Computer Notes

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Describe "Information Networks" in your own words.

Information networks are the computer networks that
communicate with public telecommunication networks. In
information networks, two important technologies: computing and
telecommunications work together. Computer networks were
originally used for research experiments between the computer
scientists, telecommunication engineers, and other researchers.
These scientific and engineering experiments have brought a
huge change in our society. Information network has brought
many useful benefits. It also has created some problems as well.
The most popular information network is the Internet or World
Wide Web. It exchanges information between Internet users. We
can say that a network is a large circulatory system, through which
information continuously flows. This circulation or distribution of
information may flow rapidly or slowly.
What is a Network? Also write the uses of network.
A network (or computer network) is a way to connect computers
together so that they can communicate with each other and share
information.
Today, most of the organizations, research centers etc. have
developed their own computer networks. They may include
business, scientific or technological research, educational
institutes or government offices etc. World community has come
closer to each other due to the computer networks. Today, you
can access information all over the world sitting on your table
using the Internet.
Networks are divided into the following types
Local Area Network (LAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)
Metropolitan Network (MAN)
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Uses of Networks
Computer network can be used for various purposes. The main
uses of computer network are;
It allows the multiple users to access and share programs and

data simultaneously.
It allows multiple users to share peripherals devices, such as
printers and hard disks.
It allows to send e-mails along with files.
It allows the users to communicate via teleconferencing and
video conferencing.
What is local area network (LAN)? Also describe the

components of LAN.
Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network system in which
computers are interconnected in a limited geographical area, such
as network of computers in college computer laboratory or
network of computers in office building etc.
In LAN, computers are connected together through
communications media so that each computer can share the
resources of others. A LAN covers short distance, such as one
office or building or a group of buildings that are closer to each
other.
Components of LAN
A local area network has a standard set of components used to
connect computers and to share the information between them.
These are described below.
(i)
Communication Media
Data travels from one node to another through communication

media. LAN does not use telephone line for this purpose. In low
cost LANs, the nodes are connected with twisted wire pairs, but
many LANs use coaxial cable or fiber optical cable, which are both
more expensive and faster. Some LANs use wireless transmission
media in which data is communicated through the air or space,
using radio signals or infrared signals, instead of -*f cables.
Wireless networks are easy to set up and configure, but they have
slower transmission rates and limited distance between nodes.
(ii) Network-Interface Card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is used to connect a computer to
other computers in the local area network. It is a circuit board that
is installed inside the computer's internal expansion slots.
(iii) Bridge
A bridge is an electronic device that connects two similar networks
and controls the data flow between them. A bridge recognizes the
messages on a network and passes on those addressed to nodes
in other network.
(iv) Gateway
A gateway is also an electronic device or system (collection of
hardware and software resources) that connects two networks and
translates information from one to the other. It enables a computer
or node to communicate with a computer on another different
network.
(v) Router
Router is a communication device that connects two or more
networks lo called router and transmits data to the correct
destination on the network. It uses the routing protocols.
Describe the Ethernet protocol used in LAN. Ethernet is the
most commonly used protocol in LAN. It uses a high-speed
network cable and bus topology, so it is relatively simple and

cheaper. Since all the nodes (or computers) use the same cable to
send and receive data and two or more
computers communicate with each other at the same time.
Therefore, this type of network must follow a set of rules to
communicate the computers -with each other, otherwise it may
cause loss of data or messages. Before transmitting the data, a
node must find out if the cable is in use. If so, the node must wait.
When the cable is free, the node must begin transmitting
immediately. This process is also known as CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).
If by chance, two nodes transmit data at the same time, the
messages collide. When a collision occurs, a special message is
sent out over the network to indicate that it is jammed (i.e. stopped
due to any defect). Each node stops transmitting, waits for a
random period of time, and then starts transmitting process again.
Since, the wait period for each node is random, they may be
transmitting at the same time again but it does not happen always.
Describe the "Token Ring" protocol used in LAN.
A token is a special electronic signal. It consists of a series of bits,
which functions like a ticket. The computer with the token can
transmit data over the network. Only one token exists per network.
A computer network in which each node is connected to two
adjacent nodes or neighbors form a closed ring or loop is called
ring network topology. The token ring protocol is used in this type
of network. The token ring is closely associated with IBM, which
works on the concept of a ring network and a token. The method
of controlling access to the shared network cable is called token
passing.
Only one token is available on the network. When a node on the
network wishes to transmit data, it first captures (or takes) the
token, and then it can transmit data. When the node has sent its
message, it releases the token back to the network. Since only
one token is circulating around the network, only one device is
able to access the network at a time. Thus no collision occurs. The
main disadvantage of this scheme of data exchange is that, it has
very slow data transfer rate.
Describe the "ARCnet" protocol used in LAN.
ARCnet stands for Attached Resource Computer network. It uses
either twisted pair wire or coaxial cable, and the star topology with
hub attached to the network.
The original ARCnet protocol was very slow, but it became
popular because it was inexpensive, reliable, and easy to set up
and to expand. Today, transmission rate
of fast ARCnet is improved which is about 100 M bits per second.
Similarly, ARCnet also includes the capability to use optic fiber
cable.
Describe the Wide Area Network (WAN). Wide Area Network
(WAN)
A Wide Area Network is a network system that covers a large (or
wide) ' geographical area such as different cities of country or
different countries of the world. In WAN, usually the personal
computers as remote terminals are connected to the larger
computer such as mainframe or mainframe, to send and receive
data. Since the larger computers are designed to be accessed by
terminals, so PC can communicate with larger computers only if
the PC follows to be a terminal. This is made possible by using a
software on the PCs, known as terminal emulation software, which
makes capable of a PC to perform a function as terminal to
communicate with larger computer. The larger computer then
considers the PC or workstation as just another input/output
device or terminal.
The larger computer to which the terminal (or PC) is attached is

called Host computer. If a PC is used as terminal, then the user
can upload or download data files to and from the Host through file
transfer software.
* Download a file means to retrieve the file from Host computer
and store into the user computer which is used as terminal.
* Upload a file means to send a file from user's computer and
store on the Host computer.
In WAN, ordinary telephone lines, microwave or satellite links etc.
are used as transmission media. .
Typically, a WAN consists of two or more LANs connected
together across a wide geographical area. The Internet is the
worlds largest WAN because it connects many thousands of
computers and LANs around the world and making it as web.
Differentiate between LAN & WAN
LAN & WAN
The main difference between LAN and WAN is:
S.No
1
Local Area Network

Covers small
geographical area.
Normally computers
are directly connected
through physical
cable although wires
LAN are also available
Ethernet card is used
for data transmission
Wide Area Network

Covers large or wide
geographical area
No physical cable or wire
is used and data is sent
and received
transmission. Through
microwave system or
satellite.
Modem card is used for
data transmission.
4
5
Data transmission
speed is very high
Its installation and
configuration cost is
less than WAN
Data transmission speed

is slow.
Its installation and
configuration cost is
greater than LAN.
.
What are the network standards? Also describe their types.
Network Standards
The standards are the precise documents containing technical and
physical specifications about the network being designed.
Normally those standards are taken into consideration and are
worldwide acceptable.
By following the network standards, the networks can be reliable
and efficient. Normally, two types of standards are followed. These
are:
De Facto Standard
De facto means "by tradition" or "by facts". These standards were
developed without any formal plan and came to existence
because of historical developments. These standards are most
commonly used by the organizations worldwide.
De Jure Standard
De Jure means "according to law or regulation". These standards
have been properly approved by the networks governing body.
Few of these governing bodies are:
*
American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
*
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
*
The International Standard Organization (ISO)
*& The International Telecommunications UnionTelecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T, formally CCITT)
* The Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
* Telcordia
Describe the network models.
The most popular network models are described below.
Client/Server Network
In client/server network (or arrangement), the clients are all
computers or nodes on the network and server is a central
computer that controls the network. In addition to control the
network, the server also provides a centralized storage area for
programs and data. It has hard disks that hold the shared data file
or database. Under the client/server arrangement, processing is
usually done by the server, and only the results are sent to the
clients or nodes. Sometimes, the server and the client share
processing.
The client/server network has the following advantage.
* It reduces the volume of data traffic on the network.
* It allows faster response at each node.
* It allows using less expensive computers as clients because
most of the work is done by server.
Peer-to-Peer Network
In peer-to-peer arrangement, all nodes (or computers) on the
network have equal status. No one has control over others. Each
computer stores files on its own storage devices and has its own
peripheral devices. The users can share each other's data and
devices (or resources) as and when needed. The main
disadvantage of peer-to-per network is that it becomes slow under
heavy use.
Hybrid Network
The hybrid network has combined features of both client/server
and peer-to-peer networks (or arrangements). It has a server and
the users can share the data 'and software. Similarly, each node
can store its own files, programs, and has its own peripheral
devices. The users can also share each other's data and devices.
These are the main advantage of hybrid arrangement.
What is meant by network topologies? Also write names of
different LAN topologies.
Network Topologies
In networking, the term topology is the way of connecting nodes
(or devices.) on a network. In other words, a topology represents
the shape of network. Network topology can be divided into the
following basic types.
(a) Bus topology
(b) Star topology
(c) Ring topology
(d) Tree topology
(e) Mesh topology
\ Two or more of the above mentioned basic types of topologies
may be
combined together to form more complex shape of networks.
Describe in detail the "Bus" topology. Bus Topology
In bus network, all nodes (or devices) are connected to a common
communication medium or central single cable. This single cable
is called bus. The devices or nodes are attached with the central
cable (or bus) through interface connector. The central cable is the
backbone cable, which functions as shared communication
medium. In bus network, when a computer or node sends a
message to another computer, it also attaches the- address of the
destination computer or node. A node sends a broadcast message

onto the central cable or wire that all other nodes or devices can
see, but only the destination node actually accepts and processes
the message.
In LAN, Ethernet bus topology is mostly used. It is relatively easy
to install and does not require much cabling as compare to others.
The bus network is best if
the number of nodes (or devices) are limited, i.e. if it supports few
dozen of nodes. If more than a few dozen of nodes (or computers)
are added to a bus, the performance problems are created.
Similarly, entire network fails if backbone cable fails.
Figure: Bus Topology
Describe the "Ring" topology. Ring Topology
In a ring network, each node is connected to two adjacent nodes
or neighbors for communication purpose and forms a closed ring
or loop. In this way the last node connects to the first node to
complete the ring. In this network, all messages travel through a
ring in one direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) from node to
node. A failure in any cable or node breaks the loop. It means that
entire network fails. Token passing method is used in this
topology.
Figure: Ring Topology
Describe the "Star" topology. Star Topology
In a star network, each node or device is directly connected to a
central connection point known as 'Hub'. The central connection
may be an actual Hub or a switch. Typically, the nodes or devices
are connected to the Hub with unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
Ethernet. Star topology is most commonly used in LAN. Many
home networks use the star topology.
Figure: Star Topology

Advantages
The main advantages of star topology are:
* It is easy to install and to maintain.
* If any node or cable fails, other nodes are not affected.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of star topology are:
* A star network generally requires more cable as compared
to bus topology. So it becomes more costly.
* This type of network depends upon the central Hub. If Hub fails,
the entire network is failed.
Briefly describe the "Tree" Topology. Tree Topology
In tree network, the nodes are connected to each other in such a
way that forms a tree like structure. Typically to form a tree
network, multiple star topologies are combined together onto a
bus. In this simplest form, only Hub devices connect directly to the
tree bus. Each Hub functions as the root of a tree of devices. This
type of network has combined features of bus and star topology.
Figure: Tree Topolog)>

Describe the "Mesh" Topology. Mesh Topology

In mesh network, each node is directly connected to all node on
the network. This type of network involves the concept of routes.
In this type of network, each node may send message to
destination through multiple paths. It means that each node of
Mesh network has several possible paths to send (or to receive),
message, but in Bus, Star, Ring and Tree topologies each node
has only one path. Some WANs like the Internet employ mesh
routing where reliability is important factor.
Mesh topology has the following advantages:
* It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes
can be used for data communication.
* Troubleshooting of this topology is easy as compared to other
networks.
* Its performance is not affected with heavy load of data
transmission.
Figure: Mesh Topology

What is meant by workgroup computing? Workgroup
Computing
In a computer network, people can work together as a group even
when they are thousands of miles away from each other. This
concept of working together is called workgroups.
A group of people (teams of certain projects) can share work
together by means of linked computers. The phenomenon of
sharing information by various members of workgroup is called W
orkgroup Computing. The workgroup computing is also known as
collaborative computing.
, A technique to share information, in which many users or

researchers can work on their projects by sharing the same
domain of information online, is called groupware. A groupware
also permits the individuals to collaborate (work together) with
their colleagues inside the organization by means of linked
computer (computer network). At the same time, they can also link
to other people (on the networks) outside their organization.
The information may reside on different types of databases.
Similarly, different operating systems, data formats, and hardware
may be used on different networks. The users can communicate
with each other without facing any problem. In fact, it is due to
communication technology that has brought a revolution in this
type of, computing. The concept of "Global Village" has become a
reality now and the '. computer users are "chatting" with each
other as if they are sitting face to face.
Describe the OSI Model. Also briefly describe all layers of OSI
model. OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. OSI model is also
known as OSI Reference Model. It is used for networking. It was
created by the International Standard Organization (ISO) to
provide a logical framework for how data communication
processes should take place across networks.
There are 7 layers in the OSI model. Each layer is responsible for
a particular aspect of data communication. For example, one layer
may be responsible for establishing connections between devices,
while another layers may be responsible for error checking during
data transfer. The layers of the OSI model are divided into two
groups: upper layers and lower layers.
* The upper layers are related to user applications and how files
are represented on the computers.
* The lower layers concentrate on how the communication across
a network actually occurs.
Data Communication
What is data communication? Define the basic
components of communication network.
Data Communication
*
Communication means the exchange of information or messages.
When we talk with" each other, we are exchanging information.
For corhSliunication of information or messages, we use
telephones, computers, and wireless devices that are linked in a
network. Data communication is the exchange of data between
two devices via transmission media such as a wire cable. In other
words, we can say that transfer of information or data from one
location to another is called Data
communication.
Generally, the term data communication can be defined as the
movement of
encoded information by means of electrical transmission systems
from one computer or device to another through communication
channels such as cable, wireless media etc.
Components of Data Communication

There are five components in data communication network. These
are defined Message: The message is the information or data that
is to be transferred from one location to another. It may consist of

text, numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination of
these.
Sender: A device that sends messages or data is called sender. It
may be computer, workstation, telephone, video camera and so
on.
Receiver :
A device that receives messages or data is called receiver. It may
be computer, workstation, telephone, television and so on.
Encoder:
The encoder converts digital signals to a form, which can be
transmitted through transmission medium. Decoder: , o The
decoder converts signals from encoded form into
digital forms
that are understandable for receiver.
What is meant by "signals" used in data communication?
Also describe the types of signals such as Analog and
digital.
Signals
The data is transmitted from are place to another in the form of
electromagnetic or light waves through communication medium.
The electromagnetic or light waves representing data are called
signals. Data communication signals can be in analog or digital
form.
Analog Signals
The analog signals are continuous electrical signals in the form of
wave. This wave is called a carrier wave. The analog signal has
two characteristics. These are:
Frequency:
The number of times a wave repeats during a specific time of
interval is called frequency.
Amplitude:
The height of a wave with a given period of time is called
amplitude.
Digital Signals
The digital signals are on-off electrical pulses in discontinuous or
discrete form. Most of the computers are digital and data is
represented inside these computers in the form of binary numbers
(or in the form of discrete set of values). It means that computers
accept and process data in the form of digital signals.
Describe different types of data.
Types of Data
There are different types of data representation in data
communication. These are text, numbers, images, audio, and
video.
(i)
Numeric
Numeric data consists of digits from 0 to 9, +(positive) or (negative) signs and a decimal points .It can be of integer type or
real type data Integer data: It consists of positive or
negative whole values including 0.
For example,
420, 302, + 62, -26 etc.
Real data:
It consists of values that have decimal point. For
example, 15.4, .006, 4.07, -6.27 etc.

(ii) Text
It consists of words, sentences, paragraphs etc. For example,
'Pakistan', "I Love Pakistan", and this paragraph written about
"Text" etc. The text is stored as ASCII codes.
(Hi) Image
It consists of charts, graphs, pictures and freehand drawings. The
data is sent as contiguous bits. These bits are packed into bytes
(8-bits = 1 byte).
Describe the popular coding schemes to represent data. BCD
Code
BCD
BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal. It was 4-bits code used in
early computers. It was used only to represent and process the
numeric data. Today, this coding system is not used in modern
computers.
EBCDIC Code
EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code. It is 8-bit code. In this binary coding system 256 (2 )
different characters can be represented inside the computer. It is
used by IBM (International Business Machine) computers. It
provides an efficient way to communicate data between hosts,
which use EBCDIC coding scheme for data representation. For
transmission, the data is represented as 8-bit EBCDIC characters.
ASCII Code
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. It was developed by American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) and is a standard code to represent alphanumeric

data. The first ASCII code was 7-bit code. Then ASCII 7-bit code
system was extended to 8-bit code. The 7-bit code system can
represent 128 characters while 8-bit code system can represent
256 characters. Today, ASCII 8-bit code system is used in most of
the computers.
Unicode Code
Unicode stands for Universal Code. It is a 16-bit code and can
represent 65536 (216 = 65536) characters or symbols. It is
developed by following the ASCII coding scheme. The first 256
codes in Unicode are identical to the 256 codes used by ASCII
system.
Describe the modes of Data communication. Modes of Data

Communication
The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is
called data communication mode (or data transmission mode).
When a person is giving a lecture, information is conveyed in one
direction. Similarly during a conversation between two persons,
spoken messages are exchanged in both directions. These
messages may be exchanged alternatively or simultaneously.
Similarly, when data is transmitted
between two devices or equipments, three ways for transmitting
data can be used.
Sometimes, communication modes are also referred to as
directional modes in data transmission. The communication
modes are:
(i) Simplex Communication Mode
In simplex communication mode, the data communication can

take place in only one direction. In this mode, a terminal can only
send data and cannot receive it or it can only receive data but
cannot send data. Today, this mode of data communication is not
popular, because most of the modern communications require
two-way exchange of data. However, this mode of communication
is used in business field at certain point-of-sale terminals in which
sales data is entered without a corresponding reply. The other
examples of simplex communication modes are Radio and T.V
transmissions.
(ii) Half-Duplex Communication Mode

In half-duplex communication mode, the data communication can
take place in both directions, but only in one direction at a time. In
this mode, data is sent and received alternatively. It is like a onelane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross
the other.
In half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data while
other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error
detection and request the sender to re-transmit information. The
Internet browsing is an example of half duplex. When we issue a
request to download a web document, then that document is
downloaded and displayed before we issue another request.
(iii) Full-Duplex Communication Mode

In full-duplex communication mode, the data communication can

take place in both directions simultaneously (i.e., at same time) on
the same channel. It is the fastest directional mode of
communication. Example of this mode is conversation of the
persons through telephone. This type of communication is similar
to automobile traffic on a two-lane rc^J. The telephone
communication system is an example of full-duplex
communication mode.
Full-duplex communication is made possible by devices called
multiplexers. This type of communication is limited to mainframe
computers because expensive hardware is required for this
directional mode.
Describe the Simplex Communication Mode.

See Q.7 part (i) Q.7.2 Describe the Half-Duplex Communication
Mode.
See Q.7 part (ii) Q.7.3 Describe the Full-Duplex Communication
Mode.
See Q.7 part (iii)
Describe the types of data transmission modes. Types of
Data Transmission Modes
There are two types of data transmission modes. These are: (i)
Parallel Transmission (ii)
Serial Transmission
(i) Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through
separate communication lines. Parallel transmission is shown in
figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an

example of parallel transmission. Inside the computer binary data
flows from one unit to another using parallel mode. If the computer
uses 32-bit internal structure, all the 32-bits of data are transferred
simultaneously on 32-lane connections. Similarly, parallel
transmission is commonly used to transfer data from computer to
printer. The printer is connected to the parallel port of computer
and parallel cable that has many wires is used to connect the
printer to computer. It is very fast data transmission mode.
(ii) Serial Transmission
In serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order
through single communication line. Serial data transmission is
shown in figure below. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential
street is an example of serial data transmission mode. Serial
transmission is typically slower than parallel transmission,
because data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion. Serial
mouse uses serial transmission mode in computer.
Figure(a): Parallel Transmission

Differentiate between synchronous and Asynchronous
transmission. Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be
transmitted at a time. In this type of transmission, data is
transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each

block may contain several bytes of data. In synchronous
transmission, a special communication device known as
'synchronized clock' is required to schedule the transmission of
information. This special communication device or equipment is
expensive.
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a
'time'. This type of transmission is most commonly used by
microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character
as the user types it on a keyboard.
An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with
a value 1, a1 ^ known as 'Mark' state. This value is used by the
communication devices to find whether the line is idle or
disconnected. When a character (or byte) is about to be
transmitted, a start bit is sent. A start bit has a value of 0, also
called a space state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of
1 to a value of 0, the receiver is alerted that a character is coming.
What is bandwidth? Also
band and broadband?
differentiate
between
base
Bandwidth
Each type of communication media or channel has different
transmission speed. The data transmission rate over
communication channel is measured in bandwidth. The bandwidth
will be higher if more signals are transmitted over the
communication channel. Actually, the bandwidth measures the
amount of information that can be transmitted through the media
with a given period of time. For analog signals bandwidth is
represented in Hertz and for digital signals, it is represented in bit
per second (bps).
Baseboard
Base band is a communication technique in which digital signals
are directly transmitted over transmission line without changing
into analog signals (i.e. without using modulation technique). In
this communication technique, there is no need to use any
complex modem. The digital signals are commonly called base
band signals. The token ring and Ethernet use base band signals
(or digital signals).
Broadband
Broadband is another communication technique in which large
amount of data such as voice and video, is transmitted over long
distances simultaneously by modulating each signal onto a
different frequency. In "broadband transmission, FDM (Frequency
Division Multiplexing) technique is used, in which multiple signals
(or several streams of data) can be transmitted simultaneously.
Broadband is the bandwidth used for direct communication
between very high-speed computer such as mainframe computer.
This bandwidth includes microwaves, satellites, fiber optics media
etc.
What is communication media or channel? Communication
Media
A path through which data is communicated from one place to
another is r ferred to as communication media or channel. The
twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fi;>er optic cable, microwave,
satellite etc. are examples of communication channels.
The communication media is divided into two types,
4
(i) Guided Media
In guided communication media, communication devices are

directly linked with each other via cables or physical media such
as twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber optic cable for
transmission of data. The data signals are bounded to a cabling
media. Therefore, guided media is also called bounded media.
(ii) Unguided Media
In unguided communication media, data is communicated
between communication devices in the form of wave. Unguided
media provides means to transmit data signals but does not guide
them along a specific path. The data signals are not bounded to a
cabling media. Therefore, unguided media is also called
unbounded media. The atmosphere and the space are examples
of unguided media through which microwaves and satellites are
used for communication.
Descrioe the "Twisted pair" communication media. Twisted
Pair
Twisted pair is one of the most commonly used communication
media and is used in telephone lines to carry voice and data
signals. It consists of a pair of thin diameter copper wires that are
covered by insulating material such as plastic and are twisted
together to form a cable. The wires are twisted around each other
to minimize (or reduce) interference from other twisted pairs in the
cable. The bandwidth of twisted pair is less than coaxial cable or
optical fiber. The twisted pair has been the standard
communication channel for voice and data communication, but
now its use is reducing because today more reliable
communication media are available such as . coaxial cable, fiber
optic cable, microwave and satellite.
Describe the "C axial Cable" communication media. Coaxial

Cable
Coaxial .able consists of a single copper wire surrounded by
insulating material. Coaxial cable contains from four to twenty-two
coaxial units called tubes. Each coaxial tube consists of 0.1 inch
copper inner conductor which is kept centered within a 0.375-inch
cylindrical copper outer conductor by polyethylene insulating disks
spaced about 1 inch apart. The outer conductor is formed into a
cylinder around the disks.
Coaxial cable can be used for telephone lines for voice and data
transmission with very high frequency. The bandwidth of coaxial
cable is 80 times greater than twisted pair media. Coaxial cable is
also widely used in local area network (LAN). Becav ^ of its
strength, coaxial cables are often used for long distance
telepK~>ne lines that are carried under water. Coaxial cable
creates less distortion ant has less interference of external
electromagnetic waves. Therefore coaxial cable has low
transmission error rates.
Describe the "Fiber optic cable" communication media. Fiber

Optic Cable
In twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable, data is transmitted in the
form of electric frequencies. The fiber optic cable uses light to

transmit data. A fiber optic cable consists of tubes of glass (or thin
glass fibers) through which data is transmitted as pulses of light. A
typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand or fiber of
glass called the core ( It is as thin as a human hair). The core is
surrounded by a concentric layer of glass called Cladding. The
diameter of a core is 62.5 microns (1
micron = 10 6 meters). The diameter of cladding is about 125
microns, l! . cladding is coc ted with insulating material such as
plastic, which is called the Jacket
An important characteristic (or property) of fiber optic is refraction.
Refraction is the characteristic of a material to either pass or
reflect light. When light passer through a medium, it bends as it
passes from one medium to the other.
The major advantages of fiber-optical media are:
* Its transmission capacity is about 26,000 times greater than
twisted pair media.
^r It has high level of security.
*
It is not affected by electromagnetic waves.
*
It is more reliable and has lower data transmission errors.
What is microwave data transmission media? Microwave
In microwave transmission, data is transmitted through air instead
of through cables or wires. Microwaves are high frequency radio
waves that can only be traveled in straight lines. Microwave
transmission is limited to a particular city or geographical area.
The data is transmitted and received through a microwave station.
A microwave station contains an antenna, transmitter, receiver,
and other equipments that are required for microwave
transmission. Microwave antennas are placed on the high towers
or buildings and these are placed within 20 to 30 miles of each
other. The data messages are relayed from one location to
another using antennas. In this way, data is transmitted over

larger distances.
Microwave Relay Station
What is the function of communication satellite? Satellite

A communication satellite is a space station that receives
microwave signals (or messages) from earth stations. Satellite
transmission stations that can send and receive messages are
known as earth stations. The signals are transmitted frorh one
earth station to the satellite. The satellite receives and amplifies
the signals and sends them to another earth stations. In this way,
data or messages are transferred from one location to another.
Satellites rotate approximately 23,300 miles above the earth in
precise locations.
In the early years of satellite communication research, the moon
was used to transmit data signals from one place to another. The
time taken by a data signal to reach to the moon and then back to
the earth was about 2 seconds. This time is called satellite delay
and is still present today in all our satellite communications.
Different communication satellites are used to carry different kinds
of information such as telephone calls, television channels,
Internet traffic, military communication, weather data, and even
radio stations use them for broadcasting.
The data transmission speed of communication satellite is very

fast. The major advantage of satellite transmission is that large
amount of data can be communicated at once. The satellite
transmission also has some disadvantages. The main
disadvantages are:
* The bad weather can affect the quality of satellite transmission.
* It has serious security problems, because it is easy to catch (or
intercept) the transmission as it travels through the air.
What is Mobile communication? Mobile Communications

Mobile communication is a radio-based network that transmits
data to and from the mobile computers. The data is communicated
through radio signals from one location to another. The computers
can be connected to the network through wireless connections or
through wires.
What is a Modem? Modem
Modem stands for modulate and demodulate. It is an electronic
device that converts digital signals into analog signals and vice
versa. Modems are used on "both ends of the computers for data
communication between computers through telephone line. We

know that data is communicated through telephone line in the form
of analog signals. So data in the form of digital signals from one
computer must be converted into analog form to send it over
telephone line. This process to convert the digital signals into
analog signal is called Modulation. Similarly, to receive the data
from another computer through telephone line, in the form of
analog signals, it must be converted to digital form to store it into
the computer. This process of converting the analog signals into
digital form is called demodulation. Modem enables the users to
transmit data from one computer to another by using standard
telephone line instead of special communication lines such as
fiber optic cable etc. The basic terms that measure the capabilities
of a modem are:
Transmission Rate: It indicates how many bits per second a
modem can transmit (or receive). Speed: A modem converts the
digital signals to analog form to transfer over the communication
media. This technique of encoding data from digital form to analog
is called modulation. The speed of modem is determined by the
modulation standard. The rate at which a modem converts the
digital signals in analog form (and vice versa) and transmits over
communication media is referred to as modem speed. It is
measured in bits per second (bps). Today, the modems are
available with speed of 9600 bps and above
.
Describe different types of modems. Types of Modems
In terms of physical size and shape, modems can be divided into
following categories.
(i)
External Modem
External modem is an external unit of computer and is separated

from system unit. It is connected to the serial port COM1 or COM2

of the computer by means of a cable. It is connected to the
telephone line through telephone wall Jack by another cable. An
external power is also supplied to it. External modem is very easy
to set up.
(ii) Internal Modem
An internal modem is a circuit board (or modem card) that is
installed into one of the expansion slots inside the system unit of
the computer. This modem cannot be moved easily from one PC
to another. It is also difficult to set up than other types of modem
such as external modem.
(iii) Wireless Modems
Wireless modems transmit the data signals through the air instead
of by using a cable. They sometimes are called radio-frequency
modems. This type of modem is designed to work with cellular
technology, and wireless local area networks. Wireless modems
are not yet perfected, but the technology is rapidly improving.

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Describe "Information Networks" in your own words.

Local Area Network (LAN)

It allows the multiple users to access and share programs and

What is local area network (LAN)? Also describe the

Data travels from one node to another through communication

network cable and bus topology, so it is relatively simple and

The larger computer to which the terminal (or PC) is attached is

Local Area Network

Wide Area Network

Data transmission speed

destination computer or node. A node sends a broadcast message

Figure: Star Topology

Figure: Tree Topolog)>

Describe the "Mesh" Topology. Mesh Topology

Figure: Mesh Topology

, A technique to share information, in which many users or

a network actually occurs.

Components of Data Communication

is to be transferred from one location to another. It may consist of

It consists of values that have decimal point. For

example, 15.4, .006, 4.07, -6.27 etc.

Institute (ANSI) and is a standard code to represent alphanumeric

Describe the modes of Data communication. Modes of Data

In simplex communication mode, the data communication can

(ii) Half-Duplex Communication Mode

(iii) Full-Duplex Communication Mode

In full-duplex communication mode, the data communication can

Describe the Simplex Communication Mode.

figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an

Figure(a): Parallel Transmission

transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each

In guided communication media, communication devices are

Describe the "C axial Cable" communication media. Coaxial

Describe the "Fiber optic cable" communication media. Fiber

form of electric frequencies. The fiber optic cable uses light to

another using antennas. In this way, data is transmitted over

What is the function of communication satellite? Satellite

The data transmission speed of communication satellite is very

What is Mobile communication? Mobile Communications

communication between computers through telephone line. We

External modem is an external unit of computer and is separated

from system unit. It is connected to the serial port COM1 or COM2

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