The Implications of Islam for Advertising Messages:

The Middle Eastern Context

Gillian Rice
Mohammed Al-Mossawi
ABSTRACT. Islam is the religion of a vast and growing number of consumers around the world.
There is evidence to. suggest that religious beliefs can impact consumer behavior and response to
advertising messages. The purpose of this article is to present a managerial decision-making
framework that relates Islamic values to the implications for advertising. The illustrations are in the
context of the Middle East. Recommendations are provided for international advertisers developing
messages for Muslim consumer segments.
[Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH.
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KEYWORDS. Advertising, Islam, and Middle East

The decision faced by multinational corporations of whether to standardize or adapt their

advertising strategies has been a subject of debate and research for at least three decades. As
Laroche et al. (2001) emphasize, contradictory research findings reinforce the importance of the
issue. Onkvisit and Shaw (1999) conclude that there is little scientific evidence to confirm or
contradict the validity of the concept of international advertising standardization.
In one study of multinational corporations (MNCs) marketing consumer goods and services
in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Lebanon and Egypt, Melewar et al. (2000)
found that managers view the Middle East as a region with similar culture and beliefs and tend to
follow a standardized approach with respect to advertising objectives, positioning and the main
advertising theme, for which decisions tend to be made at headquarters (HQ). Decisions on
creative execution and media strategy are often made locally, however. According to Hill and
James (1990) and Duncan and Ramaprasad (1995), such decision-making about advertising is a
function of the degree of independence of local subsidiaries. Ironically then, the decision to
standardize has more to do with the corporate culture than with the culture of markets and
nations (De Mooij 1998). Laroche et al. (2001) found that the degree of control a MNC had over
a subsidiary was a direct determinant of advertising standardization. They concluded therefore
that MNCs need to develop a learning orientation toward foreign markets. Understanding the

Gillian Rice is Associate Professor of Marketing, Thunderbird, The American Graduate School of International
Management (E-mail: riceg@t-bird.edu).
Mohammed Al-Mossawi is Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of Bahrain (E-mail:
mosawimh@buss.uob.bh).
Address correspondence to: Gillian Rice, Department of Global Business, Thunderbird, the American Graduate
School of International Management, 15249 North 59th Avenue, Glendale, AZ 85306 (E-mail: riceg@t-bird.edu).
The authors wish to thank Fathi Al-Mohamed, Managing Director of Gulf Media International, for his kind
assistance during the research for this study. They are also grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments.
Journal of Euromarketing, Vol. 11(3) 2002
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2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

similarities in market position, getting familiar with foreign contexts, and developing shared
values and beliefs among subsidiary managers and HQ managers may make MNCs pursue a
standardized approach to advertising. Without this learning orientation, Laroche et al. (2001)
explain that firms standardizing their advertising across cultures tend to be challenged by local
subsidiaries or representatives. A high level of familiarity with the local culture permits a
manager at HQ to understand better what should be done in the creative aspect of advertising
standardization in order to avoid cultural blunders (Tse et al. 1988, Ricks 1993).
Culture is the means by which people communicate, perpetuate, and. develop their
knowledge about attitudes towards life. Culture is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human
beings interpret their experience and guide their action (Geertz 1973). Usunier (1993) delineates
several sources of culture: language, nationality, education, ethnicity, religion, family, gender,
social class and organization. This article focuses specifically on religion.
The objective of the article is to explain and illustrate the types of advertising messages that
might be appropriate for one religious group: Muslims. A managerial decision-making
framework (see Figure 1 and Table 1) that relates basic Islamic values to advertising implications
is presented. The underlying purpose is to make a contribution to the learning orientation
(Laroche et al. 2001) essential for MNCs. In this way, managers might understand better those
situations when advertisements targeted at Muslim audiences can be part of a standardized
advertising campaign or when, why and how advertisements should be adapted.
Twenty years ago, Boddewyn (1982) discussed the role of religion in advertising regulation.
Subsequently, there was little research conducted concerning religion and advertising. Hirschman
(1984) suggested two reasons for this. First, perhaps religion may be a subject too sensitive for
investigation. Second, religious influence is ambiguous. More recently, researchers have paid
increasing attention to the relevance of religious principles to business decision-making in
general (see, for example, Rossauw 1994, Gould 1995, Rice 1999). The interest in religion arises
from todays emphasis on ethics in business and the continuing growth in globalization. In the
past decade, studies of advertising and religion have found that religious commitment affected
(1) the response of British Christians and Muslims to TV advertising (Michell and Al-Mossawi
1995), (2) the attitudes of Saudi men towards TV advertising (Al-Makaty et al. 1996), and (3) the
response of Bahraini Muslims to TV advertising (Michell and Al-Mossawi 1999). That religion
can be a powerful mediator in the decoding of advertising messages (Michell and Al-Mossawi
1995) suggests the need for closer examination of religion and advertising. Religious affiliation
plays a significant role in attitude formation (Hirshman 1981), value choices (Keng and Yang
1993) and is especially related to questions of why people consume (Hirschman 1984). Delener
(1994) found differences in the automobile purchase decision processes between Jewish and
Catholic households and concluded that enhanced knowledge of religious differences in
consumer decision-making should have significant impact on the effectiveness of global
marketing strategies.

TABLE 1. A Managerial Framework of Islamic Value

Dimensions and Advertising Implications
Cultural Dimension

Islamic Value Dimension

Examples of Sources

Implications

Relationships with
people

Communication style

... and speak good to people.... (Quran 2:83)

Strive for excellence in the design of

advertising messages. Use Islamic
phraseology, but with care.

and be moderate in your walking and lower your voice.... (Quran 31:19)
Repel evil with that which is better.... (Quran 23:96)
Honesty of communication

Truly, God guides not him who is a liar. (Quran 39:3)

Avoid exaggeration and deception.

... give just measure and weight, nor withhold from the people the things that are
their due. (Quran 11:85)
the one who cheats is not of us. Saying of Prophet Muhammad (Keller 1994)
Appreciation of diversity of
human race

No Arab has superiority over any non-Arab and no non-Arab has any superiority
over an Arab; no dark person has superiority over a white person and no white
person has any superiority over a dark person. The criterion of honor in the sight
of God is righteousness and honest living. Saying of Prophet Muhammad (Sallam
and Hanafy 1988)

Include in advertisements diversity in terms of

ethnic groups and dress (traditional versus
Western)

O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and
made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other.... (Quran
49:13)
Let there be no compulsion in religion.... (Quran 2:256)

Use caution with religious symbols in

advertising, Islamic or otherwise.

Justice and fairness

Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to God, even though it be against
yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, be he rich or poor.... (Quran 4:135)

Avoid comparative advertisements, especially

those referring to a competing brand by name.

Role of women

The acquisition of knowledge is a duty incumbent on every Muslim, male and

female. Saying of Prophet Muhammad (Sallam and Hanafy 1988)

Recognize in advertisements the positive

contributions made by women not only to the
family, but to the workplace and society as a
whole.

Cultural Dimension

Islamic Value Dimension

Examples of Sources

Implications

Time orientation

Consumption behavior:
acceptability of wealth ...

... He has raised you in ranks, some above others; that He may try you in the gifts
that He has given you. (Quran 6:165)

Advertising of luxury products is acceptable,

especially in wealthier nations.

... wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer.... (Quran 7:31)
... but condemnation of
ostentatious consumption

... and spend of your substance in the cause of God and make not your own hands
contribute to your destruction; but do good. (Quran 2:195)

Appeal to social responsibility and household

economy.

... wealth and children are allurements of the life of this world.... (Quran 18:46)

Human nature
orientation (selfconcept)

... of their wealth take alms so that you might purify and sancity. (Quran
9:103

Opportunities for cause-related marketing.

Appreciation of
education/science

... say, O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge ... (Qua an 20:114)

Use scientific appeals in advertising where

possible. Refer to Muslims scientific heritage
from Medieval Age.

Modesty

Tell the believing men to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things) and
protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts, etc.). (Quran 24:30)

Opportunities for considerable variation in the

modesty of dress in advertisements, depending
on the general level of conservatism in a
country. Nevertheless, on the whole, use more
modest approaches than those used in the nonIslamic world.

And tell the believing women to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden
things) and protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts, etc.) and not to
show off their adornment except only that which is apparent.... (Quran 24:31)
Activity orientation

Care for the environment

and health

To God belongs all that is in the heavens and on the earth.... (Quran 3:129)
... God loves not the wasters. (Qua an 7:31)

Stress environmental friendliness, cleanliness,

and good health. Emphasize halal
(religiously permissible)for meat and food
ingredients of animal origin.

... He has forbidden you dead meat (carrion), and blood, and the flesh of swine....
but if one is forced by necessity....then he is guiltless.... (Quran 2:173)
They ask you concerning wine and gambling. Say: in them is great sin and some
profit, for men; but the sin is greater than the profit. (Quran 2:219)

Religion has always helped to define what is proper and fitting, and has frequently prohibited
the use of certain appeals (materialistic, sexual, etc.). Some elements of an advertising message
might be perceived by people as being against their religious belief, as being offensive or
contentious. Advertisements perceived as contentious will not be effective in capturing the
attention of people or changing their attitudes towards the advertised product (Michell and AlMossawi 1995), or may even adversely affect the sales of the advertised product.
The article is organized as follows. First is a short introduction to the Islamic worldview. An
explanation of the managerial framework follows, showing the implications of Islamic values for
advertising messages. The illustrations are in the context of the Middle East, a region with
approximately 275 million people and with total annual imports of over $150 billion (Al-Olayan
and Karande 2000). The final section of the article includes a discussion and recommendations.
THE ISLAMIC WORLD VIEW
Muslims do not distinguish between the religious and the secular but consider Islam to be a
complete way of life (Kavoossi 2000, Lawrence 1998). They derive this life-system from the
teachings of the Quran (which Muslims believe is a book revealed by God to Prophet
Muhammad in seventh century Arabia), and from the sunnah (the recorded sayings and behavior
of Prophet Muhammad). The Islamic worldview is based on concepts of human well being and
good life which stress brotherhood/sisterhood and socioeconomic justice. This requires a
balanced satisfaction of both the material and spiritual needs of all humans (Chapra 1992).
Islam is often misunderstood, and it is surprising to some that it contains an entire
socioeconomic system with specific guidelines for managerial tasks such as advertising. In
Islam, business activity is considered to be a socially useful function; Prophet Muhammad was
involved in trading for much of his life. The Islamic socio-economic system includes detailed
coverage of specific economic variables such as interest, taxation, circulation of wealth, fair
trading, and consumption. Islamic law (shariah), derived from the Quran and sunnah, governs
business relationships between buyers and sellers. Activities are broadly categorized as lawful
(halal) or prohibited (haram), as decreed by God. Nothing is haram except what is specifically
prohibited in the Quran or in a clearly authenticated, explicit sunnah (practice or saying) of
Prophet Muhammad.
Islam has 1.5 billion adherents worldwide (Ba-Yunus and Siddiqui 1998) and a vast number
of these are consumers in the developing world. Muslim consumers have enormous and growing
purchasing power in countries such as Egypt, Iran, India, Malaysia, Morocco, Turkey, Saudi
Arabia and South Africa. Of the Ten Big Emerging Markets targeted by the US Department of
Commerce for American export promotion efforts, two are Muslim nations (Turkey and
Indonesia) and two have substantial Muslim minorities (India and South Africa). The number of
Muslim consumers in developed nations is also substantial, such as in the US, the UK and
Germany. In France, almost a tenth of the population is Muslim (Viorst 1996). In the US, where
Islam is the fastest growing religion, estimates of the Muslim population range from six to eight
million (Abdul-Rahman and Tug 1998).
The trend in many countries with predominantly Muslim populations is towards stronger
religious conservatism and commitment (Amin 2000, Lawrence 1998). The increasing impact of
Islam on business operations is evidenced by the recent rapid growth of Islamic banking and
finance worldwide. For example, Citibank has an Islamic banking division headquartered in

Bahrain. Dow Jones and Co. has launched a new global equity-benchmark index (the Dow Jones
Islamic Market Index) aimed at investors who follow Islamic investment guidelines (Webb
1999). An increasing number of Muslims want to participate in the global marketplace in ways
consistent with Islamic religious law. These developments suggest that religion may also play an
important role in the effectiveness of some marketing communication strategies targeted at
Muslims.
Indeed, one of the characteristics that distinguish Muslims from followers of some other
faiths is that the influence of religion is very clear in every aspect of the Muslims life. In a
survey in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia and the United Arab Emirates), MERAC (1987) found that most respondents were united
in their belief that Islam structures the daily life of people, and that Gulf society and identity are
inextricably woven with Islam. A survey of Egyptians found that, after health, religion was the
most important value (Gulf Marketing Review October 1996). The MERAC study (1987) found
that Muslims in the Arabian Gulf states frequently referred to Quran and sunnah when
explaining the importance of manners and good behavior.
A MANAGERIAL FRAMEWORK OF ISLAMIC VALUES
AND ADVERTISING IMPLICATIONS
The Quran does not prohibit advertising and indeed, advertising is used to promote the
Islamic faith (Al-Makaty et al. 1996). Nevertheless, there are several Islamic values that have
important implications for advertising (see Table 1). In this section, these values are explained
and their advertising implications are discussed and illustrated. Table 1 and the discussion are
organized according to four cultural dimensions: relationships with people, time orientation,
human nature orientation (self-concept), and activity orientation (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
1961, Usunier 1993). Thus, each of the Islamic value dimensions fits into one of these categories.
Relationships with People
According to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), the relationship of an individual to others is
one of the universal problems faced by cultures. Islamic value dimensions particularly relevant to
both advertising messages and this particular cultural dimension are communication style,
appreciation of diversity, justice, and the role of women.
Communication Style. In Islam, communications between people should be polite, kind and
direct. Prophet Muhammad said that, God likes that when someone does something, it must be
done perfectly well (Sallam and Hanafy 1988). Ali, one of Islams early leaders, said the best
discourse is expressive, great, brief and interesting (Keller 1994). These comments suggest that
advertisers should strive for excellence as an end in itself, in addition to communicating
truthfully about products and services.
Advertisers should note that exaggeration is regarded as a form of lying, whether
exaggeration is by metaphor or by embellishing a description. Exaggeration is permissible only
when the exaggeration is extremely obvious. Kavoossi and Frank (1990), in a study of
advertising in the Persian Gulf States, observed the lack of hyperbole or exaggeration compared
to that in American advertising. Rather, they noted, the emphasis was on long-lastingness,

tradition, quality, and the overall integrity of the goods and the seller. For example, an agency for
computer services claimed our purpose is quality computer service and not profit.
Deceptive advertising should be avoided. The saying of Prophet Muhammad, he who
cheats is not one of us (Keller 1994), was made in the context of a sales incident in the
marketplace. The lesson from this event was that a seller who knows of a defect in something
being sold is obliged to disclose it before the sale. Muslim jurists have defined deception as
hiding defects which are not prominent to the public in general. The Saudi Arabian respondents
in the study by Al-Makaty et al. (1996) agreed that the government should improve the
monitoring of advertising claims.
Religious terminology may be used in advertisements to reassure consumers of the Islamic
integrity of products and services. For example, in a television advertisement, a Saudi investment
bank in Egypt used religious terms to show that it did not deal in any Islamically unlawful
financial products.
The use of selected Quranic injunctions and words can enhance the mood of the advertising
communication to make it more appealing to Muslim consumers. Examples are the words
Bismillah (in the name of God; a phrase used by Muslims before beginning any action) or
Allahu akbar (literally, God is greater). Luqmani et al. (1989) provide an example of a
manufacturer of water pumps that uses a verse from the Quran in advertising: We made every
living thing from water. A Spring 2000 advertising campaign targeted at the Gulf market for the
Ford Excursion sports utility vehicle uses the words Maashallah (whatever God intends).
These words are commonly used by Muslims when they see something beautiful such as a small
child, someones achievement such as obtaining a degree or new job, or someones acquisition of
new goods or property. In an upbeat, happy style, a younger man shows an older man his new
vehicle. Both wear traditional Gulf dress. The older man expresses the words Maashallah,
the only words in the advertisement, at various points within the message: when first seeing the
vehicle, when noticing how large it is, when observing how it performs on a rocky road in the
desert, when experiencing its power and speed, and finally, when seeing the younger mans large
family (women in traditional veiled dress) getting out of the vehicle.
Religious terminology must be used carefully, however. In a study of the Egyptian press
coverage of advertising issues from 1978 to 1997, Keenan and Shoreh (2000) found primarily
negative coverage of advertising in general, and several criticisms of the inappropriate use of
verses from the Quran.
Appreciation of the Diversity of the Human Race. A striking feature of Islam is its diversity.
Prophet Muhammad emphasized the equality of different races and ethnic groups. Diversity is
clearly illustrated in a comprehensive photographic record of the Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca
(Nomachi 1997). Diversity exists within the populations of several countries such as those in the
Gulf region which have large expatriate Muslim populations. In advertising execution, the
diversity should be recognized, as in an IKEA advertisement that showed people from varying
ethnic groups, and some in traditional dress and some in Western dress. Diversity was used as a
positioning tool by Gulf Air in a local and worldwide print campaign. Print advertisements ran in
global media, such as The Economist magazine, and featured a photograph of smiling Gulf Air
employees representing many different ethnic groups.
Despite Islams recognition of diversity and the Qurans exhortation that there is no
compulsion in religion, the multinational firm Asea Brown Boveri was not allowed to use its
logo ABB when applying to advertise at Bahrain Airport. Figure 2 shows the ABB logo (red
letters on a white background). Figure 3 shows the only acceptable form of the logo; the

crosses (to Muslim eyes, perhaps reminiscent of the Christian cross) suggested by the lines cut
through the centers of the letters have been blocked out (Al Mohamed 1997).
Justice and Fairness. Adherence to principles of justice and fairness as interpreted in the
Middle Eastern context means that there are very few overtly comparative advertising messages
(Razzouk and Al-Khatib 1993). For example, an advertisement for York air conditioners
compared them to Japanese-manufactured air conditioners but not to a specific competing brand.
Contractual obligations, according to Islamic tradition, should be sanctioned by God.
Advertisements containing pledges, terms and other contracts with respect to business or
financial transactions therefore of ten include the conventional phrase in the name of God, the
Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful (Kavoossi and Frank 1990).
The Role of Women. According to the Quran and sunnah, the acquisition of knowledge is a
duty for all Muslims, female as well as male. It is believed that women should be educated
because of their responsibilities in child-rearing. It is also permissible for women to work outside
the home. Although the vast majority of working women in Saudi Arabia and Qatar tend to
follow traditional careers such as healthcare and education, trends are changing in other lessconservative Gulf countries. For example, more women than men graduate in the UAE, Kuwait
and Oman (Thomas 1998). Bahraini women are part of everyday office life in Manama. Visitors
to ministries, the private sector, schools and colleges in Kuwait will meet senior national women.
Oman has two female ministers. Despite such developments, Thomas (1998) writes that Gulf
women are served the same old advertising extremes that other world markets endured in the
Seventies: glamour (Cindy Crawford, Claudia Schiffer, Naomi and Egyptian dancing girls) on
the one hand; the kitchen sink, on the other. Thomas (1998) argues that there are no serious
images of women in advertising, and comments that in many banking advertisements, women
are often shown that the husband has the money-its not her money, her decision-and yet in
reality women are signing up for mutual funds, opening their own accounts, and signing their
own checks. Nevertheless, the advertisement in Figure 4 for The National Bank of Bahrain that
uses appeals to family and the need to save for childrens education implies that the mother is
involved in the decision and shows both a boy and a girl as the children of concern. A Mercedes
campaign in the Arabic womens press emphasized car safety, acknowledging that many Gulf
women are car owners in their own right or, at the very least, play a key role in choosing the
family car. In a Saudi TV advertisement for LOreal Plenitude (a skin care product), women are
shown in education-related settings and working with computers.
Time Orientation
Time orientation concerns a cultures perspective on the temporal aspects of human life such
as the attitude towards tradition and the past, the degree to which people accept the present
situation for what it is, and the extent of planning for the future. Consumption behavior and the
extent of materialism in a society is a reflection of time orientation because it can indicate
whether people are focused relatively more on a this-worldly life or on an after-life.
Balanced Consumption. Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton (1981) distinguish between
instrumental materialism and terminal materialism. In instrumental materialism, objects are
valued for their ability to aid the doing of some activity. In terminal materialism, however, the
objects are valued as ends in themselves and possession is sought simply for the sake of having
the objects. From an Islamic perspective, instrumental materialism is acceptable but terminal
materialism is not. Prophet Muhammad advised Muslims to be moderate in all their affairs; he

described Islam as the middle way. Islam is not an ascetic religion. It allows people to satisfy
their needs and go beyond. Figure 5 is an advertisement for a brand of luxury watch that
illustrates romanticism and uses culturally acceptable images of tradition and modesty.
Simplicity in consumption can be attained in lifestyles alongside creativity and diversity,
however, and Islam stresses the sharing of wealth among fellow Muslims. Social responsibility is
preferred to conspicuous consumption and profit-seeking. Appeals to household economy and
the opportunity to save are frequent. An example is shown in Figure 6. The message of this Pepsi
print advertisement is that consumers can save with Pepsi and are encouraged to drink Pepsi at
the fast-breaking time during the month of Ramadan. An advertisement for Luvs diapers shown
on the Arabic satellite channel MBC focuses on saving money. A woman in full Islamic dress
explains that she has a large family and therefore must be concerned about savings; the Luvs
price is reasonable. At the end of the advertisement, coins are piled up besides a package of Luvs
diapers and a voice-over sings make savings.
A Coca-Cola-advertised price-off promotion had unintended consequences, however. To
celebrate its first year on the Iranian market, the Coca-Cola Company advertised a promotion
discounting the price of its bottled soft drink. Contrary to its intent, the strategy resulted in
widespread questioning of the companys profit margin for the preceding year and led to
criticism that resulted in a near ban of the campaign. In June 1994, the government imposed a
selling price on all soft drinks which was apparently lower than the production cost for both
Coke and Pepsi (Shargh 1994).
Appreciation of Education/Science. Muslims have a strong orientation towards traditions.
They believe that the life-system advocated in the Quran and sunnah is applicable to all times
and places. Furthermore, Muslims are especially proud of their scientific and other intellectual
achievements in the Medieval times and, as a people, they continue to be strong advocates of
education. Advertising appeals that include recognition of the importance of education and
science work well with many Muslim consumers.
Human Nature Orientation (Self-Concept)
The character of human nature is one of the cultural dimensions identified by Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck (1961). Usunier (1993) specifically describes this as the self-concept and concept of
others. This section focuses on modesty, which is an extremely important and desired selfconcept or character trait in Islam.
Modesty. Gilly (1988) argues that advertising must reflect culture and that in terms of sex
roles, it must reflect a cultures sex norms. Diverse practices in Muslim countries reflect cultural
influences. There is a large gap between the Islamic ideal and real cultures. Both extremes exist:
from complete seclusion of women to unrestricted mixing of the sexes. Yet the parameters of
proper modesty for both male and female dress and behavior are seen as divinely based
guidelines with legitimate aims, not male-imposed or society-imposed restrictions (see Table 1).
With respect to womens dress, the Quran mentions that women should not show off their
adornment except only that which is apparent. Scholars have interpreted this differently: most
scholars refer to the sunnah and interpret the verse to mean that women may show only their
hands and face to men outside of their immediate family circle. A stricter interpretation is that
women should be completely veiled.
Because interpretations and attitudes differ, variations in advertising can be expected in the
portrayal of women in advertising. Al-Makaty et al. (1996) provide the text of the Saudi Arabian

Ministry of Informations guidelines for television advertising: The main principles ... consist of
the true observation of the Islamic faith, the teaching of Islam and its fundamental beliefs which
bear high values for man, life and the personal and social conduct of the individual. Saudi TV
advertisements portray women who are usually veiled, showing only their face and hands. In a
content analysis of pan-Arab, Egyptian, Lebanese and Emirati magazine advertisements, AlOlayan and Karande (2000) found that in 83 percent of Arabic advertisements showing women,
they were wearing long clothing, compared to 29 per cent in US advertisements. Also, their study
indicated that more Arabic advertisements show women in the advertisements when their
presence relates to the advertised product than do American advertisements.
Western advertising traditionally attempts to gloss over the lack of a brands differentiation
by investing it with illusory qualities such as prestige and sex appeal (Al Makaty et al. 1996). It
is more difficult to use sex appeal to differentiate a product where legal or cultural barriers such
as those described above exist. A billboard advertisement for Davidoff Cool Water perfume that,
in other countries, showed an apparently naked woman emerging from a lake, was adapted for
Bahrain. The photograph was altered so that the models naked shoulders were covered; she then
appeared to be emerging from behind a rock in the lake and only her face was visible (see Figure
7). The advertisement still raised complaints from the municipal authorities in Bahrain, however.
The models facial expression was described as being too sexy and inviting (Al-Mohamed
1997).
Close-Up toothpaste has traditionally been positioned on the basis of sex appeal. An
advertisement for Close-Up shown in the Gulf countries in 1997 adapted this theme for these
more conservative societies in a particularly creative way. A few young men happily drive to the
mall; while strolling there, they pass a small group of young women, one of whom drops a
handkerchief. One of the youths picks up the handkerchief and gives it to the young woman with
a smile. There is no physical contact between them, and it should be noted that the situation is
portrayed as a group happening and not as a Western-oriented dating event.
Luqmani et al. (1989) describe how, in Saudi Arabia, advertisers of cosmetics refrain from
picturing sensuous females. Instead, in typical advertisements (an example is the Dove cleansing
bar), a pleasant-looking woman appears in a robe and headdress with only her face showing.
Cartoon characters to represent women are less likely to violate Islamic codes. Yet, care should
be exercised. Shortly after Mattel opened a new regional office in Dubai, a Kuwaiti imam
imposed a fatwa (religious ruling) on Mattels Barbie dolls, and religious sources in Iran
denounced the dolls as having unwholesome effects on the minds and morality of young children
(Gulf Marketing Review, June 1996).
The advertising of condoms can be especially difficult in conservative societies. The
approach in Egypt, where the target is families and the message is family planning, contrasts
dramatically with a risque 1998 advertising campaign developed by McCann-Erickson for Durex
condoms, targeting young single people and run in Europe. In Egypt, an advertising execution
for a condom brand shows a father and mother introducing themselves and their children in a
loving way. The message, explained by the parents, is that having only two children, spaced a
few years apart, means that one can spend time and attention taking care of them. The
advertising of condoms is a very sensitive topic, whether in the context of family planning or
preventive health care.
In Bahrain, regarded as one of the more liberal Gulf states, the advertising of contraceptives
is forbidden (see Table 2 for Gulf Media Internationals Code of Acceptance). Other products
may also be subject to restrictions because of a desire to maintain modesty in the society. For

10

example, a Korean company applied for permission to advertise its underwear product in the
Bahrain airport location. The advertising was acceptable only if the words Best Cotton
Underwear were removed; see Figure 8, which shows the offending text crossed out (AlMohamed 1997).
TABLE 2. Gulf Media International W.L.L. (Bahrain) Code of Acceptance
Advertisements and advertising materials will not be accepted for or retained on display if they:
Depict murder scenes or terror or acts of violence.
Are calculated to demoralise, extenuate crime, break the law or incite anyone.
Depict or refer to indecency, obscenity, nudity or striptease or offend the general public.
Are likely through wording, design or possible defacement to offend the general public.
Advertise films which have been refused a permit for public exhibition.
Might wound racial susceptibilities or those of colored or foreign people or members of a group who may not be
otherwise protected by the terms of this Code.
Refer to religious, sacred or other politically, morally or socially sensitive subjects in a manner which might give
offence or seek to use .... as a medium for controversy arising from such subjects.
Attack a member or the policies of any government.
Are of a political nature whether produced by a political party or not, other than those which simply announce
social activities or meetings together with the names of the speakers and the subject to be discussed. The wording
used in announcing the subject must not be politically controversial or call for a particular point, policy or action.
Might ferment social unrest.
Advertise contraceptives or conflict with the advertising practice in relation to the advertising of medicines and
treatments.
Contain illustrations or copy which are distorted or exaggerated in such a way as to convey false impressions, are
calculated to deceive the public, or contain statements of a knocking or extravagant nature.
Might adversely affect in any way the operations revenue or market position of .... or any of its associated
business (e.g. by advertising competitive services by the use of designs of texts which might lead to confusion or
by offers of employment in competition with the requirements of the .... or any associated business).
Source: Adapted from Al-Mohamed (1997)

After the Iranian revolution, television advertising went through three stages:
(1) advertisements relying totally on sounds and a few still pictures, (2) advertisements using
sound and cartoon pictures, and (3) advertisements with sound and live characters. In all
advertisements today, women are dressed in full Islamic attire. In particular, Iranian advertising
is characterized by a higher proportion of men and children than women appearing in
advertisements, little or no music, and a strong focus on the family.
Activity Orientation
Usuniers (1993) explanation of activity orientation, or a cultures towards action, includes
the human beings relationship with nature.
Care for the Environment and Health. The Islamic perspective on the environment is that
humans are trustees of the environment. Everything a person owns (even a persons body)
belongs to God and therefore people must care for themselves, their possessions and the
environment at large. Wasteful behavior is condemned in the Quran. The implications of this are
that Muslim consumers should readily respond to advertising appeals that stress environmental

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friendliness, cleanliness and health. In reality, because of economic conditions, Muslim nations,
along with most other developing nations, have been slower to adopt environmental regulations
than have the developed countries. Nevertheless, there are currently ample opportunities for
environmental advertising messages. For example, in Bahrain, Al-Jazira Supermarket places an
environmental logo on its plastic shopping bags with the phrase Protection of the Environment
is our National Duty. Also in Bahrain, NADA Mineral Water is positioned as environmentally
friendlier and healthier because of its clear plastic bottles, which contrasts with the blue plastic
bottles of its rivals.
As indicated in Table 1, Muslims are forbidden from consuming meat which has not been
slaughtered in the permissible or halal way, as well as intoxicants such as wine. Many
restaurants and fast food chains in the Middle East (such as Mr. Wimpy, Burger King,
McDonalds, Hardees and Dairy Queen) advertise that their food is guaranteed halal. A Hilton
hotel print advertisement for Friday Brunch and Wednesday Steak Night emphasizes at that
its meat is Real Halal.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In the Middle East, there is strong growth in advertising spending and in opportunities to
place advertisements in the expanding and developing broadcast and print media (for example,
see Westcott 1998, Martin 1998, and Middle East Executive Reports 1998). Yet, in a global
survey of attitudes towards advertising in 22 countries, a large Middle Eastern market, Egypt,
was the only country where respondents were consistently anti-advertising (Wentz 1993).
Explanations of this result by the surveys sponsor, the International Association of Advertisers,
include growing religious extremism. Therefore, with respect to message development,
executives in companies advertising to Muslim consumers in the Middle East and elsewhere
would be wise to gain an understanding of Muslim values.
Holbrook (1987) argues that, because most products are in the mature stages of their life
cycles, augmenting or repositioning peoples beliefs is more fruitful than trying to alter their
choice criteria or attempting to move their ideal points. Those choice criteria and ideal points are
anchored in value systems that are the result of extensive long-term socialization. Thus,
advertising should attempt to reflect the values of a society. As Michell and Al-Mossawi (1995)
point out, it is important to manipulate the elements of an advertisement which may prove
contentious (such as certain types of music, sexual imagery, comparison to other named brands,
exaggeration, etc.) to strengthen the communication of the message while retaining the integrity
of the advertising strategy and those elements which match the targets values.
It is not always easy, however, to match advertising to the target consumers values because
of the challenge of identifying those values. For example, De Mooij (1998) discusses a value
paradox in which one can distinguish between what people think ought to be desired and what
people actually desire, or how people think the world ought to be versus what people want for
themselves. The desirable refers to the general norms of a society and is worded in terms of
right or wrong; for example, several of the Islamic value dimensions (such as honesty, fairness
and modesty) listed in Table 1 are phrased in terms of the desirable. The desired is what
people want for themselves and is what the majority of a people in a country actually do. Rice
(1999), in a similar vein, identifies Islamic aspirational values versus everyday practice in Egypt,
a country where the population is predominantly Muslim.

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There are undoubtedly various consumer segments that can be identified using religiosity as
the base for segmentation. These segments can be found both within and across Middle Eastern
countries. The segments may be drawn on a continuum from less conservative (focusing on the
desired and the pragmatic) to more conservative or Islam-dominant (emphasizing the
desirable or the ideal). It should be noted that the apparent acceptance of the symbols of
Western consumerism does not imply the acceptance of Western values. A 1997 research study
carried out by Fortune Promoseven in Saudi Arabia and the UAE found that while young men
embraced technology and consumerism, they were surprisingly conservative (Thomas 1997).
Also, even non-practicing Muslims often have a strong Islamic identity and would be attracted
by Islamically oriented appeals. Collectivists (and Muslim societies are collectivist rather than
individualist) can handle more discrepancy between attitude and behavior than can individualists
(Gentry et al. 1995). Harnessing the sometimes conflicting forces of tradition and exploration,
which emerged as key emotional streams from a Saudi Arabian study (Jordan 1998), is therefore
a strong challenge for advertisers, not just in Saudi Arabia, but across the entire Middle East
region. The study of Saudi teenagers and young Saudi families conducted by the Merlin research
agency (Jordan 1998) concluded that teenagers in Saudi Arabia differ from their global
counterparts in a number of significant areas. They feel secure within the welfare system of their
extended families. The respect between the teenagers and their parents appears mutual. Only six
percent of the surveyed teenagers agreed strongly that their parents often embarrassed them in
front of their friends. Asked the same question, 58 percent of teenagers in the UK agreed with the
statement. This marked difference, and others of a similar nature, has interesting implications for
the use of aspirational role models in advertising and promotions. Family support enhances and
supports the Saudi teens self-esteem and confidence. The study also found that Saudi teenagers
do not seek to wear the badges that identify them with Western culture. The Merlin research
agency recommends that there is an opportunity for branding but not for force-fitting American
or global imagery to a market that has a deep-seated confidence in the superiority of its own
culture and society.
Many traditional and extremely conservative Islam-dominant segments are out of reach. In
Saudi Arabia, although TV ownership is almost universal, there is a small proportion of the
population that fully rejects the visual medium on religious grounds (Al-Makaty et al. 1996). A
psychographic segmentation study (Wafai and El-Tigi 1996) of over 3,000 Egyptians identified
half of the rural respondents as belonging to the steeped traditionalists as compared to only 28
percent of urban residents. Furthermore, the favorite radio station of the two most traditional
segments (70 percent of the entire sample) was the religious station, Quran Kareem. Clearly,
advertising communications to such consumers, if they are possible at all, need to be developed
carefully on the basis of the ideal positions on the value dimensions listed in Table 1.
Despite the few research efforts mentioned in this article, relatively little is known about
Middle Eastern Muslim consumers attitudes towards advertising messages. Further research into
the relationship between religious values and the response to advertising could benefit
international advertisers targeting the growing Muslim consumer market, not just in the Middle
East, but also in Asia and elsewhere.

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Submitted: February 2000
First Revision: June 2001
Second Revision: December 2001
Accepted: January 2002

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