialism. Central to understanding

elements that influence media ownership is to understanding the political

environments in which they operate. This becomes evident when we

conceder the drastic contrast between media in democratic societies and

those in oppressive nations, according to Croteau & Hoynes (2000) “state

control of the mass media is a routine element of totalitarian systems”(p.

77).

In this era of globalization, policies and regulations effecting media

ownership are rapidly transforming to complement the impact of media

globalization upon society and national cultures. As mentioned by Croteau &

Hoynes (2000), ”the globalization of mass media, refers to the content, the

cultural products available globally in addition to the exchange and

intermingling of cultures from different parts of the globe”(p.332). However

the volume, scale of media merging and alliances involving media players

that have taken place in recent years has raised considerable challenges for
Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
regulators and state authorities across the globe (Doyle, 2002, p. 1).

Furthermore the case of deregulation in cross-ownership of media is usually

explained in terms of a need to allow domestic players to exploit important

new economic and technological opportunities ahead of international rivals

(Doyle, 2002, p. 1).

Finally this paper will address the profound socio-political and cultural

consequences of permitting or preventing cross-media ownership and

concentration of large media conglomerates, besides exploring some

economic policy issues associated with concentration of ownership.

Policies: the instrument for media regulation

Policy makers worldwide employ an arsenal of regulation instruments to

promote plurality in media content. In relation to broadcasting policy-

making, it was argued that many countries often put the principle of

‘perceived viewer welfare’ ahead of the principle of press freedom (Doyle,

2002, p. 28). However, to maintain this viewer welfare by means of media

pluralism, systems have promoted laws and regulations which diversified

ownership of the media. Hence preventing any supplier from having absolute

control over the agenda and will therefore reduce the scope for potentially

dangerous abuses of public or political influence (Doyle, 2002, p. 28).

On the other hand, diversity of content in print media is subject to separate

measures, mainly aimed at separating ownership from editorial control, as

mentioned by Doyle (2002, p. 29). “Many European countries, including


Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
Norway, Portugal and the Netherlands, use ‘editorial agreements’ to achieve

such a separation, these agreements involve a written statement which

guarantees the rights of editors to shape the content of their products free

from interference by media owners” (Doyle, 2002, p.29).

As mentioned by Flew “media policy has been central to the development of

media in all of its forms, government policy institutions regulate the

ownership of media, production and distribution of media” (2007, p.171).

According to Craik (1996), in recent years international trends in regulating

media ownership have dramatically shifted, (p, 178). In response to cultural

and economic globalization and the adoption of micro-economic reform

agendas by most governments, basically the aim is to enhance national

integration, increase competition and international competitiveness and to

remove impediments to growth (Craik,1996,p.185). Furthermore, at a

national and international level these rapid changes in policy are to be

attributed to the digitization and convergence of technology and the

globalization of media and broadcasting technologies. However, policy

reforms were utilized as a counter measure for American cultural imperialism

and global domination (Craik, 1996, p. 185).

Singapore and media ownership

As globalization transformed our world into a village, access to media and

information became relatively simple, which made media gate keepers


Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
around the world grow wary of the effect that foreign media outlets can have

upon domestic politics. According to Terence Lee the fear of engagement of

foreign media and international broadcasters in Singapore is the main

driving force of foreign media censorship since the 1960s (2002, p.14). This

fear was magnified in July 1986 when the News Paper and Printing Presses

Act (NPPA), the key legislation governing publications in Singapore, was

amended to enable the government to restrict sales of foreign publications

deemed to interfere with Singaporean politics (2002, p.14).

Global media broadcasting was severely affected in Singapore in April 2001

after the Broadcasting Authority Amendment Bill was passed. Under this

legislation foreign broadcasters who interfere with domestic politics could

face restrictions on the number of households which can receive their

broadcast or even have their broadcasting channels blocked (2002, p.15),

which in this case will severely affect financial revenues of foreign

broadcasters, ultimately the cornerstone of all commercial media operations.

Terrence Lee suggests that “any decision on regulatory compliance on that

base would be market-dictated” (2002, p.15).

Auto-regulatory policies proved to have across boarder aftermath for those

who violate them in this era of media globalization. As mentioned by Lee

“the Singaporean government further demonstrated its auto-regulatory

abilities on the 4th of august 2002 by slapping international news agency

Bloomberg with a defamatory law suit in relation to an article published by


Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
US-based columnist Patrick Smith, the quick settlement demonstrates a

pragmatic understanding of political constrains of both media operations and

internet use in Singapore. Lee” (2000, p.19). Media merging is another vital

policy inquiry and determining factor in relaxing rules that govern media

firms in a global environment.

Regulating ownership of media outlets in the US

Government institutions commence regular media reforms to complement

issues that shape media ownership which is usually brought by technological

advancements. Media ownership was largely a local, decentralized affair

when government officials crafted the first amendment, by then debates

over media ownership where of no significance. Over time, however

communication media has developed drastically due to a few factors. As

argued by Croteau & Hoynes (2000), two factors contributed in changing

communication media. The first factor being technological developments

that enabled broadcast media producers to reach millions of viewers through

a networked system that blanketed the country in contrast to the limited

reach of the early individual printers. The second factor is changes in the

ownership patterns, the amount of investment capital necessary to produce

media products is enormous. (p. 89)

As a direct result of changes in technology and the scale of production the

“media industry have moved away from their independent localism, towards

forming national and global media entities” ( Croteau & Hoynes, 2000,p. 89).
Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
On the governments part these changes led directly to new regulations of

media ownership. For example the FCC has regulated the number of

television and radio stations a single company can own. The reason for doing

so was to encourage diversity and limit the potential of monopolistic power

of a media conglomerates and media ownership (p. 89).

Cross-ownership regulations

Media globalization brought about tough challenges. However, the

Telecommunication Act of 1996 eased the restrictions regarding owning two

communication mediums, better known as cross-ownership of media (2000,

p. 89).

Media giants usually oppose regulations and restrictions imposed by the

government. These regulations are implemented to prevent media giants

from acquiring total control of the market. However relaxing or eliminating

ownership rules, can lead to further concentration, for example in 1996 less

than two years after the elimination of limits on radio ownership, there was a

12 percent decline in the number of radio station owners, even while the

total number of stations increased 3 percent (2000, p. 91).

Outlawing and controlling of distribution

Regulation of moral content has been the center of attention for policy

makers, for example not selling recordings with explicit lyrics to minors is an
Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
active approach to regulating media content. However the US has pioneered

laws and regulations that protect children from harmful and sexually explicit

material as early as 1771 when the government of Massachusetts prohibited

publication of ‘wicked’, profane, filthy and obscene material (Croteau &

Hoynes, 2000,p. 89). The development of the computer internet proved to be

another challenge facing policy makers in limiting sexually explicit material

targeting minors, keeping in mind factors such as who owns the internet, and

to what extent censorship can be applied? Furthermore, Croteau & Hoynes

writings on lawmakers views stated that “the internet should be treated

more like a broadcast medium and thus that its content should be subject

government regulation, they argue accessing an internet site is no different

from truing in to a particular television channel” (2000,p. 89).

This argument paved the way to a proregulatory position that was supported

by the enhancement of the Communication Decency Act (CDA) which is an

extension to the 1996 Telecommunications act that outlawed the

transmission of sexually explicit and other indecent material on the internet

(Croteau & Hoynes, 2000, p. 89).

Regulations imposed by governments are always changing to harmonize the

transforming ground rules within which media operates, however recent

factors contributing to policy changes were subject to forces from outside

the media that had significant impact on the development of media

industries. Citizen activists from across the political spectrum are being
Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
recognized as significant players in the debate over the media. These players

lobby and educate about the media , religious groups and sometimes

pressure the media on moral grounds, as mentioned by Croteau & Hoynes

(2000), “In the highly publicized 1997 campaign, the Southern Baptist

Convention declared a sweeping boycott of the Walt Disney Company to

protest the company’s “gay-friendly” policies and positive images of gays,

including the ABC situation comedy “Ellen”(p.114).

Cultural imperialism and media ownership

Cultural imperialism has influenced the debate over media ownership and

policy implementation across the globe. The thesis of cultural imperialism

explains haw dominance of western media product specifically from United

States composed some sort of cultural imperialism. As mentioned by Croteau

& Hoynes (2000), American products have made up to 40 percent of the

European film market and nearly a quarter of the TV market, whereas the US

media corporations also control 60 percent of the film distribution networks

in Europe (p.256).

At the core of the debate was the notion that Western media products

introduced into other countries, especially developing countries contributed

to the decline in local traditional values and promoted instead capitalist

values. Furthermore, ownership and control over media was maintained in

the US hands, and other nations became more dependent on the United

States for cultural production (Croteau & Hoynes, 2000, p. 256). This
Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1
constituted ground for the promotion of new media reforms in developed

countries that could help maintain national culture and develop national

identity; reforms could include strict guide line for media content and in

extreme conditions prohibition of foreign ownership of media channels

(Croteau & Hoynes, 2000, p. 256).

Conclusion

The media influence on the political process has drastically transformed the

way politics is exercised in many countries. The global scale of media

production and distribution posed new challenges for policy makers. New

regulations are required to capacitate the gigantic scale of operations that

global media organizations need.

As mentioned earlier, this paper recognizes the profound relationship

between technological changes , globalization of the media and their impact

on policy making in relation to ownership of the media. The paper discussed

negative and positive attributes of concentration of ownership and few laws

that regulate them. Cross ownership of media can lead to either the

multiplicity of viewpoints available to the audience or the opposite.


Musaab Mohamed Adam 30581155
Mss. Doris Lim cultural and media policy
Situating cultural policy essay 1

Reference list
Doyle, G. (2002). Media ownership: the economics and politics of convergence and
concentration. London: SAGE. Retrieved April 1st, 2010, from Googl books data
base.

Croteau, C., & Hoynes, W. (2000) media society: industries, images and Audiences.
California: Pine Forge Press.

Craik, J. (1996). The potential and limits of cultural policy strategies. Culture and
policy, 7(1), 117-204.

Lee, T. (2002). New regulatory policies and communication technologies in


Singapore. Asia Pacific Media Educator, 12(13), 4-24.

Flew, T. (2007). Understanding Global Media. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.

Top of Form
7017

Bottom of Form

You might also like