Nkan (N Flute) and Oral Transmission: Cohesion and Musicality

through Mnemonics
Mariko Anno

Asian Theatre Journal, Volume 27, Number 1, Spring 2010, pp. 130-148
(Article)
Published by University of Hawai'i Press
DOI: 10.1353/atj.2010.0009

For additional information about this article

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/atj/summary/v027/27.1.anno.html

Access Provided by Aristotle University of Thessaloniki at 09/15/12 7:52PM GMT

debut panel paper

Nkan (N Flute) and Oral

Transmission: Cohesion and
Musicality through Mnemonics
Mariko Anno

The nkan (n flute) is traditionally taught in a mode of oral transmission that involves
memorization of shga (mnemonics) . Shga help bring a n play to fruition by keeping
the timing and allowing improvisation. This case study discusses the teaching of Iss
Yukihiro, an Iss school performer, arguing that nkan transmission is changing in
contemporary practice by certain masters.
Mariko Anno is a PhD candidate in Musicology at the Tokyo University of the Arts
(Tokyo Geijutsu Daigaku), and earned her DMA in Flute Performance and Literature
with a minor in Ethnomusicology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Her research focuses on the musical aspects of n, with an emphasis on the role of the
nkan in traditional and Japanese contemporary n and English n. She is a certified Alexander Technique teacher. Her research was supported by the Murata Science
Foundation.

Japanese n is a comprehensive art form that includes music,

drama, literature, and the use of costumes and masks. It was created
more than six hundred years ago and continues today as a living art
form reflecting the personalities and preferences of individual performers. It is traditionally defined by three fundamental elements: Talent,
ability, [and] skill (Omote 1978: 61); in addition to these, the skill of
specialty that one demonstrates (Omote 1978: 61) can be applied to
all of the varied aspects of n. In order to fully understand how its various components interact with one another, a basic familiarity with all
the elements is crucial.
The nkan (n flute) is a transverse flute made from a type of
bamboo known as Pleioblastus simonii (Fig. 1). Though traditionally
Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 27, no. 1 (Spring 2010). 2010 by University of Hawaii Press. All rights reserved.

Cohesion and Musicality through Mnemonics

131

played in n, kabuki, and some shrine festivals, it can now be seen on

concert stages with both traditional and nontraditional ensembles
in experiments and collaborations by nkan players. These nontraditional ensembles include jazz groups and orchestras both in Japan and
beyond. Through these experiments and collaborations, the nkan has
been gaining international attention.
The nkan is unlike any other flute in the world. Its distinguishing characteristic is a thin bamboo tube called a nodo (throat), which
is approximately eighty millimeters in length and twelve millimeters
in diameter, inserted in the flute tube between the mouth hole and
the first finger hole (Fig. 2). This simple, yet significant, tube within a
tube deliberately distorts the instruments natural acoustics, producing
inexplicable sounds that attract some and repel others. Furthermore,
because of the insertion of the nodo, there are no standard pitches for
the nkan because each one differs slightly in length and construction.
This does not pose a problem in the musical ensemble because the
nkan plays with three drumsko-tsuzumi (shoulder drum), -tsuzumi
(hip drum), taiko (barrel drum)and is the sole melodic instrument,
although it often serves a more essentially rhythmic function.

Figure 1. The nkan (n flute). (Photo: M. Anno)

Figure 2. The bamboo tube called a nodo (throat) gives the nkan a distinctive
sound. (Photo: M. Anno)

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The nkan is taught using shga, which are mnemonic devices

that aid in the memorization of the nkan repertoire. Shga embody
the musical expressions that give rise to individual musicality, preferences, and variations. They are also used by other Japanese traditional
instruments, such as hichiriki (double reed wind instrument) and ryteki
(court flute) played in gagaku (court music).
The nkan is an instrument that thrives in its musical context,
and it is an integral part of the hayashi (musical ensemble). Its functions and musical patterns are intricately interrelated with those of the
other instruments, musicians, and performers. Therefore, to comprehend the fue-katas (nkan player in n ) musical choices in n plays, it is
vital to understand the transmission process, where skills and musical
nuances of the nkan are passed down from one generation to the next
through the employment of shga.
In this paper, I will introduce shga by explaining their role in
n and the oral transmission process of the nkan through a case study
on Iss Yukihiro (b. 1964), a fifteenth-generation Iss school nkan
player. This case study provides evidence of how nkan transmission is
changing in contemporary practice by certain masters. Furthermore,
it argues that shga are a central component in bringing a n play to
fruition by keeping the timing for the ensemble and allowing improvisation by the nkan player.

Shga
As mentioned earlier, the nkan is taught using shga, which are
also known as kuchi-shga, literally translated as songs to be chanted.
Thus, without a proper master, it is extremely difficult to learn or begin
to understand shga, which are made of combinations of chanted kana
( Japanese syllables) that make up the nkans basic musical vocabulary.
To the untrained eye (or ear), shga may seem like a bunch of nonsense syllables, but to the trained eye (or ear) they reveal sounds and
melodies with a specific order, as David W. Hughes has shown in his
research (2000: 93120). Moreover, shga are used by instructors in correcting or leading the student while he or she plays the instrument.
To demonstrate how shga are chanted, I have taken one example from the ground pattern of the dance, Ch no Mai (Medium
Tempo Dance). This dance is the first piece of music one learns on the
nkan. It contains the basic and essential materials necessary for developing ones skills and is a commonly used dance for several different
characters.
This ground pattern, which is also called ji, is a cyclic pattern
reoccurring in all dances. It consists of a four-phrase cycle: ryo (low),
ch (middle), kan (high), and kan no ch (high middle), as seen in

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133

Figure 3. This is also referred to as the ryo-ch-kan keishiki (ryo-ch-kan

structure). Figure 4 provides the transcription of the shga syllables of
the Ryo-ch-kan structure using Roman letters for easier analysis.
As seen in Figure 4, each phrase is divided into eight beats, and
prolongation of syllables is marked by a hyphen succeeding it. When
a piece is introduced, these syllables are chanted by the master while
marking the beats and drum patterns on the hyshiban (or hariban, wood
block) struck by harigi (fans used to hit the wood block). An actual
musical example of the chanting and performance of shga using Western staff notation is explained later in my case study.

Nkan Repertoire
In the present day, when learning the Iss school nkan repertoire, a student employs two shga volumes: Iss-ry shga-sh ( J)
(Iss School Shga Book, First Volume), (Iss Matarokur 1936a), and
Iss-ry shga-sh (Ge) (Iss School Shga Book, Second Volume), (Iss
Matarokur 1936b). They consist of the essential dance repertoire of
the n plays, using only shga, which are made of twenty syllables in

Figure 3. Shga of the Ch no Mai, the ryo-ch-kan structure (Iss Matarokur 1936a: 1, publishing permission given
by Iss Eiji.)

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different combinations. In addition to the two volumes of the Iss-ry

shga-sh, the Iss-ry fue yubitsuke-sh (Iss School Flute Fingering Book,
Morikawa 1930) is also provided to students to accompany the shga
books. This yubitsuke-sh (fingering chart) has the shga of the repertoire on the right-hand side, with the fingerings of each note alongside
it, as seen in Figure 5.
The yubitsuke-sh is read by viewing the seven holes for each
note directly from the players angle. The three holes on the left side
of the line represent the first three finger holes below the mouth hole
on the nkan played by the left hand, and the four holes on the right
side of the line represent the remaining four holes played by the right
hand. The filled-in circles indicate closed holes by the fingers using
the fleshy part of the fingers (as opposed to the fingertips), while the
empty circles indicate open holes. A circle bisected by a horizontal line
represents hitting the hole, or utsu, which is often used when repeating the same note, although it is specified by another kana (syllable).
This fingering book is most helpful if one is familiar with the
shga of the repertoire, since it is difficult to follow the shga and fingering chart at the same time. Hence, memorization of the basic shga, with

Figure 4. Shga of the ryo-ch-kan structure of Figure 3 using Roman letters.

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the correct rhythm and syllables, is vital to attain accurate shga-finger

coordination, allowing further musical expressions such as sashi-yubi
(embellishments) to enhance the mood, ambiance, and other musical
elements during performances.

Sagariha: Cohesion through Shga

I have been a disciple of Iss Yukihiro since October 2005, and
had only performed in lessons or solo settings, or in situations where I
was allowed to lead the group, being the least experienced in n performance in comparison to the experienced players who could follow or
support my playing. Hence, I had never thought about playing in relation to the characters of the n play, as Iss never mentioned anything
about the contents of the plays or dances to me. Also, as a modern flute
player, I had been playing the nkan repertoire similar to musical compositions in Western music, standing independently from theatre. How-

Figure 5: Fingering chart for the Ch

no Mai (Morikawa 1930: 7). (Publishing permission given by Iss Eiji.)

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ever, my perception and understanding of the nkan changed when I

was preparing for a performance of Sagariha (Downward Descent).
Sagariha is an instrumental dance music that is played when
heavenly beings descend to earth. It is played when accompanying characters from the present world, or gods, with elegance and buoyancy
at medium tempo (Nishino and Hata 2006: 309). It is found in eight
n plays, and, similar to Ch no Mai, this piece is learned through
oral transmission. In oral transmission, where the master and disciple
face each other and the chanting and performance of shga take place,
there is freedom in musical interpretation and rhythm of the piece, as
it is taken out of context. Furthermore, as other instruments are not
physically present, ensembleship (playing as a group) is not the top
priority when learning the individual instrument.
In the summer of 2007, my colleague and I were scheduled to
play Sagariha together at an amateur nkan performance. To prepare
for this performance, we arranged a lesson with her ko-tsuzumi master,
where my colleague played ko-tsuzumi and I played nkan.
First, my colleague and I played the piece without stopping.
After we had played the piece, her master explained to us (mostly to
me) the action that was taking place on stage at each section, such as
the shite (main actor) waiting to go on stage behind the curtain, the
curtain opening, the shite moving forward, and so on. He also mentioned that I needed to relax more with my playing since I was playing
for the entrance of a drunken figure in the n play, Shjo, which represents a Japanese sea spirit who loves sake.
This was the first time anyone had mentioned the theatrical aspects occurring on stage to me, and the interaction between
the instrumentalists. After the lesson, my colleague mentioned that I
needed to indicate each beat with a mark of the breath, so she could
hear the beat. This was another surprise to me, as I thought we were
keeping an internal beat together for the piece. However, as I reflect on
this now, I realize that each piece has a jo-ha-ky (introductionbreaking away/developmentrushing to the end) within the piece. Thus
as the piece rushes to the end, it was important for us, the ko-tsuzumi
and nkan, to keep a marked beat together through the use of kakegoe
(drum calls) for the drum and breath marks for the nkan.
These comments made me realize that the freedom I had learned
in my lessons with Iss was not fully operative. As Iss frequently collaborates and performs with musicians from different genres, which is
rare for a professional n performer, he tries to bring the instrument
to the forefront of the ensemble. This is true for both traditional n
settings, especially in dances and some entrance music, and contemporary settings.

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137

Until this lesson, I had perceived the nkan more as a solo instrument, mainly owing to the influences and activities of my master, but
also because the nkan is thought to be both a rhythmic instrument
and the sole melodic instrument in the n hayashi musical ensemble.
Thus, I was not aware of the other instruments around me. Therefore,
learning of the various aspects of n, such as the literary, musical, and
performative aspects is vital, as they bring significance and life to the
story and stock musical patterns that seem redundant in plays, and to
the ensembleship that takes place between the instrumentalists and
dancers.
Another important aspect of shga is that they are the glue
that hold the ensemble together. Especially in the dance section, the
dancer(s), chorus, and instrumentalists listen to the nkan and chant
the shga inside themselves subvocally, similarly to their lessons with
their masters. Hence, in this comprehensive art form, the n performers are aware of each others movements, text, musical patterns as they
receive lessons on all of the aspects of n to a certain extent. Especially
in the oroshi section of dances, which comes after each dan (section),
the tempo slows down and the instrumentalists play phrases that are
unique to each dance and section. Timing is vital, and each individual
dancer or musician must learn the mnemonics and know the musical
patterns of the instrumentsand not only their area of specialty.
This cohesiveness found between the actors and musicians is
possible, even without a director or conductor, because of the overall
background and knowledge of the ngakushi (professional n actors).
Hence, they are able to have only one mshiawase (rehearsal) before
the actual performance, usually without costumes. They do not go over
the entire n play, but only certain sections that the shite or others may
find necessary. Also, for the dances, it is not necessary to rehearse the
entire piece as instructions can be given verbally with the use of shga,
indicating specific sections and details.
Professional n performers are content with one rehearsal, as
many of them have performed the n plays numerous times, or have
seen the plays multiple times performed by other professionals. Moreover, they have trained with their masters countless times so that their
parts are ingrained within them, and the foundation of their knowledge has been built during youth, when they begin training.
There are times where certain sections are rehearsed for timing
and with props. However, many n actors say that they enjoy the spontaneity. According to an interview with Matsui Akira, a Kita school shitekata (main actor), he prefers not to rehearse the n play too much as it
starts to lose its energy and improvisational aspects (Matsui 2009). It
is the unexpectedness that many n actors seem to enjoy. Thus, as it

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can be seen, shga not only play a vital role in learning the nkan, but
also in keeping the ensemble together.
Richard Emmert, an American n scholar and certified Kita
school n instructor living in Japan, who is also the director of Theatre
Nohgaku (an English n performance troupe), stated in an e-mail message to me regarding the role of shga:
The singing of shga is of course important for nkan players, but actually once they learn to play the piece, it is not really so important for
keeping the piece memorized in their minds. Many amateur players
of nkan can play a piece without being able to sing the shga to that
piece. For professional players however, singing of shga can be used
to check timing with the drummers backstage at a performance just
before going on stage when no one will be actually using an instrument to go over this timing . . . .
It is perhaps more important as a useful tool or memory aid when
the flute itself is not being used rather than as a memory aid so the
players themselves can remember the piece. And that is the case for
most of the time when dancers or drummers are learning their parts
for a dance Thus, it seems to me that the singing of shga is actually
more important for dancers and drummers because it allows them to
practice without a flute player or recording. And then during an actual
performance, by hearing the shga in their minds as the flute player
plays, they are also able to maintain their proper timing with the flute
and thus the entire ensemble. (Emmert 2009)

Overall, shga are more essential for the dancers and drummers in performances than for the nkan. Hence, this allows for the nkan player
to improvise more freely rather than strictly adhering to the written
notation. This concept of improvisation is explained more clearly in
the following case study on Iss Yukihiro.

Case Study on Iss Yukihiro

As seen in Sagariha, shga are learned by all n actors and
musicians and keep the group together, yet also allow for freedom and
improvisation as seen from the following case study of Iss Yukihiro.
Iss Yukihiro, the eldest son of Iss Yukimasa (19292004),
made his debut on the n stage when he was nine years old. While
firmly grounded in traditional n music, he also performs music of
different genres, has formed his own diverse musical ensembles, and
collaborates with various musicians from around the world. In these
ensembles he plays all types of flutes, ranging from Japanese flutes to
Western flutes, including recorders. He won the first prize in the 1981
Asahi Shinbun Japan Recorder Contest.

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Transmission
First, I will explain the traditionally known method of oral transmission of the nkan to gain a better understanding of the learning process. The nkan is taught one-on-one with the master sitting in front of
the disciple. David W. Hughes (2000), an ethnomusicologist, describes
his nkan lessons with the late Fujita Daigor (1915 2008), a Human
National Treasure who passed away last year. The lessons described
here reflect the traditional way of teaching nkan.
Hughes explains that in his first lesson, even though he had
brought a n flute with him and showed it to Fujita, Fujita just looked
at it, commented on it, and returned it to him. Then, they chanted the
ground pattern of Ch no Mai (as in Fig. 3), for the remainder of
the lesson.
In the second lesson, after Fujita was certain that Hughes had
memorized the four lines, he handed Hughes a folded Japanese fan.
Fujita, too, had a similar fan and asked Hughes to imitate his finger
movements and sing the mnemonics. At the third lesson, Hughes practiced the fingerings on the actual instrument, instead of the fan, and
sang the mnemonics. Finally during the fourth lesson, Hughes was permitted to play his nkan. He also mentions that during these weeks, his
teacher never once picked up his instrument, nor presented any type
of written notation.
About this experience, Hughes states: Playing the flute for that
first time, thinking the mnemonics as I did so, the melody seemed to
come out naturally . . . . The fingers knew where to go, and the syllables
continued to course through my mind. The pitches and intervals were
doubtless different, since we had never sung at any specific pitch. . . .
But I felt a very close identity between what we had sung and what I was
now playing (Hughes 2000: 9596). This extended period of training,
which precedes playing the instrument, is a common experience among
nkan students, who have studied from masters other than Iss.1
I have been a disciple of Isss since 2005, but my training experiences have differed significantly from the way nkan is traditionally
taught. I have never felt a very close identity between shga and the
melody played as Hughes did, which is mainly because of how shga are
used in Isss teaching. I have never learned or chanted shga in my lessons with him. Furthermore, he does not normally chant shga to teach
me the music, unless I request him to do so.
It takes an average of three lessons for Iss to teach me a new
piece. In the first lesson in which a new piece is introduced, Iss plays
the entire piece on the nkan including embellishments. I record the
lesson. In the days between the first and second lesson, I listen to the

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recording over and over again, until I can distinguish the shga syllables from his embellishments. I identify his marked breaths, ends of
phrases, accents, inflections, and musical nuances, which are usually
taught by the master through the chanting of shga, as Morita Toki
has demonstrated in her research (2006). Then, I listen to recordings
that include the other instruments of the hayashi ensemble to gain an
understanding of what other instruments are playing, especially during
parts where intricate ensembleship is necessary.
At the second lesson, I play the entire piece by memory, including sashi-yubi (embellishments) and other ornaments that I figure out
on my own. While playing the piece, Iss at times sings the shga to
slow down or pick up the tempo, correct my playing, and prompt me
where I had forgotten the musical line. After I finish playing the entire
piece, he corrects my playing by directing me to sections using shga,
demonstrating it not by oral recitation of the syllables, but by playing
the phrase on the nkan.
During the second lesson, I ask Iss to show me his fingering for
the embellishments that I was not able to figure out on my own. This
is because he creates new nkan techniques that include elaborate and
modern flute techniques. He slowly plays the passage and shows me the
fingerings until I understand them. Then, at the following lesson, I play
the entire piece with the ornaments. It is also important to note that
Iss discouraged me from playing ornaments during the first couple of
months until he thought I had a firm grounding in nkan.
Isss method of teaching allowed me to learn the major nkan
pieces within a short period of time and play the instrument more
quickly, rather than memorizing shga. At one of my lessons, I had asked
him why he does not teach me shga as he does with some of his other
disciples. He replied that since I am able to learn and figure out the
fingers, notes, passages, and embellishments by listening to the music,
due to my musical background and knowledge of transverse flutes, he
did not find it necessary to take the time to teach me the shga.
However, the disadvantage of this teaching method is that enormous effort was and continues to be necessary on my part, because I
am forced to memorize the shga on my own without any idea how to
sing them properly. I must imagine them from my lesson recordings.
For example, when I watch students learn the dance Ch no Mai in
their shimai (dance) or ko-tsuzumi lessons, I hear myself following the
music with my fingers, singing the nkan melody in my head, but not
the shga. Thus, this shows that I had memorized the nkan repertoire
mostly by ear, and my fingers remember the movements on the nkan.
This transmission process may be considered as aural (perceived by the ear) transmission of the nkan repertoire, as opposed to

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141

oral (pertaining to the mouth) transmission of shga. Oral transmission

is a vital part of transmission in Japanese traditional music. David W.
Hughes states that such systems [such as oral transmission] depend
for their effectiveness upon their orality: to fully experience the impact
of the syllables, one must sing or recite them, preferably aloud but at
least in ones head (2000: 94).
However, in a private lesson at my university in 2007, I observed
Iss instructing an -tsuzumi (hip drum) student to sing the shga of
the dance Sagariha. The -tsuzumi student had been singing the shga
in a monotone voice, and Iss asked him to sing them according to
the nkan pitches. Since the student did not understand Isss instructions, he continued to sing in a monotone voice, to which Iss asked a
nkan student to play Sagariha on the nkan while the student sang
the shga.
Again, the -tsuzumi student continued to sing in a monotone
voice, ignoring (although not deliberately) the sounds produced by
the nkan. Iss stopped the student and demonstrated what he meant
by singing the shga in pitch with the nkan. On his second attempt,
the -tsuzumi students singing was unstable at first, while he searched
for the pitches. Once he found the right pitches, he sang in complete
unison with the nkan.
This must have been the -tsuzumi students first time being
asked to sing shga in relation to the nkan pitches, as most teachers
do not make such demands, or emphasize singing in pitch. This lesson
attests to Isss sensitivity to the sound and colors of the nkan. This
example also shows that Iss does on occasion make some students
sing shga.

SHGA Singing and Performance by Iss Yukihiro

Isss musicality and shga singing reflect his individual preferences on tone and color, as demonstrated by the following two Western
staff musical transcriptions. The two transcriptions are Isss singing
and performance of the ground pattern of the Ch no Mai, which
I introduced in the beginning of my paper. Figure 6 shows Isss singing of the shga of the ground pattern (Iss Yukihiro 2006a). Figure 7
shows a performance of the pattern played with a nkan (Iss Yukihiro
2006b).2
Examining Isss two transcriptions, two points are evident: (1)
he pays special attention to the pitches and intervals between the notes
when singing shga, and sings according to his nkan pitches; and (2)
he uses sashi-yubi embellishment, which is an integral characteristic of
nkan playing.
First, his singing of shga in Figure 6, with pitches identical to

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his nkan pitches in Figure 7, clearly reflects his emphasis on timbre,

colors, and sounds produced by the nkan. This also demonstrates
that shga singing reflects the actual performance style of the player,
as there are various ways of singing shga; for example, there are nkan
masters who sing in a monotone voice, or with little inflection. Others sing with inflections and pitches, taking into account the differ-

Figure 6. Transcription of singing shga from the ground pattern of the Ch

no Mai by Iss Yukihiro (A = 440 Hz; written one octave higher than actual
pitch for easier analysis). In Western music, the notational practice is to place
the quarter-tones and micro-tones to the left of the note, before the accidental
(if present), as seen in Ben Johnstons (b. 1926) works. For these transcriptions, the notational practice from Ngaku hayashi taikei (Gam et al. 1973) is
followed. (Transcription: M. Anno)

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ent intervals between the notes, but not necessarily in relation to their
nkan pitches. Still others, like Iss, match their sung shga pitches with
those played by their nkan.
The similarities of these transcriptions are not by chance; Iss
uses the nkans timbre, color, and sound, such as the brightness or
darkness of the instrument, to produce images most appropriate for
the scene in the n plays and enhance the ambiance on stage. This can
be demonstrated by analyzing his performances in traditional n plays.
For example, on 27 April 2006,3 Iss played a su-bayashi (instruments-only musical ensemble) of Shishi (Lion Dance) from the n

Figure 7. Transcription of performance from the ground pattern of the Ch

no Mai by Iss Yukihiro. (A = 440 Hz; actual nkan pitches are an octave
higher than the written pitches. Transcription: M. Anno)

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play Shakky (Stone Bridge). This su-bayashi, played by the four instruments, is dance music for the shishi, which is an auspicious, mythical
Chinese animal or lion that reigns over all creatures (Gond 2003:
130). In this animated and energetic dance, Isss use of embellishments and various other traditional and nontraditional techniques such
as meri-kari (adjustment of the pitch by rolling the mouth hole in and
out, changing the angle of the air hitting the mouth hole) and fukikomi
(an instantaneous burst of fast, strong air blown through the instrument, causing a shakuhachi -like white noise) were widespread. Also
evident were techniques usually seen in modern flute playing, such as
circular breathing, cross-fingerings, and half-holing. In addition, new
nkan techniques created by Iss himself were frequently used to bend
the pitches of the nkan, which he calls sliding benders and pitch
benders. Moreover, his high notes were most piercing, since he played
a high-pitched nkan to reflect the excitement of the dance.
On the same day, the n play Teika was staged. Teika is a thirdcategory play, full of weight and seriousness. It is a love story between
Fujiwara no Teika (Sadaie) and Shikishi Naishin n. After their deaths,
Teika becomes the vines encircling Shikishis tomb, and her ghost continues to burn with passion for him. To express and support the story of
this n play, Iss played a somber and darker colored nkan to portray
the gravity of the plot, with little use of embellishments.
The description of the nkan sounds are not representative of
the tonal scales produced by the instrument, but of the color of the
sounds produced, such as brightness or darkness. These differ according to each nkan because of the construction of the mouthpiece, body,
and other varying factors.
In this way, Isss sensitivity to the sound and colors of the nkan,
enhanced by his background in traditional and nontraditional Japanese music, is evident in his singing of the shga. I would argue that
Isss background in Western music and experience playing in ensemble contexts with other melodic instruments (where more precise intonation is a necessity) explains why there is such a close match of each
pitch in his singing of the shga and his playing of the same passages on
the nkan. It is rare to find a fue-kata (flutist) whose singing and performance matches so closely.
The second point illustrated in Issos transcriptions is the addition of sashi-yubi embellishments on musical lines is prominent in the
performance transcription. This sort of embellishment is a common
performance technique of the nkan, with detailed finger movements
and semi-improvisatory embellishments (Gam 1989: 116). This ornamental technique, more intricate than the ryteki court flute, gives variations to the sound by (1) covering half the finger hole (or half-holing);

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(2) altering the angle of the lips (or air) on one note and changing the
pitch; (3) instantly closing and opening an uncovered hole; and (4)
instantly opening and closing a covered hole, also known as utsu (to
hit) (Yokomichi 1989: 324). All of the subtleties of these performance
techniques cannot be accurately transcribed on paper but need to be
heard aurally.
Without going into further detailed musical analysis, it can be
concluded that Isss personal style and personal choices are apparent
through his characteristic use of sashi-yubi to heighten the emotional
state on stage. As mentioned earlier, Isss excessive use of sashi-yubi
during the performance of Shishi to sustain the lively mood of the play,
as well as his minimal use of sashi-yubi to portray the gravity of the scene
in Teika, was effective.
Nkan players have individual styles of embellishments. By using
these ornaments, the nkan player displays his or her interpretation of
the n play, heightens the emotions on stage by coloring the scene, and
shows creativity through the use of various nkan techniques and use of
nkan timbre and color. These embellishments are personal and distinguish one player from another. The master does usually not teach them
to the disciple; instead, the disciple must steal them through careful
observation and listening to the master.
This type of coloring or creating the scene by the nkan has been
seen since Zeamis time. According to Zeamis Shudsho (Writings on
the Way of Learning), the flutist plays melodies by paralleling the singers pitches and movements while coloring the scenes (Takakuwa 2003:
50-51; Omote and Kato 1974: 237). Therefore, the nkan player supports and enhances the movements on stage, which influencesone
would surmisethe performance and ambiance on stage. This continues to be true today, and when the shite-kata is able to find a nkan
player who can complement his or her movements, dance, and mode
of expression, an artistically strong and emotionally sensitive stage is
produced for the performers and audience.
The flute is an extension of the voice, as my K school ko-tsuzumi
master, Sowa Masahiro (b. 1948), explains in relation to hina-matsuri
dolls (Sowa 2007). Hina-matsuri, which is translated as the Doll Festival, or Girls Day, is held annually on the third of March, to pray for
the girls growth and happiness. A platform is covered with red cloth
called hina-msen, and the first tier is occupied by the emperor and
empress dolls. Two tiers down from them are the five musician dolls
known as the gonin-bayashi (five musicians). Beginning from the right,
the musicians are the utai (chant[er]), fue (flute), ko-tsuzumi, -tsuzumi, and taiko drums. The ensemble is very similar both in terms of
instrumentation and in arrangement to the ngaku-bayashi n musical

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Anno

ensemble. According to Sowa, this order is very important, for the utai
(chant[er]) sings using his body, specifically his voice, which comes out
of his mouth. Next, the fue uses his mouth and fingers to play the instrument, but the main source for the sound production is still from the
mouth. To the left of the fue is the ko-tsuzumi drum, which is placed on
the right shoulder, held by the left hand, and struck with the right hand.
Thus, the sound is produced farther away from the mouth and body.
The -tsuzumi drum is placed near the left hip, held by the left hand,
and struck with the right hand. Finally, the taiko is placed on a stand and
played with two sticks called bachi, without direct contact by the player.
As the instrumentalists are seated farther away from the singer,
the techniques used to produce sound likewise move farther away from
the voice and body. Thus, Sowa hypothesizes that the fue, situated next
to the utai, is probably most like the human voice. Its main source of
sound production is from the mouth, and a throat (nodo) was possibly
inserted to give it a more humanlike quality. Thus, the nkan often parallels the function of the utai when creating and coloring the scene.

Conclusion
It is through oral transmission that these nonsense syllables
take life and convey the musical interpretation and other complex
nuances to the disciples. By means of shga, many unwritten and unspoken musical aspects are revealed, opening a new world of music in playing the nkan. However, in Isss aural transmission, he instills within
the students the sounds of the nkan, and uses shga to correct and
instruct the students, and does not use them as a basis of his teaching.
If transmitted orally, they can reveal secret techniques of the master, such as embellishments, and interpretation of the text and movements on stage. However, Isss transmission is at times unique, when
he considers the background and musicality of the disciples, allowing
some of his disciples to access his techniques and musical interpretation through his creative teaching style.
Isss teaching style allows some students to excel quickly, but
without a firm foundation in shga, they may depend heavily on their
ears and finger memory in performances as well as technology (recording) to learn. This type of teaching is facilitated by the use of modern technology and available audio and visual compendia. Hence, it is
important to realize that Isss performance and teaching have shaped
and will continue to affect his disciples playing and understanding of
shga, which may impact and change the future performances of n.
Nkan teaching, as well as all aspects of n, is a living art form and continues to change with the times.

Cohesion and Musicality through Mnemonics

147

Furthermore, while shga enable the transmission of musicality

from the master to the disciple, they also act as an adhesive by keeping
the ensemble together in a performance. They allow communication
and formation of a common language within the performance group,
and the ability to bring the group together for just one rehearsal without appointing a director or conductor. It is the knowledge of shga that
reveals the secrets of this comprehensive theatre imbued with music,
theatre, and literature.
NOTES
1. I am a graduate student in Musicology at the Tokyo University of
the Arts. In addition to my musicology courses, I have been allowed to take
private lessons on the n instruments. This opportunity has enabled me to
form a relationship with the students studying n and watch their lessons.
2. Readers are reminded that the actual pitches of the nkan sound
an octave higher than the written pitches, and the notes that fall between
pitches (i.e., quarter-tones, micro-tones) are indicated with upward or downward arrows to the right side of the pitch, following the pattern from Ngaku
hayashi taikei (Gam et al. 1973). Where I found the note higher or lower than
a quarter-tone, I have indicated this with a double arrow. Moreover, I have
transcribed the embellishments of Iss with upward stems, with slashes running through them. In addition, the transcription of Isss singing of shga is
an octave higher than his actual singing. For easier comparison, I have transcribed his voice in treble clef, making it the same octave as the written nkan.
This is not unusual, since the nkan does not have a standard or absolute pitch,
allowing the nkan player to sing the shga at any comfortable pitch level.
3. Yukihiro, Mansai, Hirotada: Ngaku genzai-kei ( Yukihiro, Mansai, Hirotada: Ngaku Today), performed by Iss Yukihiro, Nomura Mansai, Kamei Hirotada, Hsh Ngaku-do, Tokyo, Japan on 27 April 2006 (Iss Yukihiro 2006b).
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