NAZIV UNIVERZITETA

NAZIV FAKULTETA

ZAVRNI RAD
NEFINITINI GLAGOLSKI OBLICI

Mentor:

Kandidat:

prof. dr. Ime i prezime

Ime i prezime

NAME OF UNIVERSITY
NAME OF FACULTY

DIPLOMA THESIS
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS

Mentor:

Candidate:

prof. dr. Name and Surname

Name and surname

CONTENT
1.

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................1
1.1. Types and Uses of Non-finite clauses............................................2

2.

INFINITIVE..........................................................................................3
2.1. Repetition of the particle to.......................................................5
2.2. Syntactic functions of the infinitive..............................................7
2.3. Infinitive phrases..........................................................................8
2.4. Infinitive constructions.................................................................9
2.4.1. For-to-infinitive construction...................................................9
2.4.2. The

Objective-with-the-Infinitive

Construction

(Complex

Object).............................................................................................10
2.4.3. The subjective-(or nominative)-with-the-infinitive construction
11
2.4.4. Absolute Infinitive Construction............................................12
3.

GERUND...........................................................................................13
3.1. Syntactic functions of the gerund...............................................14
3.2. Gerundial complex......................................................................16
3.3. Gerund versus Infinitive..............................................................17

4.

PARTICIPLE I.....................................................................................20
4.1. Syntactic functions of Participle I................................................21
4.2. Predicative constructions with Participle I..................................23
4.2.1. The Objective Participial Construction..................................23
4.2.2. Participle I as part of Complex Subject.................................23
4.2.3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction................23
4.2.4. Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.....................24
4.3. Participle I versus Gerund...........................................................24

5.

PARTICIPLE II....................................................................................26
5.1. Syntactic functions of Participle II...............................................27
5.2. Predicative constructions with Participle II.................................28
5.2.1. The Objective Participial Construction..................................28
5.2.2. The

Nominative

Absolute

Participial

Construction

with

Participle II.......................................................................................29
5.2.3. Prepositional Absolute Construction with Participle II...........29
6.

CONCLUSION....................................................................................30

7.

REFERENCES....................................................................................35

8.

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS..................................................36

1. INTRODUCTION
Verbs which have the past or the present form are called finite verbs.
Verbs in any other form (infinitive, ing, or ed) are called nonfinite verbs.
This means that verbs with tense are finite, and verbs without tense are
nonfinite. The distinction between finite and nonfinite verbs is a very
important one in grammar, since it affects how verbs behave in
sentences.

Nonfinite verbs found in English typically are infinitives, participles and

gerunds; unlike finite verbs, they cannot serve as the root of an
independent clause. They sometimes are called verbalsalthough that
term has traditionally applied only to participles and gerunds. Similar
nonfinite forms found in some other languages include converbs,
gerundives and supines.

Nonfinite verbs typically are not inflected by grammatical tense and

they present little inflection for other grammatical categories as well.
Generally, they also lack a subject dependent. One or more nonfinite
verbs may be associated with a finite verb in a finite clause, composing
the elements of a verb catena, or verb chain.

Because English to a large extent lacks inflectional morphology, the

finite and nonfinite forms of a verb may appear the same in a given
context. In such a case, the environment surrounding the verb must be
examined to determine whether it is finite or nonfinite.

General characteristics:

non-finite forms possess the categories of voice, perfect and

aspect;

non-finites are not restricted in number and person by any

grammatical subject;
they combine the characteristics of a verb with those of some

other part of speech;

verbals cannot form a predicate by themselves but they can
function as part of a compound verbal predicate: She suddenly
began to speak; They were caught stealing the jewellery.

All non-finites may be part of the so-called predicative constructions: I

didnt expect you to come; He found her crying bitterly; I had the piano
tuned.

1.1. Types and Uses of Non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses will be divided according to their form:1

infinitival;
gerundive and
participial.

The structure of the presentation will be the following. The main division
will be made into infinitival, gerundive and participial clauses. Such
approach aims to reflect the semantics of the individual formal types of
clauses (infinitival, gerundive, participial) and find out how the meaning
of these clauses influences the possibility of seeing them as condensed
full clauses.

1 Jones C., Stannard R. (2005), p. 44.

2

2. INFINITIVE
The infinitive names a process in a most general way. It combines
verbal features (morphological and syntactical) with those of the noun.

In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the
particle to. It is occasionally separated from the infinitive by some other
words, more often an adverb or emphatic particles: They were seen to
just touch each others hands. This separation is acceptable only to give
special emphasis to the verb.2

The infinitive is used without to in the following cases:3

after auxiliary verbs;

after modal verbs (except ought to, have to, be to) and modal
expressions had better, would rather, would sooner: Shed sooner

die than forgive;

after verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, notice,
observe, listen to, etc.) in the construction Complex Object: I
heard him arrive. However, in passive sentences with these verbs

2 Jones C., Stannard R. (2005), p. 54.

3 Eastwood, J. (2004), p. 81.
3

we use a to-infinitive: He was overheard to say that he hoped

Mike would reject the offer; She was noticed to hesitate;

after causative verbs let, make, have (also in the construction
Complex Object): The boss is not going to let me stay; They made
me reduce my expenditures (But! - He was made to rewrite his

introduction letter);
after the verb to know in the meaning to experience, to observe
(usually used in the perfect form): Have you ever known him tell a

lie?;
after phrases with but (cannot but, do anything but, do nothing

but, couldnt but): He cannot but accept it;

in why-not sentences: Why not let me help you?;
if two infinitives are joined by and or or, the to of the second
infinitive can be omitted: I want to call Mr Smith and fax or send
him a message.

Remember fairly idiomatic phrases: hear tell, make believe, and let
(it) slip: I never heard tell of it! (= was never told/ had no idea); He
made believe that he had settled everything himself (= pretended);
She let (it) slip that she's getting married (= said it unintentionally).

Notice also the phrases make do and let go: Mary borrowed my trendy
summer dress, so I had to make do with the old one (it wasn't the one I
wanted); Let go of my hand! (relax grip on).

Remember the verbs after which the to-infinitive is used:

(can/cant) afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, claim,

consent, decide, decline, demand, expect, fail, hesitate, hope,
hurry, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise,
refuse, seem, tend, threaten, volunteer, want, wish, etc.: He
threatened to dismiss the strike leader; The shop refused to
accept the customers credit card;

would

like,

would

love,

would

prefer

(to

express

specific

preference): Id love to live in a more spacious apartment. Some

verbs may be followed either by a to-infinitive or an object + toinfinitive: I prefer to cook/ I prefer you to cook (= you do the
cooking). Other verbs like this include can bear (in negative
sentences and in questions), need, hate, help, like, love, want,
wish. Notice that after help we can use either a to-infinitive or

bare infinitive: He helped me (to) net a handsome profit.

The to-infinitive is also used after certain nouns: What a surprise
to see him there! Its a great chance to talk to him; after
too/enough constructions: I was foolish enough to believe her;
with it + be + adjective + of: It was nice of Joe to congratulate
us on our anniversary.

2.1. Repetition of the particle to

For the sake of emphasis or contrast the particle to may be
repeated before each of the infinitives: Its such a delight, you know, to
go into the field and to pick up a sweet spring flower!4

The particle to is sometimes used without any infinitive if the latter is

clearly understood from the previous context: You can stay if you want
to! It is common after the verbs to want, wish, mean, try, allow, be
going, ought, have (as a modal verb), should (would) like.

Table 1 - The grammatical categories of the infinitive

Perfect
Non-Perfect

Aspect
Common

Active voice
to discuss

Passive voice
to be discussed

Perfect

Continuous
Common

to be discussing
to have discussed

To

Continuous

to

discussed

have

been

have

been

4 Walker E., Elsworth S. (2000), p 112.

5

discussing
Source: Walker E., Elsworth S. (2000), p 111.

Revise the grammatical meanings of perfect, aspect and voice

categories. What does the perfect infinitive used after the verbs
expressing hope, expectation, intention (in the past tense forms)
indicate?5

The active form of the infinitive may have a passive meaning: There
was only one problem to solve. It can be replaced by the corresponding
passive form: He is to forgive He is to be forgiven; Shes not to blame
Shes not to be blamed. The active infinitive thus used is called
retroactive.

N.B.
Active Pattern:

Passive

Verb + object + to infinitive

Mr Price taught Peter to sing.

Peter was taught to sing (by Mr Price).

Other verbs in this pattern include advise, allow, ask, believe, consider,
expect, feel, instruct, mean, order, report, require, tell, understand. In
some contexts it is possible to make both verbs passive: Changes to the
taxation system are expected to be proposed; She was required to be
interviewed.

Some verbs followed by an object + to-infinitive in the active have no

passive forms: Susan liked Tom to be there (but not Tom was liked to be
there). Other verbs
like this include (cant) bear, hate, love, need, prefer, want, wish.

N.B.
5 Jones C., Stannard R. (2005), p 63.
6

Active Pattern:

Passive

Verb + object + to infinitive

His
colleagues
started
to

Tim started to be respected (by his

respect Tim.

colleagues).

Other verbs in this pattern include:6

appear, begin, come, continue, seem, tend;

agree, aim, attempt, hope, refuse, struggle, try.

The verbs in the first group (and start) have corresponding meanings in
active and passive sentences, but the verbs in the second group do not.
Compare: People came to recognize her as the leading violinist of her
generation (active). It corresponds to She came to be recognized as the
leading violinist of her generation (passive); but (see verbs from Group
2): The team captain hoped to select Kevin (active) does not correspond
to Kevin hoped to be selected by the team captain (passive).

2.2. Syntactic functions of the infinitive

Syntactic functions of the infinitive:

the infinitive as subject:

To succeed in this job requires more time and energy than I
actually ave; Its hard to take a decision;
the infinitive as part of the predicate.
as predicative in compound nominal predicates:
Our aim is to master English; Your duty will be to fetch the
kids from school, to feed them, to help them do their
homework.

Table 2 - Abstract nouns that can function as the subject

advice

desire

hope

method

purpose

aim

difficulty

idea

need

reason

6 Vince M., Sunderland P. (2003), p. 123.

7

ambition

duty

instruction

object

task

attempt

experience

intention

plan

thing

business

habit

job

principle

wish, etc.

Source: Vince M., Sunderland P. (2003), p. 126.+

The function of the subject may be also performed by the pronoun all or
the substantivized superlatives the most and the least with an
attributive clause attached to them: All she wanted was not to be
punished; The least he can do is to sort out these papers.
the infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate:
She ought to have warned me; You had better stop fighting
(as part of a compound verbal modal predicate);
They continued to talk shop; He began to think we had
forgotten about him (as part of a compound verbal phasal
predicate);
as simple nominal predicate:
Me to accept your proposal! Why not leave her alone?

The assistant managed to sort out the problem; I hesitate to say this
(after the verbs which take only one object); All parents should
encourage their offsprings to study hard at school (after the verbs which
take two objects the 1st is a noun or a pronoun and the second an
infinitive).

The

infinitive

may

function

as

object

after

certain

adjectives

(adjectivized participles) which can be divided into two groups.

Table 3 - Adjectivized participles

Group 1
determined, difficult, eager, easy,

Group 2
annoyed,

free,

glad, grateful, happy, pleased, proud,

inclined,

powerless,

interested,
prepared,

reluctant, slow, worthy, etc.

The
infinitive
denotes

keen,
ready,
actions

scared,
etc.
The

astonished,
sorry,

infinitive

frightened,

surprised,
denotes

thankful,
an

action

simultaneous with or posterior to the

slightly

preceding

the

state

states expressed by the predicate,

expressed by the predicate, and can

and cannot therefore be used in

have both non-perfect and perfect

perfect forms: Shes inclined to turn

forms: He is proud to have achieved

down the offer.

the highest results.

Source: Vince M., Sunderland P. (2003), p. 134.

Remember some rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object:

can afford, cant bear, make sure, make up ones mind, take care, take
the trouble.

N.B. the infinitive as object after the introductory it: verb + it + adj/
noun + to-infinitive.

2.3. Infinitive phrases

Infinitive may form part of a conjunctive infinitive phrase which is
used in different functions in a sentence:
What to do was beyond him (subject); He completely forgot how to
handle a loom (object); His difficulty was how to break the silence
(predicative); He knew no one with whom to start a new business
(attribute).

N.B. after what, which, whose, how many and how much we can use a
noun: Sarah and Mark were discussing what colour to paint the walls;
We wondered whose story to believe both drivers said it wasnt
their fault.

We can use whether but not if: Well have to decide whether to go
ahead with the project (or not). NOT Well have to decide if to go ahead.

Before the question word we can also use the adjectives clear, obvious
and sure and the expressions have an idea and make up your mind: I
wasnt sure who to ask for help. A preposition (e.g. of) can come before
the question word: I have a good idea (of) how to get the treasure;
Theres the question of who to invite to the function.

Infinitives also occur in so-called parenthetical phrases: To tell the

truth, were going to conceal our policies and objectives.
to cut/make a long story short

to say the least of it

to tell the truth

to begin with

to say nothing of

to sum up

not to mention

to crown it all

to put it mildly

to be more precise

to be quite frank

strange to say

to make matters worse

needless to say

Remember some common phrases with the infinitive: leaves much to be

desired, hard to please, pleasant to look at, difficult to deal with.7

2.4. Infinitive constructions

2.4.1.

For-to-infinitive construction

The preposition for may introduce the construction in which a

noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case) has an
infinitive attached to it: The best thing will be for me to close up shop;
This article is easy enough for you to translate (mind that the following
sentence is wrong: This article is easy enough for you to translate it).8
7 Evans, V. (2006), p 165.
8 Evans, V. (2006), p. 172.
10

The construction is used when the doer of the action (or the bearer of
the state), expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of the
predicate.

Compare: I have closed the window not to catch cold. I have closed
the window for you not to catch cold.

In the sentence the for-to-infinitive construction performs the functions

of subject, predicative, object, attribute, adverbial modifier of purpose
and consequence and is generally rendered in Russian by a subordinate
clause.

2.4.2.

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

(Complex Object)

This construction, in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to

a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case), forms
a complex object of some verbs. It is used in the following cases:9

after verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, observe,

notice and some others) and the verb listen (to). The infinitive is
used in the non-perfect common aspect active voice form without
particle to:
They felt the boat shudder; I noticed him throw something into
the wastebasket.
N.B. the verbs to see, to notice in the meaning to realize and to
hear in the meaning to learn = to know cannot be followed by
this construction, only subordinate object clause is possible in this
case:
Compare: I heard him come downstairs I hear (= know) you
have dropped the idea of changing the place of residence.

9 Hewings M. (2002), p. 200.

11

N.B. after the verbs to see, to notice instead of the complex

object with the infinitive to be we use a subordinate clause:

The inspector noticed that the parcel was torn;
after verbs of mental perception (know, think, suppose, believe,
consider, expect, understand and some others). The infinitive is
always used with the particle to:
I believed her to be examining a patient in the next room; I
consider Jane (to be) an expert with her needle; We expect the

contract to be abrogated tomorrow;

after verbs of emotion, wish and intention (like, love, hate, dislike,
cant bear, want, wish, desire, intend, mean, would like, would
love). After these verbs non-perfect common aspect forms of the
infinitive with the particle to are used:
The strikers wanted the head to satisfy their demands within a

week; She hated her son to be separated from her;

after verbs of command, request, permission (have, make, let,
get, order, ask, command, cause, induce, allow, suffer and some
others, of which the first three take a bare infinitive):
I cannot allow this matter to go any further; He asked for the file
to be copied; I wont have you speak like that!; I got the assistant
to type all my papers.

2.4.3.

The subjective-(or nominative)-with-the-infinitive

construction

The subject of a sentence is sometimes expressed by a noun or a

pronoun and an infinitive which follows the predicate. Although these
two parts do not stand together they are closely connected and form
one syntactic unit a complex subject: The crew is reported to have
landed safely.10

Remember three common patterns with this construction:11

Pattern A

10 Evans V. (2005), p. 187.

12

The verbs used in this pattern as predicate are verbs of sense

perception (hear, see), verbs of saying and reporting and verbs of
mental perception (say, report, announce, declare, state, rumour,
acknowledge, allege, expect, know, suppose, think, understand,
believe, consider):
She was seen to slap his face; The criminals are said to be hiding

in the woods; The actress is rumoured to have been poisoned.

Pattern B
The verbs used in this pattern are: seem/ appear; happen/ chance
turn out/ prove (after these two verbs the infinitive is mostly
nominal, i.e. presented by to be + noun/ adjective):
They seem to have withdrawn their claim; I happened to see Jack

on my way to work.
Pattern C
Use this pattern to express your attitude towards the future or to
talk about past possibility:
The resignation of the managing director is certain to arouse new
fears about the future of the company; Shes likely to have had
some sort of cosmetic surgery. She looks much younger; Clare is
unlikely to take a hasty decision.

N.B.
She seems to know this rider. (seem = give the idea or effect of being)
They are likely to succeed. (likely = probable, expected)

2.4.4.

Absolute Infinitive Construction

It consists of a noun in the common case and an infinitive and is

generally used in juridical texts and business documents:
The buyers ordered 90 cases of vegetable oil, delivery to be made in
May.

11 McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), p. 201.

13

3. GERUND
The gerund is formed by adding the suffix ing to the stem of the
verb. This non-finite possesses verbal and nominal features and its
grammatical meaning is that of a process. Morphologically the verbal
character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and
perfect and syntactically in its combinability (it combines with a noun/
pronoun as object, adjective/ noun as predicative and with an infinitive;
it can be modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases). The nominal
character of the gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly in its
syntactical functions (as subject, object, predicative, see Syntactic
functions of the gerund below), partly in its combinability (like a noun, it
may be preceded by a preposition and it combines with a possessive
pronoun, a noun in the genitive case and the negative pronoun no in the
idiomatic constructions of the type: There is no mistaking what hes
aiming at. Study the tables below:

Table 4 - The grammatical categories of the gerund

Perfect

Active

Passive

14

Non-perfect
Perfect

taking
having taken

being taken
having been taken

Source: McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), p. 212.

They carried on discussing the project enthusiastically; He remembered

being offended by the spokesman; Im sorry for having raised these
groundless

objections;

Laura

recalled

having

been

taken

to

Disneyland when she was a child.

N.B. The non-perfect gerund is commonly used to denote a prior action

thanks to the lexical meaning of the verb or the preposition suggesting
priority

(after

verbs

of

recollection,

gratitude,

blame,

reproach,

punishment and reward and preposition on, that suggests immediate

priority, and after):
He admitted spreading the confidential information; After choosing a
gift and paying for his two items he left the store.12

N.B. There are some verbs (need, want, require, deserve) and the
adjective worth which are followed by an active gerund with passive
meaning:
The parquet needs polishing (to be polished also possible); The
gunman deserves to be locked up = The gunman deserves locking up.

3.1. Syntactic functions of the gerund

Syntactic functions of the gerund:13

the gerund as subject:

Denying everything wont give any results; Taking risks is an
integral part of our job; Working full-time was extremely
difficult; Its no use/ good arguing; Theres no point in revising

12 McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), p. 220.

13 Hewings M. (2002), p. 222.
15

the matter twice; Its worth (while) trying; Theres no getting out

of it (theres no telling/ knowing/ escaping/ mistaking, etc.);

the gerund as part of the predicate:
as predicative: Helens passion is buying accessories for
all her dresses;
as part of the compound verbal predicate with phasal
verbs like begin, burst out, continue, finish, give up, keep

on, quit, stop, , etc.:

On hearing the joke everybody burst out laughing;
the gerund as object:

Table 5 - The gerund as object

Gerund as direct object after:
admit
enjoy
postpone

Gerund as prepositional object:

aim at
dream
praise for

anticipate

escape

practice

accuse of

about/of

prevent

appreciate

excuse

put off

apologize

hear of

from

avoid

fancy

recall

for

help in

punish for

delay

feel like

recollect

assist in

insist on

put

deny

forgive

resent

blame for

forgive for

with

detest

involve

resist

complain

have no

rely on

discuss

mention

risk

about/

difficulty in

result in

cant stand

mind

suggest

of

learn of

sentence

cant help

miss

understan

congratula

look

for

te on

forward

stop from

! also after

consist in

to

succeed in

the

count on

object to

suspect of

adjectives

depend on

persist in

threaten

busy and

(dis)appro

with

worth

ve of

worry

discourage

about

consider

up

from
Source: Hewings M. (2002), p. 223.

Table 6 - Gerund as prepositional object after adjectives,

statives and past participles
be afraid of

be annoyed at

be furious about/over

16

be aware of

be

anxious

be grateful for

be (in)capable of

about/for/over

be keen on

be conscious of

be astonished at/by

be opposed to

be fond of

be certain about/of

be preoccupied with

be ignorant of

be charged with

be responsible for

be proud of

be content with

be right in/*about

be sure of

be delighted at

be selfish (in)

be absorbed in

be devoted to

be sorry about

be/get accustomed to

be

be surprised at

be amused at

with/at/about

be tired of

be angry at

be engrossed in

be/get used to

(dis)pleased

be excited about
be fed up with
Source: Hewings M. (2002), p. 224.

the gerund as attribute:

after nouns, mainly

abstract

nouns,

followed

by

preposition:

apology (for)

habit (of)

necessity (of)

process (of)

art (of)

harm (in)

objection (to)

prospect (of)

astonishment (at)

hope (of)

opportunity (of)

reason (for)

chance (of)

idea (of)

plan (for)

risk (of)

custom (of)

importance (of)

pleasure (of)

right (of)

disappointment

intention (of)

possibility (of)

skill (in)

(at)

interest (in)

precaution (of)

surprise (at)

excuse (for)

means (of)

preparation (for)

thought (of)

experience (in/of)

method (of)

problem (of)

way (of)

fear (of)

It was my first experience of sharing with total strangers; We had no

objections to ordering such machines;
This is an airplane for transporting goods; The barometer is an
instrument for measuring the pressure of the air (after concrete nouns it
expresses the purpose or the destination of the object mentioned);
17

 gerund may be used as a premodifying attribute: a dancing

hall, a dining table, a spending habit, writing paper, etc.

the gerund as adverbial modifier of several:
Only on/after hearing the request he decided to make a
donation (of time); In refusing to work abroad she missed an
excellent job opportunity (of time or reason); But for meeting
Alex, I might have chosen another way in life; The order will be
accepted subject to receiving your confirmation within 10 days
(of condition); I didnt object in spite of their moving in the
wrong direction (of concession).

3.2. Gerundial complex

The gerund can have its own subject different from the subject of
the sentence and form a gerundial complex. This complex consists of a
noun or a pronoun and a gerund attached to it.

Formal English: possessive form + gerund

I have no objection to his helping you with the project; We are
concerned about the companys trading in oil.

Informal English: object form + gerund

They approved of him reorganizing the working day; We are worried
about Jane working so hard.

N.B.

If the noun or pronoun refers to things or animals, we never use a

possessive form: I remembered the horse winning the race (not:
the horses winning); I insisted on the parcel being delivered
promptly (not: the parcels being delivered);

18

If the gerundial complex is the subject of the sentence, only the

possessive form is used with reference to people: Jims failing
Physics was not unexpected.

3.3. Gerund versus Infinitive

The basic difference in their meaning is that the gerund is more
general, whereas the infinitive is more specific and more bound to some
particular occasion: Kate began singing when a child. Kate went over
to the grand piano and began to sing; I like diving but I dont like to dive
today; I hate doing my expenses, but I like to get them in on time (like
to usually refers to habitual preferences).

The action of the infinitive often refers to the subject of the sentence,
whereas the action of the gerund may refer to some other doer: Mary
doesnt like to trifle with serious things. Mary doesnt like trifling with
serious things.
Some verbs take to-infinitive or gerund without a change in meaning:

begin, start, continue, intend, bother, cant bear: She began to

rub/rubbing at the spot with all her might. However we dont
normally have two ing forms together: The days are beginning
to get shorter (but not: The days are beginning getting shorter);
N.B. In spoken English, a gerund is more frequent after bother,
cant stand, like, love, hate, start, and to-infinitive is more

frequent after begin, cant bear, continue, intend, prefer;

the verbs advise, allow, encourage, permit, recommend, require
when followed by an object or in passive forms take a to-infinitive.
They take a gerund when there is no object following them: He is
not permitted to leave the ward; The receptionist allows
smoking in the waiting room.
The gerund is not used:

19

with the verbs to understand and to see (in the meaning to

understand): She began to understand how they had duped

him;
when the subject denotes a lifeless object: The click began
to strike.

Verbs (or verbs + adjectives) taking to-infinitive or gerund with a

change in meaning:

be afraid + infinitive /of

+ to-infinitive
not
to

have

+ gerund
to be afraid that what is

+ gerund

courage/desire

do

described by the gerund

something: Im afraid to

may happen: The baby

drive

old

is afraid of staying in

over

to

that

be ashamed + infinitive

bridge.
to
feel

ashamed

the dark alone.

to
feel
ashamed

/of + gerund

because one will have

because of something

to do something: Im

one has already done:

ashamed

Im

to

borrow

money.
forget

go on

making

so

of
many

your

mistakes.
the action is forgotten

memory and the action

after it takes place: She

doesnt take place:

forgot

something

slips

sending

message

off the cooker.

something is done after

again.
to continue doing the

something

same

else
After

is

and

thing:

sent

the

totally forgot to turn

finished:

hate

ashamed

it

Although

the

she asked him to stop,

interval, Pavarotti went

he went on tapping his

on to sing an aria from

pen on the table.

Tosca.
to hate what one is

be displeased/feel sorry

about to do: I hate to

for

bother you, but the

doing: I hate making

what

someone

is

20

imagine

matter is urgent.
to have a false or wrong

people feel uneasy.

to form a picture or idea

idea about something

in your mind: I cant

(imagine smb/smth to

imagine Sarah running

be

her own business.

smth):

surprised

to

was

see

the

farm. I had imagined it

mean

to be much bigger.
to
say
that

we

to say that something

intend(ed)

do

involves

to

doing

something: He means

something else: If we

to

want to get there by

phone

you

next

week.

12.00,

that

means

getting up early. (is

used with an impersonal
regret

to

feel

sorry

having

remember

about

to

say

subject only!)
to feel sorry
something

about

that

has

something negative: I

already happened: It's

regret to inform you

too late now, but I'll

that

always

your

application

regret

giving

has been unsuccessful.

to
mean
that

him advice.
to recall a past event: I

remembering

comes

remember going to the

before

action

bank, but nothing after

Remember

that (I remember that I

the

described:

to buy a TV guide on

went there).

your way home. (first

remember,
be sorry

buy it)
regret:
hear

Im
he

and

then

sorry
has

to

been

expelled.
stop

apologize: Im sorry for

lending

him

the

instrument without your

pause

temporarily

for

permission.
finish,
cease

some

purpose:

He

some

action:

doing
She

21

stopped

try

stopped buying glossy

couple of sweets (made

magazines (she doesnt

buy them any longer).

pause

to

eat
and

ate

sweets).
make an attempt, make

do something and see

an effort: Lets try to

the

boost sales this year.

something

results,
as

do
an

experiment:

Try

restarting

the

computer.

4. PARTICIPLE I
Participle I possesses verbal and some adjectival and adverbial
features and is formed by adding the suffix ing to the stem of the verb.
Morphologically the verbal character of Participle I is manifested in the
categories of voice and perfect and syntactically in its combinability (it
may combine with a noun/pronoun as object; with an adverb or a
prepositional phrase as an adverbial modifier; with a noun/adjective as a
predicative).14

Participle I is used as a pure verb form in the formation of the

continuous aspect forms. The adjectival and adverbial features of
Participle I are manifested in its syntactic functions as attribute and
adverbial modifier (see Syntactic functions of Participle I below).

Table 7 - The grammatical categories of Participle I

Perfect
Non-perfect

Active
arriving

Passive
-

Perfect

publishing
having arrived

being published
-

14 Walker E., Elsworth S. (2000), p. 250.

22

having published

having been published

Source: Walker E., Elsworth S. (2000), p. 250.

Look at the woman counting the money; Having picked up some

Italian words, she could give directions to strangers; Being illustrated
with attractive photos, the article caught my eye; Having been sent to
the wrong address, the letter didnt reach him.

The perfect form of Participle I invariably expresses priority, whereas

nonperfect Participle I varies in its meaning according to the context,
expressing either a prior or a simultaneous or even a posterior action,
immediately following the first action: Lizzy left the room, banging the
door shut.

Non-perfect Participle I passive may denote process: Have you heard

anything of the conference being held at the University? (The phrase
the conference held at the University is ambiguous, because it might be
understood as the conference that has been held or was held or is being
held).

4.1. Syntactic functions of Participle I

Syntactic functions of Participle I:

Participle I as attribute:
a single participle used as attribute generally functions as
a premodifier (Participle I active of intransitive verbs):
Dont tease the barking dog!
a participle phrase used as attribute follows the modified
noun. It may be
non-detached or detached: We went along the street
leading to the shore; Once a month Tommy, arriving
separately, came in for a brief drink.

23

NB: When a prior action is meant no Participle I can be used

as attribute, only an attributive clause is used: The diplomat

addressed the students who had filled the lecture hall.

Participle I as adverbial modifier of several types:
He contracted malaria while travelling in Africa; Being left
alone, Demy and I kept silence for some time (of time); Hes
very conceited, you know, having parades and things all the
time; Not being an expert, I cant advise you on the course of
action to take (of reason); Deb was silent, fidgeting with the
spoon in her saucer (of attendant circumstances: denotes a
parallel action or event); Florence rushed downstairs gasping
for breath (of manner: characterizes the action of the finite
form); He kept shaking his head as if saying, Dont trust her
(of comparison); Although admitting his inefficiency, he still
refuses to cooperate with us (of concession); Helen ought to be
there and her absence might be resented, but being there she
wouldnt know what to say (of condition).
In some cases, however, the functional meaning is not so
obvious. For example, there may be a combination of causal
and temporal meaning as in: Seeing the prosecutor, she
stopped (she stopped because she saw the prosecutor or when
she saw him).
N.B. Participle I of the verb to be is not used as adverbial

modifier of time.
Participle I as part of the compound verbal predicate:
Participle I non-perfect of verbs expressing motion (run, dance,
pour, race, rush) combined with a verb to come in the past
tense forms is a special type of a compound verbal predicate.
In some cases the verbs to come the lexical meaning of which
is greatly weakened serves to give perfective meaning to the
action denoted by the participle: As I walked through the gate,

the dog came racing towards me.

Participle I as predicative:
Although keeping the form of the participle, it is treated as an
adjective. The participle in this position gives the qualitative
24

characterization to the person or thing used: His behavior is

annoying; The cartoon we saw yesterday was really amusing!

Table 8 - The most common participles used as adjectives or

predicatives
alarming

comforting

exciting

pleasing

amazing

confusing

fascinating

promising

amusing

depressing

frightening

satisfying

annoying

disturbing

frustrating

shocking

astonishing

disappointing

humiliating

surprising

boring

discouraging

interesting

tiring

charming

embarrassing

irritating

worrying

Source: Walker E., Elsworth S. (2000), p. 255.

Participle I as parenthesis: Strictly speaking, these actions

are illegal; Allowing for our financial status, we cant hire
more staff.

4.2. Predicative constructions with Participle I

4.2.1.

The Objective Participial Construction

This construction consists of a noun in the common case or a

pronoun in the objective case and Participle I forming a syntactical
complex Complex Object. The objective participial construction is used
with verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, notice, find,
catch, smell, discover, etc.), with various verbs of causative meaning

25

(have, get, keep, leave, set, start) and occasionally with verbs
expressing wish (want, like):
We overheard them talking about the closure of the factory; Can you
start that engine going?

N.B.
infinitive
We saw oil prices rise this year

participle
We saw oil prices rising this year

(suggests

complete

(suggests a repeated, incomplete or

action).
I observed him cross the street, and

ongoing action).
I could watch them building a new

then I dialed the indicated number.

car park from my office window. We

We

whole

watch some of the action, but not

action, from start to finish.

Lily heard him come downstairs and

from start to finish.

I saw her bodyguard watching her

call

and

watch,

the

infinitives

single

hear,

police.
denote

succession.

4.2.2.

or

etc.

the

Homogeneous
actions

in

smiling

Homogeneous

to

participles

himself.
suggest

simultaneous actions.

Participle I as part of Complex Subject

In this construction Participle I follows verbs of sense perception

and also some causative verbs, such as keep, leave, catch in the
passive voice:
Linda was heard telling her son off; I was left standing on the stage.

4.2.3.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction

Sometimes the participle (in any of its forms) has a subject of its
own expressed by a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the
nominative case: The rain having ruined my hat, I had to buy a new
one. Although this construction is formally independent of the sentence

26

it is logically connected with it, serving as an adverbial modifier to the

predicate: She sat looking out, the feeble sun shining full upon her
(adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances); Weather permitting,
well take a boat trip (adverbial modifier of condition); This being
settled, they shook hands and left (adverbial modifier of time).

N.B. There are nominative absolute constructions without participles:

Dinner over, they withdrew to the study.15

4.2.4.

Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction

It is introduced by the preposition with and is not necessarily set

off by a comma: The officer sat with his long fine hands lying on the
table perfectly still; The guy crawled into the hut with his knees
bleeding.

4.3. Participle I versus Gerund

The

difference

between

the

two

lies

in

their

non-verbal

characteristics, that is in their syntactic functions and non-verbal

combinability. Unlike gerund, Participle I cannot be used as subject or
object and is never preceded by a preposition. When used as an
adverbial modifier, the gerund is more varied in its application then the
participle because it is used with different prepositions. The participle
and the gerund are interchangeable when used as adverbials of time
characterizing

the

verb

through

simultaneous

or

prior

events:

Discussing the plan/ In discussing the plan we heard a lot of helpful

suggestions; After discussing the
program/ Having discussed the program we started carrying it out.

15
27

The difference between the two is most evident in their function of a

predicative and an adjective:

Participle I denotes an action that the person or thing performs or

experiences: the falling snow, a smiling girl, a burning house,
whereas the gerund reveals the meaning of the modified noun; it
suggests the destination of the object or a persons occupation: a

sleeping bag, a walking stick, a writing career, etc.;

As predicative Participle I gives qualitative characteristics to the
subject, thus tending towards an adjective: The sound of the
thunder was deafening; the gerund does not qualify the subject, it
rather identifies the subject by revealing its meaning: Her
favourite pastime is embroidering fabulous personages.

Note

that

there

are

cases,

especially

among

predicative

constructions, where the ing form may be treated either as a

participle

or

gerund,

the

difference

between

them

being

neutralized: The host didnt like me leaving so early.16

16 Vince M., Sunderland P. (2003), p. 300.

28

5. PARTICIPLE II
Participle II is a non-finite form of the verb which possesses verbal
and adjectival features and denotes a state or a result of some action or
an action itself. It stands apart from the other non-finites in that it does
not have their morphological categories. Nevertheless, being a verb
form, it possesses the potential verbal meanings of voice, aspect and
perfect. These meanings depend upon the meaning of the verb
Participle II is formed from and are realized in the context.

The verbal character of Participle II is manifested in its combinability.

Thus Participle II of transitive verbs combines with a by-object denoting
the doer of the action: Antonia was walking along the aisle accompanied
by her admirer. Participles II of phrasal verbs retain their composite
structure: an orphan brought up in a clergymans family. Participle II
may be accompanied by an adverbial modifier expressed by adverbs or
phrases combining with verbs: the road repaired two years before, the
squirrel hidden in the bush, a scandal long forgotten. One of the main
verbal features of Participle II is revealed in its functioning as part of the
compound verb forms of the passive voice and the perfect.

The adjectival nature of Participle II manifests itself in its function in the

sentence, which is usually that of either attribute or predicative. Instead

29

of the negation not, Participle II is often negated with the prefix un-:
untouched, unfinished.17

The adjectival nature of Participle II is traced in adjectivized participles

with a form different from the verbal Participle II. These forms occur as
attributes in such phrases as on bended knees, a drunken man, a
lighted candle, torch, match, molten lava (lead, steel), roast meat, a
rotten apple, a shaven head, a well-shaven man, sodden clothes,
sunken eyes; to be panic-stricken, poverty- stricken (but thunder-struck,
theatre-struck).

Note the sentences in which Participle II has the passive meaning:

Portuguese is one of the languages taught at our college (denoting an
action); The date is fixed (denoting a state, which is the result of an
action); She felt relaxed (denoting a pure state).

5.1. Syntactic functions of Participle II

Syntactic functions of Participle II:18

Participle II as attribute (may function either as premodifier or

postmodifier):
Celina kicked aside the clothes scattered on the floor, making
one big pile, and took the washtub with the rinsed linen;
Things seen are mightier than things heard; He entered the
abandoned house.
When Participle II or a participle phrase is detached, its position
in the sentence is not fixed. Detached attributes are separated
from the noun by a coma in writing and by a pause in speech:
Impressed by the news, I went out to make a call; The new
Scottish Parliament, designed by the Catalan architect, looks

17 McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), p. 291.

18 McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), p. 393.
30

like a series of upturned boats; And people hurried by, hidden

under their dreadful umbrellas;
Participle II as predicative:
The customer looked perplexed and troubled; The investigator

was puzzled by the clues (in this function Participle II denotes a

state). Occasionally we come across Participle II with an active
meaning: Everybody is gone;
Participle II as adverbial modifier (used in place of clauses with a

passive meaning if the main and subordinate clauses have the

same subject):
Halted at a police road block, we could hear two feuding gangs
firing shots ahead of us (of time); Weakened by his long stay in
space the space tourist will have difficulty walking (of reason);
He watched her movements as if hypnotized (of manner); Jill will
speak for hours, unless interrupted; If picked green peaches
wont ripen (of condition).

5.2. Predicative constructions with Participle II

5.2.1.

The Objective Participial Construction

This construction consists of a noun in the common case or a

personal pronoun in the objective case and Participle II forming a
syntactical

complex

Complex

Object.

The

objective

participial

construction is used with verbs of causative meaning, with verbs of

physical perception, with verbs of wish:19
You must get your tickets registered; I wont have my name dragged
through the dirt by the press; Have you ever heard their deans name
mentioned before? I want the invitation sent at once; Id like my car
serviced, please.

19 McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), p. 396.

31

The construction have/get something done is generally used when

we want to say that somebody arranges for something to be done
(he/she

employs,

pays,

asks,

persuades

another

person

to

do

something): Im going to have my hair dyed; Laura got her watch

mended. However, there are some more usages to be considered:

We use have...
1. when we are concerned with the

We use get...
1. when we are more concerned with

process of something happening: I

the preparatory arrangements: I got

love having my shoulders massaged;

the car serviced this morning (there

2. if we want to focus on the result of

is an assumption here that I

the action: The patient has his arm

took the car to the garage);

broken or to emphasize that the task

2. when we say that the person

was not easy to fulfil: I have this

referred to in the subject of the

program implemented;

sentence

3. if it is clear that the person

accidentally or is to blame for it:

referred to in the subject of the

Sue got her fingers trapped in the

sentence is not responsible for or has

bicycle chain.

causes

what

happens

no control over what happens (about

accidents and misfortunes): She has
just had her tonsils removed; The old
lady

had

her

purse

stolen;

The

Smiths had their car broken into

again (however, in informal speech
its normal to use get in sentences
like this);
4. if we want to employ the perfect
form: Oh, you have had your hair
dyed.

5.2.2.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction

with Participle II

32

This construction consists of a noun in the common case or a

pronoun in the nominative case and Participle II which form a syntactical
complex, the nominal element and Participle II being in subjectpredicate relation:
The preparation completed, we started off; We began to talk, but my
attention distracted by the surroundings, I took small notice of him.

5.2.3.

Prepositional Absolute Construction with Participle II

It is introduced by the preposition with and its nominal element is

hardly ever presented by a pronoun; it is more closely related to the
predicate verb and is seldom set off by a comma: It is unhealthy to
sleep

with

the

windows

shut

(adverbial

modifier

of

attendant

circumstances); He cant walk with his leg broken (adverbial modifier of

reason).

6. CONCLUSION
The focus of this work was to describe the use of non-finite
structures in the English language, especially with regards to their
occurrence in the language of scientific style. Main attention was paid to
33

the use of these structures as a means of condensation (i.e. their ability

to condense sentence structure and reduce the length of sentences),
which is one of the key factors that influence the frequent use of these
structures in scientific writing.

In this connection, the work aimed to explain how the condensity of

such structures is achieved, what type of meaning they express and
under which conditions they can be seen as condensed full clauses
(either main or subordinate) and are paraphrasable by them. In the first
part of this work, this issue was studied from the theoretical point of
view, in the second, analytical part, the general findings were applied
to the language of scientific writing and analysis of the uses of non-finite
structures in this style was carried out.

The theoretical part was started by a general introduction to the

concept of condensation. Meaning, function and types of condensed
structures were discussed; in this connection, it was exemplified how
these

structures

contribute

to

cohesion,

compactness

and

connectedness of a text and enable the writer to express complexity of

thought. Also, different linguistic treatments of the term condensation
were presented.

Basically, these can be divided into those that regard as condensed all
structures which have a compressed form showing a correspondence to
a full clause structure, and those which consider to be condensed only
structures that can be seen as condensed full clauses and are
paraphrasable by them. In this work the first approach was adopted,
however, focus was laid especially on which of such condensed
structures (i.e. non-finite structures) have full clause alternatives.

The treatment of non-finite structures was introduced by the discussion

of the condensed form of these structures and the type of meaning
34

generally conveyed by them. At this point, it was argued that non-finite

structures strongly resemble the structure of full clauses in that they are
analysable into clause elements and, therefore, the term non-finite
clauses was used to refer to them in the work. Nevertheless, the
condensed, non-finite clauses are special in that they lack many of the
properties of full (finite) clauses, namely, they often lack an overt
subject, a subordinator and their VP is never marked for number,
person, tense and mood (and sometimes not for aspect). As a result,
their meaning is more general and less explicit and they can be used
only as subordinate clauses (relative, adverbial or nominal), where the
meaning can be inferred from the superordinate clause. Even so, these
clauses can have more interpretations (mainly regarding tense, aspect,
modality, their semantic relation to the superordinate clause), and
therefore, in cases they can be seen as condensed full clauses,
difficulties arise considering the exact form of such full clause
paraphrase.

The existing three types of non-finite clauses were introduced in the

work: infinitival clauses, gerundive clauses and participial clauses. For
the sake of clarity of presentation, and to demonstrate the common
characterictics of the individual types, uses of infinitival, gerundive and
participial clauses were treated separately.

First, infinitival clauses were discussed. As was argued, these clauses

typically convey modal meanings and refer rather to potential situations
than to established facts. In cases a full clause alternative is possible, it
usually contains a modal auxiliary. Infinitival clauses are used as relative
clauses, adverbial clauses and nominal clauses: Infinitival relative
clauses are as a rule treated as condensed full relative clauses (the
place to go to/where one/we... should go to).

35

Infinitival adverbial clauses typically function as adverbials of purpose or

as conjuncts and disjuncts. Infinitival adverbials of purpose are
condensed full clauses of this type, some infinitival disjuncts have fullclause alternatives in if-clauses, however, conjuncts are mostly difficult
to paraphrase, since they are frequently more or less set expressions of
the type to conclude, to begin with, etc.

Infinitival nominal clauses are the most complex and complicated ones
for linguistic analysis. For the purposes of this work, their classification
was simplified and the traditional distinction of these clauses according
to their syntactic functions was avoided. The clauses were divided into
three types: clauses used with verb predicates, clauses used with
adjective predicates and clauses used with noun predicates.

Then, clauses in each group were further subdivided in accordance with

the semantic class of the predicate. (division was also made between
clauses in post-predicate position and those functioning as subject
complement, subject and extraposed subject) Such approach aimed to
reflect the fact that the form of a nominal clause (infinitival, gerundive
or full clause) is to a considerable extent influenced by the semantics of
the predicate with which it is used and it enabled to generalise with
which predicates infinitival clauses are found and when they are
paraphrasable by full clauses.

Due to their potential meaning, infinitival clauses occur mainly with

forward oriented predicates (eg. verbs of intention, verbs of effort,
causative verbs, adjectives of ease and difficulty, adjectives having
modal meanings, and nouns which are derived from these). With such
predicates,

infinitive

is

usually

the

only

possible

type

of

complementation. In addition to this, infinitival clauses are also found

with some communication verbs (mainly suasive speech act verbs),
cognitive verbs, verbs of probability, adjectives of certainty and

36

evaluative or emotive adjectives, it is in this case that they often have

full clause paraphrases.

After presenting the condensing uses of infinitival clauses, gerundive

clauses were taken into consideration. Gerundive clauses tend to be
factual in meaning and they frequently refer to situations/actions with
general validity.

Therefore, they usually correspond to non-modal full clauses. The

paraphrasability

can

be

made

difficult

especially

due

to

the

general/vague meaning of these clauses as well as the fact that they

resemble noun phrases in their functional potential (eg. they occur after
prepostions instead of conjunctions) and therefore they are frequently
paraphrasable rather by noun phrases than by clauses.

Gerundive clauses are used as adverbial and nominal clauses.

Gerundive adverbial clauses can express a wide range of semantic
relations (time, contingency, manner, reason, purpose etc.) and they are
special in that they must be introduced by a preposition. Basically, they
can be considered to be condensed full clauses in cases the preposition
can also function as a conjunction (after, before) or there exists a
corresponding conjuction with similar meaning (for because).

Gerundive nominal clauses were treated as infinitival nominal clauses:

they were divided according to the type of predicate (and its semantics)
with which they are found. Due to their non-potential meaning,
gerundive clauses are used especially with verbs of communication,
cognitive
expressing

verbs,

emotive

human

and

judgement.

evaluative
In

many

adjectives
of

the

and

uses

nouns

they

are

paraphrasable by full clauses. (a full clause paraphrase is not possible

with two frequent uses of gerund: after aspectual and emotive verbs).

37

Finally, condensing uses of participial clauses were discussed. Participial

clause is a clause headed by a participial VP. These clauses typically
present some accompanying information (mostly factual) and they are
frequently condensed full clauses (a full clause paraphrase may
sometimes be difficult due to the inexplicitness of these clauses,
especially in their adverbial uses). Participial clauses are relative and
adverbial clauses, marginally nominal clauses (functioning as object
complement).

Participial relative clauses are as a rule condensed full relative clauses,

ie. they are paraphrasable by full clauses (the girl standing over
there/who is standing over there). Together with these clauses also
participle functioning as premodifier (although this is not a clause) was
taken into consideration, since it displays a similar function (the
observedfacts/the facts that were/have been observed), only the
information is even more compressed.

Participial adverbial clauses were divided into those that are explicitly
introduced by a conjunction (there is no difficulty seeing these as
condensed full clauses introduced by the same conjunction) and those
that are not (the so called supplementive clauses).

Supplementive clauses can express a wide range of meanings, ranging

from

clearly

adverbial

meanings

to

additive

meaning

found

in

coordination or non restrictive relative clauses, such inexplicitnes may

cause difficulties for a full clause paraphrase. This work presented nonfinite clauses as divided according to their types of VP (infinitive,
gerund, participle), trying to reflect the semantics of the types.

However, as regards condensing uses of these clauses and their

paraphrasability by full clauses, it is also possible to see similarities in
their functions: non-finite relative clauses and adverbial clauses are
38

usually paraphrasable by full clauses (with the exception of conjuncts

and some adverbial clauses introduced by a preposition), while nominal
clauses often are not. This is due to the fact that relative and adverbial
clause are only modifiers in the sentence structure, however, nominal
clauses are not and their form is dependent on the predicate used.

7. REFERENCES
1. Eastwood, J. (2004), Oxford practice grammar, Oxford University
Press.

39

2. Evans,

V.

(2006),

Round-up

grammar

practice

5,

Pearson

Education Ltd.
3. Evans V. (2005), Round-up grammar practice 6, Pearson Education
Ltd.
4. Jones C., Stannard R. (2005), Inside out (advanced), Macmillan
Publishers Ltd.
5. Hewings M. (2002), Advanced grammar in use, Cambridge
University Press.
6. McCarthy M., McCarten J., Clark D., Clark R. (2009), Grammar for
business, Cambridge University Press.
7. Vince M., Sunderland P. (2003), Advanced language practice,
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
8. Walker E., Elsworth S. (2000), Grammar practice for upper
intermediate students, Pearson Education Ltd.

40

8. LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS

Table 1 - The grammatical categories of the infinitive5
Table 2 - Abstract nouns that can function as the subject........................7
Table 3 - Adjectivized participles..............................................................7
Table 4 - The grammatical categories of the gerund..............................13
Table 5 - The gerund as object...............................................................14
Table 6 - Gerund as prepositional object after adjectives, statives and
past participles.......................................................................................15
Table 7 - The grammatical categories of Participle I...............................20
Table 8 - The most common participles used as adjectives or
predicatives............................................................................................22

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