21st Century Dam Design

Advances and Adaptations

31st Annual USSD Conference

San Diego, California, April 11-15, 2011

Hosted by
Black & Veatch Corporation
GEI Consultants, Inc.
Kleinfelder, Inc.
MWH Americas, Inc.
Parsons Water and Infrastructure Inc.
URS Corporation

On the Cover
Artist's rendition of San Vicente Dam after completion of the dam raise project to increase local storage and provide
a more flexible conveyance system for use during emergencies such as earthquakes that could curtail the regions
imported water supplies. The existing 220-foot-high dam, owned by the City of San Diego, will be raised by 117
feet to increase reservoir storage capacity by 152,000 acre-feet. The project will be the tallest dam raise in the
United States and tallest roller compacted concrete dam raise in the world.

U.S. Society on Dams

Vision
To be the nation's leading organization of professionals dedicated to advancing the role of dams
for the benefit of society.
Mission USSD is dedicated to:
Advancing the knowledge of dam engineering, construction, planning, operation,
performance, rehabilitation, decommissioning, maintenance, security and safety;
Fostering dam technology for socially, environmentally and financially sustainable water
resources systems;
Providing public awareness of the role of dams in the management of the nation's water
resources;
Enhancing practices to meet current and future challenges on dams; and
Representing the United States as an active member of the International Commission on
Large Dams (ICOLD).

The information contained in this publication regarding commercial projects or firms may not be used for
advertising or promotional purposes and may not be construed as an endorsement of any product or
from by the United States Society on Dams. USSD accepts no responsibility for the statements made
or the opinions expressed in this publication.
Copyright 2011 U.S. Society on Dams
Printed in the United States of America
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ISBN 978-1-884575-52-5
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Telephone: 303-628-5430
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E-mail: stephens@ussdams.org
Internet: www.ussdams.org

SAN ROQUE MULTIPURPOSE PROJECT PERFORMANCE MONITORING

ASSESSMENT
Michael Pavone, P.E.1
Joseph Ehasz, P.E.2
Stephen Benson, PE.3
Bonnie Witek, L.G., L.E.G.4
ABSTRACT
The San Roque Multipurpose Project (SRMP) is a major hydroelectric and flood-control
project in Asia. The 200-meter-high, central clay core, rock-fill dam is the 12th highest
dam of its kind in the world. It is located on the Agno River in the Philippines and
impounds a reservoir with a surface area of about 12.8 square kilometers that provides
flood attenuation benefits downstream of the dam. The SRMP has an installed rated
capacity of 411 megawatts.
URS was awarded two contracts totaling $705 million for the engineer-procure-construct
(EPC) work by San Roque Power Corporation. Performance monitoring of the project
began prior to first filling of the reservoir and continues on a regular schedule.
Key design requirements included stringent leakage criteria and reliability in this
seismically active region. The performance monitoring program for San Roque Dam
includes instrumentation monitoring and routine visual inspections. The program is
intended to provide verification of design parameters, analyze adverse effects, verify
performance, and identify any potential safety concerns. Instrumentation includes: 1)
piezometers, 2) movement survey monuments, 3) seepage flow measurement stations, 4)
rainfall gauge, and 5) turbidity meters.
This paper presents the evaluation of monitoring program data with regards to pore water
pressures, seepage, and deformation considering the designers (URS) prediction of
performance. Performance prediction is generally tied to the appropriate factors of safety
which, along with other design parameters such as calculated deformations, seepage
flows and piezometric pressures, determine the desired threshold limits for the design
conditions.
INTRODUCTION
Located in the mountains 200 kilometers north of the capital of Manila in the Philippines,
the SRMP is a major hydroelectric and flood-control project in Asia. Its major feature is a
1

Manager of Engineering, URS Energy and Construction, Bellevue, Washington, mike.pavone@urs.com

Vice President, URS Energy and Construction, Bellevue, Washington, joseph.ehasz@urs.com
3
Manager of Geotechnical Engineering, URS Energy and Construction, Bellevue, Washington,
steve.benson@urs.com
4
Senior Engineering Geologist, URS Energy and Construction, Bellevue, Washington,
bonnie.witek@urs.com
2

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200 meter high central core, rock-fill dam which is the 12th highest dam of its kind in the
world. Often called a national flagship project for the Philippines, in addition to
providing flood control and irrigation, the SRMP supplies clean hydroelectric power for
commercial and industrial use to a region that desperately needs it. In 1998, URS was
awarded contracts totaling $705 million for the engineer-procure-construct (EPC) work
by San Roque Power Corporation, an international consortium led by United States-based
Sithe Energies, and presently under the joint venture of Marubeni and Kansai Electric.
San Roque Power worked under a build-operate-transfer contract with the state-run
National Power Corporation.
The dam, spillway and powerhouse and appurtenant structures were constructed entirely
by URS owned equipment and staff composed of 80 expatriate employees and as many as
4,000 local Pilipino workers. The Project was designed by URS Office staffs in New
York and Bellevue, Washington, as well as local site support staff at the Project Site.
Major project features include:

An earth and rockfill dam, 200 meters high. The dam consists of 41 million cubic
meters of combined gravel fill and rockfill shell zones, filter, drain and transition
zones and an impermeable core.
A concrete spillway with six 15-meter-wide by 18.6-meter-high radial gates, and
a 485-meter-long, 100-meter-wide concrete chute ending in a flip bucket. The
spillway is designed to pass 12,800 cms.
A power tunnel, 8.5 meters in diameter and 1,300 meters long which includes a
pair of wheel gates in a shaft near the intake to shut off flow, a surge shaft for
control of hydraulic gradients and a steel-lined high-pressure segment.
A low-level outlet tunnel, 5.5 meters in diameter, 1,300 meters long with an
intake and flow control by a set of slide gates near the dam centerline.
Three diversion tunnels, two which are 10 meters wide by 15 meters high and one
which is 6 meters wide by 6 meters high.
Below ground powerhouse with three 137 MW turbine generators.
Electrical substation and nine kilometer long 230 kW transmission line.

In addition to the dams production of non-polluting hydroelectric power, its five-squaremile reservoir serves as a settling basin that entraps sediment above the dam, thus
improving water quality below the dam. These project features are shown on the
accompanying photograph.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

PROJECT DESCRIPTION
General Geology
The San Roque Multipurpose Project is located on the southern flank of the Central
Cordillera, the mountain highlands that make up the northwestern part of the island of
Luzon. The project takes advantage of the major change in topography at the southern
edge of the Cordillera where the Agno River flows from a steep, narrow-walled canyon
in the mountains out into the relatively flat Central Valley basin of Pangasinan Province.
The basement rocks of the southern part the Central Cordillera include pre-Tertiary
phyllite, schist, plutonic rocks, pillow basalt, chert, and a variety of clastic rocks. The
specific lithologies and deformational history of this sequence varies widely throughout
the region. Overlying the basement complex are probable Eocene to lower Miocene
volcanic rocks composed of andesite flows, basalt flows, and breccias and other
pyroclastic rocks intercalated with chert, argillite, sandstone, and conglomerate, known as
the Pugo Formation. Both of these rock sequences have been intruded by Tertiary
plutons, generally middle Oligocene to late Miocene. Deformation associated with the
intrusives has locally deformed the Pugo Formation. A thick, early Miocene to
Pleistocene, sedimentary section with some volcanic components is draped over the
southern and western flanks of the Central Cordillera and is present as the Klondyke
Formation in limited areas at the project. A number of early Quaternary intrusive rocks
are associated with the extensive mineralization that has been exploited in the Baguio
district in the upper reaches of the reservoir.

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Most of the major project structures (dam, spillway, and most of the tunnels) are founded
on or excavated in metamorphosed volcanic, sedimentary, and volcaniclastic rocks,
probably equivalent to the Pugo Formation. Various diorite intrusions of the Agno
Batholith are also present, especially in the powerhouse area, on the left bank of the river
at its last major bend between the dam and the powerhouse, and in the spillway chute
area. The Klondyke Formation forms a sedimentary sequence of conglomerates,
sandstones, and claystones that thickens down dip south and east of the dam.
Bedrock at the dam is primarily volcanic and volcaniclastic rock, which has been subject
to low grade metamorphism and intruded by diorite. The dominant foundation rock type
is metamorphosed volcanic breccia, with minor intercalations of fine-grained
metavolcanic/metasedimentary rocks. Numerous joints are infilled with calcite, quartz,
and other minerals.
Pleistocene to Recent alluvial channel deposits of the Agno River are found in the steep
narrow-walled canyon where the dam is located as well as in the broad valley
downstream. Alluvial terrace deposits of the Agno River and alluvial fan deposits from
tributary drainages are also present along the sides of the riverbed in some areas.
Landslide deposits are also widespread upstream in reservoir and along the front of the
Central Cordillera, most notably east of the powerhouse.
Abutments
The abutments of the dam are primarily underlain by volcanic breccia with minor
amounts of metavolcanic/metasedimentary rocks. The diorite intrusion crops out at the
surface in only a few places, but is present in the subsurface of the left abutment and has
probably contributed to the alteration of the volcanic breccia by contact metamorphism or
the source of hydrothermal fluids. Both abutments had a significant thickness of
overburden, consisting of soil and completely weathered rock. The overburden thickness
ranged from more than 20 meters on the upper left abutment to zero where slightly
weathered rock crops out along the left bank of the Agno River. In general, the
overburden was thicker on the left abutment than the right abutment, where soil and
completely weathered rock was generally 5 to 15 meters thick.
Below the overburden, the volcanic breccia of the dam abutments generally becomes
highly weathered. The rock has significant cohesion. Joints and other structures are
measurable in the rock. They are generally tight but can be open with or without filling.
Although weathering intensity generally decreases with depth, the weathering profile is
highly variable. Weathering appears to be controlled by permeable fractures and zones of
relatively competent rock are underlain by moderately to highly weathered material.
The crystalline bedrock at the dam site exhibits varying degrees of fracturing as a result
of the stresses associated with tectonic history. In general, the meta-volcanic and metasedimentary rock and the volcanic breccia are more highly fractured than the diorite unit.
In most locations, more than 3 joint sets can be observed. Joint spacing for each joint set
varies from about 2 to 20 cm. The most highly fractured areas are often at the margins of

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

the contact with diorite intrusions.

A number of shear zones are present on the abutments as observed both in borings and in
the excavation. These zones are characterized by crushed rock and clay gouge that may
vary in thickness from less than a centimeter to several tens of meters. Almost every core
boring in the dam footprint encountered sheared zones. Most of the shear zones observed
in the dam excavation are less than two meters wide. Some shear zones are associated
with diorite intrusions. Slickensides were observed in many of the shear zones. The
presence of calcite veins and other mineral infillings in many of the shear zones indicates
that these are not geologically recent features. The combination of the above poor rock
conditions made foundation treatment very difficult. The design-build nature of the
contract and project enabled the close coordination of design and construction to meet the
foundation treatment objectives.
River Channel
The riverbed area is generally covered by various alluvial deposits. Most of the alluvium
at the dam site consists of Agno River channel deposits of sand, gravel, cobbles, and
boulders. Older channel alluvium can be distinguished from younger more recent
deposits, generally on the basis of density. The deposits vary in thickness from 4 to 15
meters, but average close to 15 meters in the main river channel under the dam.
Bedrock beneath the alluvium is similar to that found on the abutments, primarily
volcanic breccia with lesser amounts of meta-volcanic/meta-sedimentary rock and diorite.
Unlike the abutments, the weathering profile was much shallower, with residual soil and
completely weathered rock being absent, and a rather quick transition into moderately to
slightly weathered rock. Like the abutments, there are numerous joints and shear zones in
the bedrock mass, however several features are especially distinctive. A narrow deeply
incised old river channel, eroded into the bedrock, crosses the main dam axis. Two major
shear zones, one approximately 20 meters wide and the other about 30 meters also cross
the dam axis. These shear zones are characterized by alternating zones of clay gouge,
crushed rock, and highly fractured rock. Where intercepted, these shear zones are
associated with significant water inflows.
Foundation Excavation Criteria
All areas of the core trench are founded on rock. The depth of excavation to the final
surface were based on the assessment of rock quality and consisted of two requirements:
(1) the rock must be treatable by grouting and be hard enough to allow setting of packers
for grouting and (2) where geologic features (joints, fissures, or shear zones), are
encountered, the features must be tight and characterized by a general absence of internal
erosion of erodible material (piping).
A method specification based on equipment performance was developed to achieve the
above design objectives. Based on the results of field trials, the limit of core zone
excavation is specified as rock of hardness and structure such that the material can no

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longer be effectively removed by a three-tooth ripper of a Caterpillar D-9 tractor dozer

equipped with a ripper of standard manufacturers design, working on a production basis,
and operating in low gear.
The design of core zone foundation required shaping of the rock to provide a generally
uniform foundation surface that improves long-term performance of the dam by reducing
the potential for differential settlement, cracking, and seepage paths.
The design of the shell zone foundations required removal of any unsuitable materials to
a level where the foundation materials have strength and elastic characteristics equal to or
greater than the overlying shell zone materials. The acceptance criterion for shell zone
foundation on rock was based on equipment performance and verification of rock quality
conditions. The limit of shell zone excavation in rock was specified as excavation to a
rock surface such that materials can no longer be effectively removed by the blade of a
Caterpillar D-7 tractor dozer equipped with a blade of standard manufacturers design,
working on a production basis, and operating in low gear.
Alluvium at the dam site consisted mostly of gravel and cobbles, with lesser amount of
sand and boulders. Older alluvium at depth was distinguished from younger alluvium
near the surface on the basis of density. Older alluvium is very dense and can be
excavated in near-vertical cuts. Correlation of shear wave velocity with the potential for
soil liquefaction and the results of large-scale density and gradation test were used as a
basis for determining the thickness and extent of alluvium to be removed and replaced
with compacted fill for the foundations of the shell zones of the dam.
Grouting Program and Foundation Preparation
The dam foundation grouting program included a combination of single and double line
grout curtain, consolidation grouting, and stitch grouting. Grouting was accomplished
from both the surface and the grouting galleries (Figures 8 and 9) in the foundation rock.
Curtain grouting consisted of a row of grout holes near the main dam axis, designed to
decrease seepage through the foundation rock and abutments. The grout curtain is a plane
inclined 70 degrees upstream to improve its intersection with vertical joints and shear
zones. In general, the grout curtain extends 80 meters below the core trench foundation.
On the upper abutments, the depth is gradually reduced to 40 meters as the reservoir head
is less in these areas. Because of water inflows into the gallery associated with the shear
zones, a double curtain was installed between stations 7+95 and 8+95 from the lower
gallery.
Consolidation grouting consists of a grid of relatively shallow grout holes in the main
dam core trench foundation to decrease the permeability of surficial fractured zones
adjacent to the grout curtain and reduce the potential for embankment materials to be
carried into the foundation rock mass (piping). Consolidation grouting in the grouting
galleries was done to repair rock that may have been opened by excavation and to reduce
seepage flow into the galleries on the upstream (grout curtain) side.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Stitch grouting was used for treatment of features such as a shear or fracture zone in a
pattern of holes designed to intersect that feature at various depths at angles favorable to
grout penetration. Stitch grouting was done from the surface and extends the full width of
the core trench if the feature is a significant seepage pathway. Stitch grouting was
performed for the full core trench width in the 20 and 30 meter wide shear zones in the
riverbed portion of the core trench.
Embankment Section As Constructed
The general arrangement and dimensions of the zones within the embankment dam are
shown on the typical section on Figure 1. The maximum height of the dam from the core
trench to the crest is 200 meters. Both the upstream and downstream slopes are 2H:1V.
The crest width is 12 meters and the width of the core at the top is 6 meters. The central
impervious core has an upstream and downstream slopes of 0.2H:1.0V.

Figure 1. Idealized Section on Alluvial Foundation

Zone 1
Zone 1A
Zone 1B

Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4
Zone 5

Zone 6
Zone 7A

Zone 7B

Upper Core Material ( PI 15)

Base of Core (PI > 20)
Core - Material obtained from overburden excavation (% fines>
20)
Transition
Filter
Drain
Clean Shell (Processed from alluvial borrow or rock quarry areas
0-30% passing No. 4 sieve)
Shell (0-50% passing No. 4 sieve)
Random Rockfill (obtained from rock excavation 0-60% passing
No. 4 sieve)
Select Rockfill (obtained from rock excavation 0-30% passing
No. 4 sieve)

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Zone 8
Zone 5/7B
Zone 6/7B
Zone 6/7A

Riprap
Shell (co-mingled with alluvium and rockfill)
Shell (co-mingled with alluvium and rockfill)
Shell (co-mingled with alluvium and rockfill)

The zone arrangement depicted on Figure 1, evolved as construction progressed in order

to make maximum utilization of the required excavation material from the dam
foundation and spillway. A plan view of the embankment and project is shown on Figure
2.

Figure 2. Plan view of the SRMP

INSTRUMENTATION
The instrumentation monitoring and periodic visual inspections taken collectively
provided an overview of dam performance during construction, first reservoir filling, and
long-term operation. The main objectives of instrumentation monitoring and visual
inspections are: verify project performance, identify any potential safety concern,
analytical assessment and prediction of future performance. Within the analytical
assessment, instrumentation data can verify design assumptions and construction
techniques as well as analyze adverse events that may occur during the construction of
the dam. Prediction of future performance is associated with deviations of data trends and
identification of unusual data.
To perform these verifications and analyses, various instruments were placed at specific
locations of the structure during construction. These instruments measure:
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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

pore-water pressures within the dam and its foundation

seepage
deformation
precipitation
turbidity

Most of the embankment piezometers and settlement cells are located at five different
elevations along four lines perpendicular to the dam axis. The four lines are at dam
station 5+00, 7+00, 9+25, and 11+00. Station 9+25 is near the maximum section of the
dam. Foundation piezometers are located in the grouting galleries underneath the dam in
holes oriented upstream and downstream of the grout curtain. Additional abutment
piezometers are located in the gallery access adits (Figure 9). Flow measurement stations
are located in the galleries, adits, and at the downstream collector pipe near the toe of the
dam. Movement survey monuments are located on the surface of the dam. A plan view
and cross-sections of the instrument locations are shown on Figures 3 through 7.

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Figure 3. Plan View of Instrumentation

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Figure 4. Instrumentation Section Station 5+00

Figure 5. Instrumentation Section Station 7+00

Figure 6. Instrumentation Section Station 9+25

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Figure 7. Instrumentation Section Station 11+00

Pore Water Pressure
Piezometers are used to monitor pore water pressure and free water surfaces within the
dam foundation and abutments and to monitor uplift pressure beneath the spillway ogee
section. Pore water pressure measurements are necessary to determine the phreatic
surface in the embankment and thus evaluate slope stability, evaluate design assumptions,
and seepage or other changes which could indicate changing conditions within the core or
fill. During early reservoir filling, piezometer readings were used to verify phreatic
assumptions used in the analyses, evaluate pore pressure dissipation across a given
section of the dam and to assess the effectiveness of the impervious core and foundation
grouting.
Four types of piezometers were used for the project in order to increase reliability of
results. These include:

Vibrating Wire Piezometers

The vibrating wire (VW) piezometer is an accurate piezometer that is relatively easy to
install and monitor. The VW piezometer converts water pressure into a frequency signal
via a diaphragm, a tensioned steel wire, and an electro-magnetic coil. The instrument is
designed so that a change in pressure on the diaphragm causes a change in tension of the
wire. When excited by the electro-magnetic coil, the wire vibrates at its natural
frequency. The vibration of the wire in the proximity of the magnetic coil generates a
frequency signal that is transmitted to the readout device. The readout device processes
the signal, applies calibration factors, and displays a reading in the required engineering
unit. A total of 27 VW piezometers were installed at various levels in the dam. Twentyfive additional VW piezometers were installed in the upstream holes drilled from the
galleries.

Pneumatic Piezometers

Pneumatic piezometers were used as an alternative measuring method to the VW

piezometers and, as a back-up in the event that a VW piezometer(s) were damaged. The

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

advantage of the pneumatic piezometer is that it uses a simple diaphragm with no

electrical parts and therefore is not susceptible to lightening damage. In order to enhance
long-term performance, corrosion-resistant plastic construction, polyethylene tubing, and
in-line filters were used at all connectors. A total of 7 pneumatic piezometers were
included in the dam.

Open Standpipe Piezometers

Open standpipe piezometers were installed along the downstream toe of the dam to
measure pore water pressure in the abutments. Four open standpipe piezometers were
installed at locations shown on Figure 3. The open standpipe piezometers included a drill
hole approximately 15 meters deep, 75 mm diameter and having a PVC pipe extending
approximately 0.5 meters above grade. The PVC pipe extends into and was grouted into
the hole.

Pressure Gage Piezometers

Pressure gages piezometers were installed at three locations in the dam and spillway
drainage galleries. These pressure gage piezometers were primarily oriented downstream
of the gallery.
A section view showing location of the gallery piezometers is shown on Figure 8.

Figure 8. Gallery Piezometers

Seepage
The amount of seepage migrating through, under, and around the embankment is
necessary information as it relates to the internal stability of the structure and the
verification that the dam drainage zones are functioning properly. Monitoring seepage is
essential during construction, first filling, and in establishing long-term trends. Seepage is
measured by means of weirs, volume vaults or wet wells (calibrated containers).
A system of flow measuring weirs was established to collect and measure seepage and
leakage that passes the dam. Leakage through the dams grout curtain and rock
foundation is collected by the foundation drainage system. The foundation drainage
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system consists of drain holes drilled from within the grouting galleries under the dam.
The galleries run primarily along the centerline of the dam. Water collected in the
galleries and access adits flow by gravity to flow measuring stations. Several flow
measurement stations are provided within the galleries to isolate and measure the quantity
and locations of leakage at specific points along the gallery. The locations of the flow
measurement stations are shown on Figure 9.
Seepage through the dam is collected along the inclined drain zone adjacent to the core
and collected by the blanket drain beneath the downstream shell. This flow is conveyed
to a buried collection pipe system just beyond the toe of the dam where it is measured by
a weir.
The projects drainage collection system was sized to accommodate a total of 320 liters /
second (l/s), which includes an allowance for rainfall infiltration, natural groundwater,
and backflow from tailwater. One hundred-fifty l/s was assumed to flow into the
galleries and adits and 170 l/s into the embankment drain zones.

Figure 9. Flow Measurement Stations in Galleries

Deformation
Surface deformation includes horizontal movement, settlement and heave of the
embankment. To monitor these changes, Movement survey monuments (MSM) are
installed on the dam crest, downstream slope, upstream slope, and on the spillway ogee
section.
The monuments are surveyed using conventional survey equipment to measure overall
vertical and horizontal movements of the dam. A total of 67 MSM were installed. Ten
are located on the dam crest, 35 are located on the downstream slope, 3 on the spillway
structure piers, and 19 are installed on the upstream slope. In addition, a settlement
monument was installed immediately in front of each monitoring station. Locations of
movement survey monuments are show in Figure 10.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Figure 10. Location of Survey Monuments

Vibrating wire (VW) settlement cells were installed in the core and downstream shell
zones zone to monitor settlement during construction and first filing. A total of 14
vibrating wire settlement cells were installed in the downstream half of the impervious
core and downstream shell fill at the locations shown on Figures 3 through 7.

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Rainfall Measurement Devices

Rain gages were installed in order to measure rainfall in the immediate vicinity of the
project structures in order to correlate rainfall infiltration with measured drainage gallery
flows and the flows measured at the blanket drain weir beyond the toe of the dam.
Baseline data and correlations between precipitation and drain response were developed
prior to the initiation of reservoir filling operations in order to estimate flows resulting
from precipitation and infiltration versus those resulting from seepage and leakage past
the dam.
Turbidity Measurement Devices
The purpose of measuring turbidity of the seepage water collected in the dams drainage
system is to reveal if there is any piping or loss of material through the drain system
taking place. A turbidity meter measures turbidity in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU)
that can be generally correlated to the dissolved and suspended sediment concentration in
a water sample. Nephelometric refers to the way the instrument, a nephelometer, or
turbidity meter, measures how much light is scattered by suspended particles in the water.
Sampling is conducted at the various seepage and leakage measurement stations located
in the galleries and adits, and at the collection and measurement structure for the
horizontal drain of the main dam. Similarly, the turbidity meter can be used in the
sampling and measuring of turbidity at any location along the river. Low NTU values
indicate high water clarity, while high NTU units indicate low water clarity.
Leakage flow is sampled and measured for turbidity at the various weirs located in the
adits and galleries and at the blanket drain collection location
PREDICTED PERFORMANCE
Pore Water Pressure
Pore water pressures for design of the dam were computed from the location of the
theoretical piezometric surface, which varied for the various loading conditions
considered. The piezometric surface for the normal operation steady-state seepage
condition was conservatively assumed to be a horizontal line at elevation 280 m in the
upstream rockfill shell and the core to a point 3 m beyond the core in the Zone 3 filter.
From that point, the phreatic surface was assumed to be parallel to the downstream face
of the core extending to the Zone 4 blanket drain. Beyond the limits of the shell, the
piezometric line was assumed at elevation 108 m at the maximum downstream section.
The downstream phreatic line for the maximum upstream section was assumed at the
base of the embankment on the excavation surface. The results of steady-state seepage
finite element analyses were used to verify the locations of the phreatic surfaces
described above. In general, the pore pressures indicated by the finite element analyses
are lower than the values assumed for the design phreatic surface. Therefore, the stability
analyses results were based on conservative pore pressures. Piezometric head levels

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

predicted by design computations for steady state conditions for piezometers located in
the maximum section of the dam at Station 9+25 are summarized in Table 1. Monitoring
data from these piezometers are discussed below in Evaluation and Performance.
Table 1. Maximum Section (Station 9+25) Piezometric Design Levels
Piezometer No.

Location

VWP - 11
VWP - 12
VWP - 13
VWP - 14
VWP - 15
VWP - 16
VWP - 17
VWP - 18
VWP - 19
VWP - 20
VWP - 21
VWP - 22

Core
Core
Core
Core
Core
Shell
Shell
Core
Core
Shell
Shell
Shell

Distance from
Axis
(m)
5
8
20
10
30
80
175
10
40
125
225
330

Tip Elevation
(m)

Design Head
(m)

240.0
184.6
184.5
131.3
131.4
130.4
131.1
102.5
103.4
106.7
106.5
105.8

280
280
224
274
174
108
108
274
124
108
108
108

Seepage
Seepage analyses were performed using the two-dimensional finite element computer
program SEEP/W (Geo-Slope International Ltd., 1998). Numerous analyses were
performed as the design and construction was advanced.
Two-dimensional finite element analysis models were developed for several selected
transverse sections along the length of the dam. Total seepage through the dam and
foundation was obtained by using the end-area method to extrapolate two-dimensional
results at each cross section and summing them along the axis of the dam.
For the initial analysis, four sections were selected to represent the dam, the arrangement
of the drainage gallery, variations in foundation excavation geometry and foundation
stratigraphy. Permeability values for various zones within the bedrock foundation were
initially estimated based on field permeability testing of borings, performed as part of the
foundation core drilling exploration program at selected locations within the main dam
footprint area. With the completion of the construction of the dam, but prior to reservoir
filling, the designers availed themselves to as-built excavation topography and extensive
water pressure test data obtained from Primary (P) and Verification (V) grout holes to
better model pre- and post-grouted rock permeabilities, respectively. Therefore, as the
design and construction advanced, the number of representative sections was increased,
ultimately up to fifteen, to accommodate the actual foundation excavation geometry,
expanded subsurface information obtained from foundation mapping, water pressure test
results from foundation grout holes, and changes to the embankment cross section and
drainage gallery arrangement. The seepage prediction analysis results described herein
are for the final post-construction, pre-filling as-built conditions.

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The permeability values, calculated from the field exploration permeability tests and P
and V grout hole pressure testing were plotted, by dam station, versus depth in order to
evaluate the grouted and ungrouted rock permeability values representative of each
analysis cross section. The permeability values, calculated from the field permeability
tests performed within each section, were evaluated versus depth and representative
values for analysis were selected for ungrouted rock. The anisotrophy ratio was assumed
to be 1.0 for all rock material. The results are summarized in the following Table 2.
Table 2. Representative Permeability Values for Ungrouted Foundation Materials
Station
2+50 to 6+00

6+00 to 8+12.5
8+12.5 to 9+00
9+00 to 10+37.5
10+37.5 to 13+80
13+80 to 15+00

Depths (m)
0 - 20
20 60
60 110
>110
0 20
20 35
>35
0 - 30
30 50
>50
0 30
>30
0 30
30 75
>75
0 30
30 75
>75

Permeability (cm/sec)
1x10-3
3x10-4
1x10-4
2x10-5
3x10-4
2x10-4
8x10-5
6x10-4
1x10-4
5x10-5
2x10-4
5x10-5
3x10-4
2x10-4
4x10-5
3x10-4
2x10-4
4x10-5

Again, it should be reiterated that these are the values used in the final as-built analysis.
Leading up to this analysis were numerous other analyses that also examined lower and
upper bound ungrouted rock permeability ranges versus depth.
The original permeability (hydraulic conductivity) goals for the consolidation grout zone
and curtain grout zone were 20 Lugeons and 10 Lugeons, respectively and were based on
early grouting test section results. These values were used in the earlier seepage
analyses. The as-built analysis used grouted rock permeability coefficients that were
determined from V grout hole pressure testing results. Final as-built grouted rock
permeabilities of 2.64x10-4 cm/sec. (20 Lugeons) and 6.6x10-5 cm/sec. (5 Lugeons) were
used in the consolidation grout zone and curtain grout zone, respectively.
The two impervious core zone materials, Zone 1 and 1B, were modeled with permeability
coefficients of 2.0x10-8 cm/sec. and 5.0x10-7 cm/sec., respectively. These values were
based on laboratory determinations in accordance with ASTM D-5084. The anisotropy
ratio (the ratio of the hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction to the vertical
direction) was assumed as 2.0 for Zone 1 and 5.0 for Zone 1B and were based on
specified compaction methods.

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The total seepage was estimated based on fifteen selected analysis sections. The end
area method was used to compute the total seepage between sections. The first and last
sections with assumed seepage equal to zero were STA 2+50 on the left abutment and
STA 15+00 on the right abutment. Calculated seepage rates are summarized in Table 3
by station interval and by seepage collection feature (i.e. drainage gallery segment and
blanket drain). The predicted combined gallery flow was calculated to be 240 l/sec.
Similarly, the predicted downstream blanket drain flow was calculated to be 67 l/sec. for
a combined predicted seepage rate of 307 l/sec.
Table 3. As Built Seepage Analysis Results
Station Interval

2+50 to 4+00
4+00 to 5+00
5+00 to 6+00
6+00 to 6+70
6+70 to 7+00
7+00 to 8+00
8+00 to 8+12.5
8+12.5 to 9+00
9+00 10+00
10+00 to 10+37.5
10+37.5 to 11+50
11+50 to 13+00
13+00 to 13+80
13+80 to 14+50
14+50 to 15+00
Total Seepage by
Collection Feature
(l/sec.)
Total Gallery
Seepage (l/sec.)
Total Downstream
Blanket Seepage
(l/sec.)
Combined Total
Seepage (l/sec.)

Upper
Left
Gallery
(l/sec.)
16.5
27.0
53.5
97.0

Lower Left
Gallery
(l/sec.)

Upper Right
Gallery
(l/sec.)

Lower Right
Gallery
(l/sec.)

Downstream
Blanket Drain
(l/sec.)

17.2
17.2

42.8
15.5
8.3
6.1
72.7

9.7
43.7
53.4

2.9
0.7
0.0
8.1
6.3
19.2
2.2
9.0
15.5
0.5
2.5
0.1
67

240
-

67

307

Deformation
Long term deformation of the dam was evaluated for final design by two methods: 1)
review of data related to the long term deformation of large dams with features similar to
San Roque Dam, and 2) determine the rough magnitude of long term consolidation
settlement of the core zone using Terzaghis one-dimensional consolidation theory.

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The results of the first approach (case history study) were used to calibrate numerical
static stress and deformation analyses of the dam. Because of the many limiting
assumptions related to pore water pressure generation during construction, onedimensional consolidation modeling, and the variability associated with large-scale
placement and field compaction of cohesive soils, it is generally accepted that numerical
models tend to overestimate the magnitude of post-construction deformation of dam
cores. A more pragmatic and reliable approach to evaluating the effects of core
deformation (and the associated redistribution of stresses) was adopted that considered
case histories of post-construction settlement of dams coupled with stress analysis using a
well-validated generalized soil constitutive model.
Well-documented case histories of the long-term settlement behavior of rockfill dams
with finer-grained cores (Dascal 1987, Clements 1984, Kollgaard and Chadwick 1988)
among others) served as the basis of the case history study. Approximately 90 case
histories were initially considered, and of these, fifteen were judged to be similar enough
to San Roque Dam to be included in the deformation evaluation. The selected case
histories were generally similar to San Roque Dam in core, shell, and foundation
materials; dam height; and the construction technique. The soil compaction effort for San
Roque was judged to be higher than those of the older dams. Therefore, settlement
estimates based on case histories were somewhat conservative to use for this project.
The case history data indicated that dams with characteristics similar to the San Roque
dam typically experience long term (about 40 years) maximum vertical strains
(settlement per unit height) of about 0.4 percent. Based on this evaluation of performance
of existing dams similar to San Roque, long-term post-construction vertical strains of the
dam core were predicted to be on the order of 0.5 percent at the maximum station 9+00
(1m). These strains were expected to decrease to close to 0 percent near the abutments of
the dam. Although it was believed that long-term vertical strains will be limited to about
0.5 percent, to assess the sensitivity of the results and possible variation in total
settlement, the stress analysis were performed considering 1.0 percent vertical strain
(2m).
The results of the second approach (consolidation settlement analysis) are known to
overestimate long term consolidation settlement of central core embankment dams;
however the analysis was performed to obtain an upper bound settlement value for
comparison to the results computed using more detailed long term deformation analysis
techniques.
A one-dimensional long-term consolidation settlement analysis was performed on the
longitudinal profile of the dam. The analysis was performed using a spreadsheet to
determine the order of magnitude of long-term consolidation settlement using Terzaghis
one-dimensional consolidation theory. Compression index values (CC) were determined
from laboratory testing and used as input for the spreadsheet. Consolidation settlement of
the core was calculated at 14 stations. At each of the stations, the core was divided into
sublayers with heights corresponding to the height of core elements along the central axis
of finite element models. The results of the analysis using the range of Cc values

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

predicted that total long term settlement of the core would vary from 1.4 to 3.1 meters, at
stations 8+50 to 10+00 (closest to the maximum section). An average value of 2 meters
was chosen to account for the long term consolidation settlement of the dam.
Camber was incorporated into the embankment design geometry to account for potential
earthquake-induced deformations of the crest of the dam and long-term static
deformation caused by consolidation of core material. In order to compute camber, the
estimated long-term deformation was added to the maximum anticipated dynamic
deformation. Details regarding the earthquake-induced deformation computation
analyses are outside the scope of this paper. The results of the analyses indicate a
maximum dynamic deformation of 0.5 m and approximately 2.0 m of long-term static
deformation, for a cumulative total of 2.5 m. Therefore, in addition to 15 m of freeboard
above the normal operating reservoir elevation 280, the crest of the dam was constructed
with a maximum 2.5 m of camber in the center of the dam.
EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE
Performance During First Filling
Impoundment of the reservoir began on August 8, 2002 with closure of diversion tunnels
2 and 3. Diversion Tunnel No. 1 was permanently closed earlier in the year. As of
November 15, 2002, the reservoir had filled to elevation 268.8, about 11.2 meters below
the normal maximum operating pool of elevation 280.0. The reservoir did not meet the
design maximum pool until the 2003 wet season.
Evaluation of monitoring program data at the end of 2002 indicated that the dam and its
foundations performed as anticipated during the first impoundment of the reservoir, and
there were no concerns with respect to the performance and safety of the dam. The
following observations were made based on the inspections and data obtained at that
time:

A number of the piezometers in the core were then responding to reservoir filling. A
steady state condition had not yet been established but the trend was in that direction.

The downstream shell piezometers indicated that drainage occurred with essentially
no increase in piezometric head.

The piezometers in the foundation indicated head loss generally in accordance with
the seepage analyses.

Total seepage from the galleries, as of November 15, 2002, is approximately 55 l/s;
seepage at the downstream toe of the dam is about 127 l/s. These flow rates were
reasonable and acceptable considering the geology of the site. There was some
indication, based on the response of the core piezometers, that the recent increase in
the seepage flow rate at the toe of the dam was the result of the normal development
of saturation and seepage through the core.
The maximum vertical settlement measured to date (November 2002) at the crest of
the dam is 309 mm. This settlement was considerably less than the 2.5 meters of

Performance Monitoring Assessment

1499

camber and is well within the anticipated post-construction settlement after six
months of the dam being completed.
No indication of longitudinal cracking at the upstream edge of the crest was observed
as a result of saturation of the upstream shell.

In 2003, the reservoir reached full operating level several times, and was above normal
operating level of elevation 280, for short periods during extreme typhoon events.
Evaluation of monitoring program data at the end of 2003 again indicated that the dam
and its foundations performed as anticipated during the first impoundment of the
reservoir, and there were no concerns with respect to the performance and safety of the
dam. The following observations were made based on the inspections and data obtained
at that time:

The piezometers in the core have responded to reservoir filling. A steady state
condition has not yet been established in some lower piezometers, but the trend is in
that direction.
The downstream shell piezometers indicated that drainage occurs with no increase in
piezometric head.
The piezometers in the foundation indicated head loss generally in accordance with
the seepage analyses.
Total seepage from the galleries, as of October 14, 2003, was approximately 80 l/s;
seepage at the downstream toe of the dam was about 88 l/s. These flow rates were
reasonable and acceptable considering the geology of the site. There was some
indication, based on the response of the total seepage, that the slight decrease in the
seepage flow rate from the galleries was a result of calcification or natural sealing of
the rock fractures. In addition, the recent reduction of the toe drain seepage recorded,
was a result of the drier weather conditions being experienced over the past few
weeks.
The maximum vertical settlement measured to date at the crest of the dam was 443
mm. This settlement was considerably less than the 2.5 meters of camber and was
well within the anticipated post-construction settlement after 17 months of the dam
being completed.
No indication of longitudinal cracking at the upstream edge of the crest was observed
as a result of saturation of the upstream shell.

Following first filling in November 2003, it was concluded that there were redundancies
in the instruments designed into the dam instrumentation system, in particular, the
piezometers and the settlement devices. The purpose of these instruments was for use
during construction and first filling of the reservoir. Based on the piezometer redundancy
and the fact that the vibrating wire piezometers were performing well, the non-working
pneumatic piezometers were decommissioned based on recommendations from the Board
of Consultants. Since the pneumatic piezometers were the redundant instruments, it was
concluded that if or when the remainder do not perform then they should also be
decommissioned. These instruments are no longer read. In addition, since the shell
piezometers were indicating little or no water pressure, all of the reading frequency was
reduced read to bi-monthly.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Evaluation of monitoring data also indicated that the internal settlement cells were not
performing properly. It also appeared that the dam settlements, as measured by the
external settlement monuments, were consistent and valid, and were approaching stable
values. Since the internal settlement cells were intended to measure settlement of the dam
during construction and first filling, it was concluded that the usefulness of the internal
settlement cells was in question, and the internal settlement cells were decommissioned
upon recommendation of the Board of Consultants. Subsequently, the monitoring of
deformation for long term conditions has relied on the external settlement monuments.
Long Term Performance
Pore Water Pressure: Vibrating wire piezometers are installed at various elevations in the
downstream portion of the embankment core and in the downstream shell (Figures 11
through 13). Piezometers in the core quickly responded to the filling of the reservoir and
mimic the rising and falling levels of the reservoir. Data from the piezometers in the core
show head levels that are consistently less than the phreatic surface assumed for the
design analyses. For the vibrating wire piezometers in the shell, the piezometers indicated
constant stable readings near the design assumption, indicating the internal drain is
functioning as intended by the deign with no increase in piezometric head in the
downstream shell zone of the dam.
Table 4 lists the highest reading for the calendar year for vibrating wire piezometers in
the core and shell zones where data is continually available since the beginning of
reservoir filling operations. The core piezometers show an increase with reservoir filling
and then stabilization over time. Water levels in the shell are typically dry or respond to
precipitation and rises in the tailwater level. The 2010 water levels in these piezometers
are shown on Figure 11. Superimposed on this figure is the estimated phreatic surface
calculated during design using the Casagrande method. This level can be compared to
the 2010 measured levels.

Performance Monitoring Assessment

1501

Figure 11. 2010 Water Levels in Core and Shell, Station 9+25

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Table 4. Highest Piezometer Reading per Calendar Year

Core
Piezometers
VWP-11
VWP-13
VWP-14
VWP-18
Shell
Piezometers
VWP-16
VWP-21
VWP-22

Elevation
(m)
240
184.5
131.3
102.5

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

254
208
183
112

260
218
212
163

259
216
217
172

258
216
216
172

260
213
211
178

259
210
207
179

259
210
206
179

263
210
207
183

256
208
201
181

130.35
106.53
105.76

130
109
108

130
108
108

130
107
113

130
106
108

130
105
107

130
105
107

130
105
107

131
105
109

131
105
107

Figure 12. Water Levels in Core Piezometers

Performance Monitoring Assessment

1503

Figure 13. Water Levels in Shell Piezometers

Monitoring of the foundation gallery piezometers indicate head loss generally in
accordance with the design seepage analyses. The gallery piezometers respond to
changes in reservoir elevation. Their pattern tends to mirror that of the change in
reservoir levels. There is no direct link to changes in rainfall patterns, other than in that
the rainfall affects the reservoir elevation. Table 5 shows for a typical group of gallery
piezometers at or near the maximum section, the piezometric head after the first filling
and at current high reservoir levels and compares it to the analysis piezometric head.
This table illustrates that most of the piezometric heads are at or below the analysis
piezometric head.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Table 5. Lower Gallery Piezometers

Number

Location

GP-12-50-D
GP-12-20-D
GP-12-60-U
GP-12-50-U
GP-12-20-U
GP-13-70-D
GP-13-50-D
GP-13-20-D
GP-13-60-U
GP-13-50-U
GP-13-20-U

8+85
8+85
8+85
8+85
8+85
9+00
9+00
9+00
9+00
9+00
9+00

Piezometric Head
at Tip (m)
October 29, 2002
157.46
152.30
120.54
145.76
185.02
126.62
141.10
178.69
165.13
177.16
198.77

Piezometric Head
at Tip (m)
October 29, 2010
138.16
137.13
102.11
130.19
173.71
114.90
127.31
169.04
168.31
135.33
189.14

Analysis Piezometric
Head at Tip
(m)
130
160
130
150
190
90
130
170
160
170
190

Seepage: The long term, total seepage reflects the reservoir level with the total amount of
seepage decreasing over time and appears to be approaching steady-state conditions.
Total seepage from first filling to February 2010 is shown on Figure 14. Total seepage
consists of flow measured from the galleries and the toe drain. The monitoring data
shows that the total flow has gradually decreased over time with a maximum flow of 220
l/s in 2002 to a low value of 100 l/s in 2008. The total flow in 2009 spiked to 190 l/s;
however, this increase is due to infiltration from extremely high precipitation that
influenced the toe drain readings. The gallery seepage has also had a net decrease over
time. There is some indication that the decrease in the seepage flow rate from the
galleries is a result of calcification or natural sealing of the rock fractures. In the upper
left grouting gallery, a limited remedial grouting program was conducted in areas of very
high seepage which resulted in a reduction of the inflow. Table 6 shows the decrease in
seepage over time. Seepage quantities reflect highest measured amounts per calendar year
at high reservoir levels. The high value for the toe drain in 2004 reflects high
precipitation.

Location
Toe Drain
Galleries
Total

Table 6. Measured Seepage Flows (l/s)

at Highest Reservoir Level in Year Shown
Predicted Value 2004
2007
67
112
45
240
71
55
307
183
100

Performance Monitoring Assessment

2010
36
41
77

1505

Figure 14. Total Seepage

Deformation: As predicted by design analyses and evaluations, the maximum amount of
settlement has occurred at the maximum section of the dam, and appears at this time to be
reaching equilibrium, as shown on the crest settlement profile on Figures 15 and 16.
Figure 15 shows the longitudinal settlement profile across the crest of the dam. As
anticipated, the greatest amount of settlement has occurred in the highest central sections
of the dam and decreases towards the abutments. Settlement at the maximum section of
the dam is 756 mm (29.8 inches) and reduces to 230 mm (9.1 inches) at the left abutment
and 265 mm (10.4 inches) on the right abutment. Figure 16 shows a transverse
settlement profile of the maximum section. As expected, at the deepest sections,
monuments SP5 and SP49, show the greatest amount of settlement, 756 mm (29.8 inches)
and 802 mm (31.6 inches), respectively.
The monitoring data indicates that the long term settlement is much less than the two
meters of settlement predicted by design analyses and evaluations. There has been no
indication of longitudinal cracking at the upstream edge of the crest as a result of the
saturation of the upstream shell.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Figure 15. Crest Settlement Profile

Performance Monitoring Assessment

1507

Figure 16. Settlement Profile Maximum Section

CONCLUSIONS
The San Roque rockfill-central core dam has performed very well for the last eight years;
essentially since its first filling in 2002. The embankment dam was designed using
sophisticated methods and checked using empirical methods and performance
characteristics from similar dams. The foundation conditions were the most difficult to
ascertain and as a result considerable on-site modifications were made to accommodate
the poor geologic conditions. These modifications were necessary to ensure the
safeguards against piping as well as meeting the seepage and leakage objectives. The
fact that the design-build nature of the contract and project facilitated the rapid
recognition of unforeseen and unknown features during construction and enabled
efficient and effective treatments made the project a success. The result, as indicated
above, is that this large rockfill dam meets and exceeds its performance criteria and
reinforces the current engineering methods of design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. William Connell Senior
Vice President for Plant Operations and Site Administrator, Mr. Jeric Codinera SRPC
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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Instrumentation Engineer and Mr. Raymund Mariano SRPC Engineering Manager, for
their help in providing the monitoring data and reviewing this paper.
REFERENCES
San Roque Power Corporation, Weekly Reports of Instrumentation Results, from 2002 to
2010.
San Roque Consulting Panel, San Roque Multipurpose Project, SRPC Consulting Panel
Meeting No. 12, July 17, 2002.
San Roque Consulting Panel, San Roque Multipurpose Project, SRPC Consulting Panel
Meeting No. 13, November 18, 2002.
San Roque Consulting Panel, San Roque Multipurpose Project, SRPC Consulting Panel
Meeting No. 14, October 26, 2003.
United Engineers International, Inc., Addendum 1, Design Statement Level 2, Main
Dam Embankment, for the San Roque Multipurpose Project for the San Roque Power
Corporation, July 2000.
United Engineers International, Inc., Instrumentation Monitoring and Inspection Manual,
for the San Roque Multipurpose Project for the San Roque Power Corporation, August
2002.

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