Wireless power

tags, smartcards, and chargers for implantable medical

devices like articial cardiac pacemakers, and inductive
powering or charging of electric vehicles like trains or
buses.[9][11] A current focus is to develop wireless systems
to charge mobile and handheld computing devices such as
cellphones, digital music players and portable computers
without being tethered to a wall plug.
In radiative or far-eld techniques, also called
power beaming, power is transmitted by beams of
electromagnetic radiation, like microwaves or laser
beams.[12] These techniques can transport energy longer
distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed
applications for this type are solar power satellites, and
wireless powered drone aircraft.[9] An important issue
associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the
exposure of people and other living things to potentially
injurious electromagnetic elds (see Electromagnetic
radiation and health).[9]

1 Overview
Inductive charging pad for LG smartphone, using the Qi system,
an example of near-eld wireless transfer. When the phone is
set on the pad, a coil in the pad creates a magnetic eld which
induces a current in another coil, in the phone, charging its battery.

Antennas or
Coupling Devices

Vs
Power
Source

Transmitter

Receiver

Load

Wireless power transfer (WPT)[1] or wireless energy

transmission is the transmission of electrical power from
a power source to a consuming device without using discrete manmade conductors.[2][3][4][5] It is a generic term
that refers to a number of dierent power transmission technologies that use time-varying electromagnetic
elds.[1][5][6][7] Wireless transmission is useful to power
electrical devices in cases where interconnecting wires
are inconvenient, hazardous, or are not possible. In wireless power transfer, a transmitter device connected to
a power source, such as the mains power line, transmits power by electromagnetic elds across an intervening space to one or more receiver devices, where it is converted back to electric power and utilized.[1]

Wireless power transmission is a collective term that

refers to a number of dierent technologies for transmitting power by means of time-varying electromagnetic
elds.[1][5][8] The technologies, listed in the table below,
dier in the distance over which they can transmit power
eciently, whether the transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of electromagnetic
energy they use: time varying electric elds, magnetic
elds, radio waves, microwaves, or infrared or visible
light waves.[8]

Wireless power techniques fall into two categories, nonradiative and radiative.[1][6][8][9][10] In near-eld or nonradiative techniques, power is transferred over short distances by magnetic elds using inductive coupling between coils of wire or in a few devices by electric elds using capacitive coupling between electrodes.[5][8] Applications of this type are electric toothbrush chargers, RFID

In general a wireless power system consists of a transmitter device connected to a source of power such as mains
power lines, which converts the power to a time-varying
electromagnetic eld, and one or more receiver devices
which receive the power and convert it back to DC or
AC electric power which is consumed by an electrical
load.[1][8] In the transmitter the input power is converted

Generic block diagram of a wireless power system

to an oscillating electromagnetic eld by some type of

"antenna" device. The word antenna is used loosely
here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a magnetic
eld, a metal plate which generates an electric eld, an
antenna which radiates radio waves, or a laser which generates light. A similar antenna or coupling device in the
receiver converts the oscillating elds to an electric current. An important parameter which determines the type
of waves is the frequency f in hertz of the oscillations.
The frequency determines the wavelength = c/f of the
waves which carry the energy across the gap, where c is
the velocity of light.
Wireless power uses the same elds and waves as wireless
communication devices like radio,[6][13] another familiar technology which involves power transmitted without
wires by electromagnetic elds, used in cellphones, radio
and television broadcasting, and WiFi. In radio communication the goal is the transmission of information, so
the amount of power reaching the receiver is unimportant as long as it is enough that the signal to noise ratio is high enough that the information can be received
intelligibly.[5][6][13] In wireless communication technologies, generally, only tiny amounts of power reach the receiver. By contrast, in wireless power, the amount of
power received is the important thing, so the eciency
(fraction of transmitted power that is received) is the
more signicant parameter.[5] For this reason wireless
power technologies are more limited by distance than
wireless communication technologies.
These
are
the
dierent
technologies:[1][8][9][14][15]

wireless

power

Field regions

Electric and magnetic elds are created by charged particles in matter such as electrons. A stationary charge creates an electrostatic eld in the space around it. A steady
current of charges (direct current, DC) creates a static
magnetic eld around it. The above elds contain energy,
but cannot carry power because they are static. However time-varying elds can carry power.[17] Accelerating
electric charges, such as are found in an alternating current (AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric and magnetic elds in the space around them. These
elds can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving antenna, causing them to move back and forth.
These represent alternating current which can be used to
power a load.
The oscillating electric and magnetic elds surrounding
moving electric charges in an antenna device can be divided into two regions, depending on distance D from
the antenna.[1][4][6][8][9][10][18] The boundary between the
regions is somewhat vaguely dened.[8] The elds have
dierent characteristics in these regions, and dierent
technologies are used for transmitting power:

FIELD REGIONS

Near-eld or nonradiative region This means

the area within about 1 wavelength () of the
antenna.[1][4][10] In this region the oscillating electric
and magnetic elds are separate[6] and power can
be transferred via electric elds by capacitive coupling (electrostatic induction) between metal electrodes, or via magnetic elds by inductive coupling (electromagnetic induction) between coils of
wire.[5][6][8][9] These elds are not radiative,[10]
meaning the energy stays within a short distance
of the transmitter.[19] If there is no receiving device or absorbing material within their limited range
to couple to, no power leaves the transmitter.[19]
The range of these elds is short, and depends on
the size and shape of the antenna devices, which
are usually coils of wire. The elds, and thus
the power transmitted, decrease exponentially with
distance,[4][18][20] so if the distance between the two
antennas D is much larger than the diameter
of the antennas D very little power will be received. Therefore, these techniques cannot be used
for long distance power transmission.
Resonance, such as resonant inductive
coupling, can increase the coupling between the antennas greatly, allowing efcient transmission at somewhat greater
distances,[1][4][6][9][21][22] although the elds
still decrease exponentially. Therefore the
range of near-eld devices is conventionally
devided into two categories:
Short range up to about one antenna
diameter: D D .[19][21][23] This is
the range over which ordinary nonresonant capacitive or inductive coupling can
transfer practical amounts of power.
Mid-range up to 10 times the antenna
diameter: D 10 D .[21][22][23][24]
This is the range over which resonant capacitive or inductive coupling can transfer practical amounts of power.
Far-eld or radiative region Beyond about 1
wavelength () of the antenna, the electric and magnetic elds are perpendicular to each other and propagate as an electromagnetic wave; examples are
radio waves, microwaves, or light waves.[1][4][9] This
part of the energy is radiative,[10] meaning it leaves
the antenna whether or not there is a receiver to absorb it. The portion of energy which does not strike
the receiving antenna is dissipated and lost to the
system. The amount of power emitted as electromagnetic waves by an antenna depends on the ratio
of the antennas size D to the wavelength of the
waves ,[25] which is determined by the frequency:
= c/f. At low frequencies f where the antenna
is much smaller than the size of the waves, D

3.1

Inductive coupling

<< , very little power is radiated. Therefore the

near-eld devices above, which use lower frequencies, radiate almost none of their energy as elecB
tromagnetic radiation. Antennas about the same
Vs
size as the wavelength D such as monopole
or dipole antennas, radiate power eciently, but
L2 Rectifier Load
Power Oscillator L1
the electromagnetic waves are radiated in all direcSource
tions (omnidirectionally), so if the receiving antenna
is far away, only a small amount of the radiation Generic block diagram of an inductive wireless power system.
will hit it.[10][21] Therefore, these can be used for
short range, inecient power transmission but not
for long range transmission.[26]
3.1 Inductive coupling

However, unlike elds, electromagnetic radiation can be focused by reection or refraction

into beams. By using a high-gain antenna
or optical system which concentrates the radiation into a narrow beam aimed at the receiver, it can be used for long range power
transmission.[21][26] From the Rayleigh criterion, to produce the narrow beams necessary
to focus a signicant amount of the energy on
a distant receiver, an antenna must be much
larger than the wavelength of the waves used:
D >> = c/f.[27][28] Practical beam power
devices require wavelengths in the centimeter region or below, corresponding to frequencies above 1 GHz, in the microwave range or
above.[1]

Near-eld or non-radiative techniques

Main article: Coupling (electronics)

The near-eld components of electric and magnetic
elds die out quickly beyond a distance of about one
diameter of the antenna (D ). Outside very close
ranges the eld strength and coupling is roughly proportional to (D /D )3[18][29] Since power is proportional to the square of the eld strength, the power transferred decreases with the sixth power of the distance
(D /D )6 .[6][20][30][31] or 60 dB per decade. In other
words, doubling the distance between transmitter and receiver causes the power received to decrease by a factor
of 26 = 64.

(left) Modern inductive power transfer, an electric

toothbrush charger. A coil in the stand produces a
magnetic eld, inducing an AC current in a coil in the
toothbrush, which is rectied to charge the batteries.
(right) A light bulb powered wirelessly by induction, in
1910.
In inductive coupling (electromagnetic induction[9][32] or
inductive power transfer, IPT), power is transferred between coils of wire by a magnetic eld.[6] The transmitter
and receiver coils together form a transformer[6][9] (see
diagram). An alternating current (AC) through the transmitter coil (L1) creates an oscillating magnetic eld (B)
by Amperes law. The magnetic eld passes through the
receiving coil (L2), where it induces an alternating EMF
(voltage) by Faradays law of induction, which creates
an AC current in the receiver.[5][32] The induced alternating current may either drive the load directly, or be
rectied to direct current (DC) by a rectier in the receiver, which drives the load. A few systems, such as

3 NEAR-FIELD OR NON-RADIATIVE TECHNIQUES

electric toothbrush charging stands, work at 50/60 Hz

so AC mains current is applied directly to the transmitter coil, but in most systems an electronic oscillator
generates a higher frequency AC current which drives
the coil, because transmission eciency improves with
frequency.[32]
Inductive coupling is the oldest and most widely used
wireless power technology, and virtually the only one
so far which is used in commercial products. It is
used in inductive charging stands for cordless appliances Prototype inductive electric car charging system at 2011
used in wet environments such as electric toothbrushes[9] Tokyo Auto Show
and shavers, to reduce the risk of electric shock.[7] Another application area is transcutaneous recharging of
biomedical prosthetic devices implanted in the human
body, such as cardiac pacemakers and insulin pumps,
to avoid having wires passing through the skin.[33][34] It
is also used to charge electric vehicles such as cars and
to either charge or power transit vehicles like buses and
trains.[9][15]
However the fastest growing use is wireless charging pads
to recharge mobile and handheld wireless devices such
as laptop and tablet computers, cellphones, digital media Powermat inductive charging spots in a coee shop.
Customers can set their phones and computers on them
players, and video game controllers.[15]
to recharge.
The power transferred increases with frequency[32] and
the mutual inductance M between the coils,[5] which depends on their geometry and the distance D between
them. A widely-used gure of merit is the coupling co
ecient k = M / L1 L2 .[32][35] This dimensionless parameter is equal to the fraction of magnetic ux through
L1 that passes through L2. If the two coils are on the
same axis and close together so all the magnetic ux from
L1 passes through L2, k = 1 and the link eciency approaches 100%. The greater the separation between the
coils, the more of the magnetic eld from the rst coil Wireless powered access card.
misses the second, and the lower k and the link eciency
are, approaching zero at large separations.[32] The link efciency and power transferred is roughly proportional to
k2 .[32] In order to achieve high eciency, the coils must
be very close together, a fraction of the coil diameter 3.1.1 Resonant inductive coupling
D ,[32] usually within centimeters,[26] with the coils axes
aligned. Wide, at coil shapes are usually used, to in- Main article: Resonant inductive coupling
[9]
crease coupling.[32] Ferrite ux connement cores can Resonant inductive coupling (electrodynamic coupling,
conne the magnetic elds, improving coupling and reducing interference to nearby electronics,[32][33] but they
B
are heavy and bulky so small wireless devices often use
air-core coils.
Vs
Ordinary inductive coupling can only achieve high eResonant
Circuits
ciency when the coils are very close together, usually adRectifier Load
Power Oscillator
jacent. In most modern inductive systems resonant inducSource
tive coupling (described below) is used, in which the eciency is increased by using resonant circuits.[10][22][32][36] Diagram of the resonant inductive wireless power system demonThis can achieve high eciencies at greater distances strated by Marin Soljai's MIT team in 2007. The resonant cirthan nonresonant inductive coupling.
cuits were coils of copper wire which resonated with their internal
capacitance (dotted capacitors) at 10 MHz. Power was coupled
into the transmitter resonator, and out of the receiver resonator
into the rectier, by small coils which also served for impedance
matching.

3.2

Capacitive coupling

evanescent wave coupling or strongly coupled magnetic

resonance[21] ) is a form of inductive coupling in which
power is transferred by magnetic elds (B, green) between two resonant circuits (tuned circuits), one in
the transmitter and one in the receiver (see diagram,
right).[6][7][9][10][36] Each resonant circuit consists of a coil
of wire connected to a capacitor, or a self-resonant coil
or other resonator with internal capacitance. The two are
tuned to resonate at the same resonant frequency. The
resonance between the coils can greatly increase coupling
and power transfer, analogously to the way a vibrating
tuning fork can induce sympathetic vibration in a distant
fork tuned to the same pitch. Nikola Tesla rst discovered resonant coupling during his pioneering experiments
in wireless power transfer around the turn of the 20th
century,[37][38][39] but the possibilities of using resonant
coupling to increase transmission range has only recently
been explored.[40] In 2007 a team led by Marin Soljai
at MIT used two coupled tuned circuits each made of a
25 cm self-resonant coil of wire at 10 MHz to achieve
the transmission of 60 W of power over a distance of 2
meters (6.6 ft) (8 times the coil diameter) at around 40%
eciency.[7][9][21][38][41]
The concept behind resonant inductive coupling is
that high Q factor resonators exchange energy at a
much higher rate than they lose energy due to internal
damping.[21] Therefore, by using resonance, the same
amount of power can be transferred at greater distances,
using the much weaker magnetic elds out in the peripheral regions (tails) of the near elds (these are sometimes called evanescent elds[21] ). Resonant inductive
coupling can achieve high eciency at ranges of 4 to
10 times the coil diameter (D ).[22][23][24] This is called
mid-range transfer,[23] in contrast to the short range
of nonresonant inductive transfer, which can achieve similar eciencies only when the coils are adjacent. Another
advantage is that resonant circuits interact with each other
so much more strongly than they do with nonresonant objects that power losses due to absorption in stray nearby
objects are negligible.[10][21] A drawback of resonant coupling is that at close ranges when the two resonant circuits
are tightly coupled, the resonant frequency of the system
is no longer constant but splits into two resonant peaks,
so the maximum power transfer no longer occurs at the
original resonant frequency and the oscillator frequency
must be tuned to the new resonance peak.[22]

5
contamination.[26]

3.2 Capacitive coupling

Main article: Capacitive coupling
In capacitive coupling (electrostatic induction), the dual
of inductive coupling, power is transmitted by electric
elds[5] between electrodes such as metal plates. The
transmitter and receiver electrodes form a capacitor, with
the intervening space as the dielectric.[5][6][9][33][42] An
alternating voltage generated by the transmitter is applied to the transmitting plate, and the oscillating electric
eld induces an alternating potential on the receiver plate
by electrostatic induction,[5][42] which causes an alternating current to ow in the load circuit. The amount of
power transferred increases with the frequency[42] and the
capacitance between the plates, which is proportional to
the area of the smaller plate and (for short distances) inversely proportional to the separation.[5]

Capacitive coupling has only been used practically in a

few low power applications, because the very high voltages on the electrodes required to transmit signicant
power can be hazardous,[6][9] and can cause unpleasant
side eects such as noxious ozone production. In addition, in contrast to magnetic elds,[21] electric elds interact strongly with most materials, including the human
body, due to dielectric polarization.[33] Intervening materials between or near the electrodes can absorb the energy, in the case of humans possibly causing excessive
electromagnetic eld exposure.[6] However capacitive
coupling has a few advantages over inductive. The eld
is largely conned between the capacitor plates, reducing
interference, which in inductive coupling requires heavy
ferrite ux connement cores.[5][33] Also, alignment requirements between the transmitter and receiver are less
critical.[5][6][42] Capacitive coupling has recently been applied to charging battery powered portable devices[43] and
Resonant technology is currently being widely incorpo- is being considered as a means of transferring power be[44]
rated in modern inductive wireless power systems.[32] tween substrate layers in integrated circuits.
One of the possibilities envisioned for this technology is Capacitive wireless power systems
area wireless power coverage. A coil in the wall or ceilC
Rectifier
Oscillator
ing of a room might be able to wirelessly power lights
and mobile devices anywhere in the room, with reasonE
able eciency.[7] An environmental and economic benVs
et of wirelessly powering small devices such as clocks,
C
Load
radios, music players and remote controls is that it could Power
drastically reduce the 6 billion batteries disposed of each Source
year, a large source of toxic waste and groundwater
Bipolar

arate electric generator or by using the receiver armature

itself as the rotor in a generator.

Passive plates
Oscillator

P3

Rectifier

P1 P2

Power
Source

FAR-FIELD OR RADIATIVE TECHNIQUES

P4
Load

Unipolar
Two types of circuit have been used:
Bipolar design:[45] In this type of circuit, there are
two transmitter plates and two receiver plates. Each
transmitter plate is coupled to a receiver plate. The
transmitter oscillator drives the transmitter plates in
opposite phase (180 phase dierence) by a high
alternating voltage, and the load is connected between the two receiver plates. The alternating electric elds induce opposite phase alternating potentials in the receiver plates, and this push-pull action causes current to ow back and forth between
the plates through the load. A disadvantage of this
conguration for wireless charging is that the two
plates in the receiving device must be aligned face to
face with the charger plates for the device to work.
Unipolar design:[5][42] In this type of circuit, the
transmitter and receiver have only one active electrode, and either the ground or a large inactive capacitive electrode serves as the return path for the
current. The transmitter oscillator and the load
is connected between the electrodes and a ground
connection, inducing an alternating potential on the
nearby receiving electrode with respect to ground,
causing alternating current to ow through the load
connected between it and ground.

This device has been proposed as an alternative to inductive power transfer for noncontact charging of electric vehicles.[14] A rotating armature embedded in a garage oor
or curb would turn a receiver armature in the underside of
the vehicle to charge its batteries.[14] It is claimed that this
technique can transfer power over distances of 10 to 15
cm (4 to 6 inches) with high eciency, over 90%.[14][46]
Also, the low frequency stray magnetic elds produced
by the rotating magnets produce less electromagnetic interference to nearby electronic devices than the high frequency magnetic elds produced by inductive coupling
systems. A prototype system charging electric vehicles
has been in operation at University of British Columbia
since 2012. Other researchers, however, claim that the
two energy conversions (electrical to mechanical to electrical again) make the system less ecient than electrical
systems like inductive coupling.[14]

4 Far-eld or radiative techniques

Far eld methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the distance is much greater
than the diameter of the device(s). The main reason for
longer ranges with radio wave and optical devices is the
fact that electromagnetic radiation in the far-eld can be
made to match the shape of the receiving area (using high
directivity antennas or well-collimated laser beams). The
maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by
diraction.
In general, visible light (from lasers) and microwaves
(from purpose-designed antennas) are the forms of electromagnetic radiation best suited to energy transfer.

The dimensions of the components may be dictated by the

distance from transmitter to receiver, the wavelength and
the Rayleigh criterion or diraction limit, used in stanResonance can also be used with capacitive coupling to dard radio frequency antenna design, which also applies
extend the range. At the turn of the century, Nikola Tesla to lasers. Airys diraction limit is also frequently used
did the rst experiments with both resonant electrostatic to determine an approximate spot size at an arbitrary distance from the aperture. Electromagnetic radiation exand magnetic coupling.
periences less diraction at shorter wavelengths (higher
frequencies); so, for example, a blue laser is diracted
less than a red one.
3.3 Magnetodynamic coupling
In this method, power is transmitted between two rotating armatures, one in the transmitter and one in the receiver, which rotate synchronously, coupled together by
a magnetic eld generated by permanent magnets on the
armatures.[14] The transmitter armature is turned either
by or as the rotor of an electric motor, and its magnetic eld exerts torque on the receiver armature, turning it. The magnetic eld acts like a mechanical coupling between the armatures.[14] The receiver armature
produces power to drive the load, either by turning a sep-

The Rayleigh criterion dictates that any radio wave, microwave or laser beam will spread and become weaker
and diuse over distance; the larger the transmitter antenna or laser aperture compared to the wavelength of radiation, the tighter the beam and the less it will spread as
a function of distance (and vice versa). Smaller antennae
also suer from excessive losses due to side lobes. However, the concept of laser aperture considerably diers
from an antenna. Typically, a laser aperture much larger
than the wavelength induces multi-moded radiation and
mostly collimators are used before emitted radiation cou-

4.2

Lasers

ples into a ber or into space.

not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the

Ultimately, beamwidth is physically determined by beams of several smaller satellites.
diraction due to the dish size in relation to the wave- For earthbound applications, a large-area 10 km diameter
length of the electromagnetic radiation used to make the receiving array allows large total power levels to be used
beam.
while operating at the low power density suggested for
safety. A human safe
Microwave power beaming can be more ecient than human electromagnetic exposure
power density of 1 mW/cm2 distributed across a 10 km
lasers, and is less prone to atmospheric attenuation caused
diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power
by dust or water vapor.
level. This is the power level found in many modern elecThen the power levels are calculated by combining the tric power plants.
above parameters together, and adding in the gains
and losses due to the antenna characteristics and the Following World War II, which saw the development of
transparency and dispersion of the medium through high-power microwave emitters known as cavity magwhich the radiation passes. That process is known as cal- netrons, the idea of using microwaves to transmit power
was researched. By 1964, a miniature helicopter proculating a link budget.
pelled by microwave power had been demonstrated.[51]
Japanese researcher Hidetsugu Yagi also investigated
wireless energy transmission using a directional array antenna that he designed. In February 1926, Yagi and his
Main article: Microwave power transmission
colleague Shintaro Uda published their rst paper on the
Power transmission via radio waves can be made more tuned high-gain directional array now known as the Yagi
antenna. While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna has been
widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless
telecommunications industries due to its excellent performance characteristics.[52]

4.1

Microwaves

Wireless high power transmission using microwaves is

well proven. Experiments in the tens of kilowatts
have been performed at Goldstone in California in
1975[53][54][55] and more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin
on Reunion Island.[56] These methods achieve distances
on the order of a kilometer.
An artists depiction of a solar satellite that could send electric
energy by microwaves to a space vessel or planetary surface.

Under experimental conditions, microwave conversion

eciency was measured to be around 54%.[57]

A change to 24 GHz has been suggested as microwave

emitters similar to LEDs have been made with very high
directional, allowing longer distance power beaming, quantum eciencies using negative resistance, i.e., Gunn
with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, or IMPATT diodes, and this would be viable for short
typically in the microwave range.[47] A rectenna may range links.
be used to convert the microwave energy back into
electricity. Rectenna conversion eciencies exceeding Recently, researchers at the University of Washington in95% have been realized. Power beaming using mi- troduced power over Wi-Fi, which trickle-charges batcrowaves has been proposed for the transmission of en- teries and powered battery-free cameras and temperature
[58]
ergy from orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the sensors using transmissions from Wi-Fi routers.
beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been
considered.[48][49]
Power beaming by microwaves has the diculty that,
for most space applications, the required aperture sizes
are very large due to diraction limiting antenna directionality. For example, the 1978 NASA Study of solar power satellites required a 1-km diameter transmitting antenna and a 10 km diameter receiving rectenna
for a microwave beam at 2.45 GHz.[50] These sizes can
be somewhat decreased by using shorter wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have diculties with atmospheric absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of the "thinned array curse, it is

4.2 Lasers
In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to the visible region of the spectrum (tens of micrometers to tens
of nanometres), power can be transmitted by converting
electricity into a laser beam that is then pointed at a photovoltaic cell.[59][12] This mechanism is generally known
as power beaming because the power is beamed at a
receiver that can convert it to electrical energy.
Compared to other wireless methods:[60]

HISTORY

Other details include propagation,[67] and the coherence

and the range limitation problem.[68]
Georey Landis[69][70][71] is one of the pioneers of solar
power satellites[72] and laser-based transfer of energy especially for space and lunar missions. The demand for
safe and frequent space missions has resulted in proposals for a laser-powered space elevator.[73][74]
NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center demonstrated a
lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser
beam.[75] This proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasibility of periodic recharging using the laser beam system.

5 Energy harvesting
With a laser beam centered on its panel of photovoltaic cells,
a lightweight model plane makes the rst ight of an aircraft
powered by a laser beam inside a building at NASA Marshall
Space Flight Center.

Collimated monochromatic wavefront propagation

allows narrow beam cross-section area for transmission over large distances.
Compact size: solid state lasers t into small products.
No radio-frequency interference to existing radio
communication such as Wi-Fi and cell phones.
Access control: only receivers hit by the laser receive
power.
Drawbacks include:
Laser radiation is hazardous. Low power levels can
blind humans and other animals. High power levels
can kill through localized spot heating.

Main article: Energy harvesting

In the context of wireless power, energy harvesting, also
called power harvesting or energy scavenging, is the conversion of ambient energy from the environment to electric power, mainly to power small autonomous wireless
electronic devices.[76] The ambient energy may come
from stray electric or magnetic elds or radio waves
from nearby electrical equipment, light, thermal energy
(heat), or kinetic energy such as vibration or motion
of the device.[76] Although the eciency of conversion
is usually low and the power gathered often minuscule
(milliwatts or microwatts),[76] it can be adequate to run
or recharge small micropower wireless devices such as
remote sensors, which are proliferating in many elds.[76]
This new technology is being developed to eliminate the
need for battery replacement or charging of such wireless devices, allowing them to operate completely autonomously.

6 History

Conversion between electricity and light is ineIn 1826 Andr-Marie Ampre developed Ampres circient. Photovoltaic cells achieve only 40%50%
cuital law showing that electric current produces a mageciency.[61] (Eciency is higher with monochronetic eld.[77] Michael Faraday developed Faradays law
matic light than with solar panels).
of induction in 1831, describing the electromagnetic
Atmospheric absorption, and absorption and scat- force induced in a conductor by a time-varying magnetic
tering by clouds, fog, rain, etc., causes up to 100% ux. In 1862 James Clerk Maxwell synthesized these and
other observations, experiments and equations of eleclosses.
tricity, magnetism and optics into a consistent theory,
Requires a direct line of sight with the target.
deriving Maxwells equations. This set of partial dierential equations forms the basis for modern electromagLaser powerbeaming technology was explored in netics, including the wireless transmission of electrical
military weapons[62][63][64] and aerospace[65][66] applica- energy.[15][36] Maxwell predicted the existence of elections. Also, it is applied for powering of various kinds tromagnetic waves in his 1873 A Treatise on Electricity
of sensors in industrial environment. Lately, it is devel- and Magnetism.[78] In 1884 John Henry Poynting developed for powering commercial and consumer electron- oped equations for the ow of power in an electromagics. Wireless energy transfer systems using lasers for con- netic eld, Poyntings theorem and the Poynting vector,
sumer space have to satisfy laser safety requirements stan- which are used in the analysis of wireless energy transdardized under IEC 60825.
fer systems.[15][36] In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz dis-

6.1

Teslas experiments

covered radio waves, conrming the prediction of elec- Teslas magnifying transmitter nearby, powering the light
tromagnetic waves by Maxwell.[78]
bulb at bottom. (right) Teslas unsuccessful Wardenclye
power station.

6.1

Teslas experiments

Tesla demonstrating wireless power transmission in a lecture at

Columbia College, New York, in 1891. The two metal sheets
are connected to his Tesla coil oscillator, which applies a high
radio frequency oscillating voltage. The oscillating electric eld
between the sheets ionizes the low pressure gas in the two long
Geissler tubes he is holding, causing them to glow by uorescence,
similar to neon lights.

Inventor Nikola Tesla performed the rst experiments

in wireless power transmission at the turn of the 20th
century,[36][38] and may have done more to popularize
the idea than any other individual. In the period 1891
to 1904 he experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using spark-excited radio
frequency resonant transformers, now called Tesla coils,
which generated high AC voltages.[36][38][79] With these
he was able to transmit power for short distances without
wires. In demonstrations before the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers[79] and at the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago he lit light bulbs from across a stage.[38]
He found he could increase the distance by using a receiving LC circuit tuned to resonance with the transmitters
LC circuit.[37] using resonant inductive coupling.[38][39]
At his Colorado Springs laboratory during 18991900,
by using voltages of the order of 10 megavolts generated
by an enormous coil, he was able to light three incandescent lamps at a distance of about one hundred feet.[80][81]
The resonant inductive coupling which Tesla pioneered
is now a familiar technology used throughout electronics
and is currently being widely applied to short-range wireless power systems.[38][82]
The inductive and capacitive coupling used in Teslas
experiments is a "near-eld" eect,[38] so it is not able
to transmit power long distances. However, Tesla was
obsessed with developing a wireless power distribution
system that could transmit power directly into homes
and factories, as proposed in his visionary 1900 article in Century magazine.[83][84][85][86] He claimed to be
able to transmit power on a worldwide scale, using a
method that involved conduction through the Earth and
atmosphere.[84][85][86][87] Tesla believed that the entire
Earth could act as an electrical resonator, and that by
driving current pulses into the Earth at its resonant frequency from a grounded Tesla coil working against an elevated capacitance, the potential of the Earth could be
made to oscillate, and this alternating current could be
received with a similar capacitive antenna tuned to resonance with it at any point on Earth.[84][88] Another of
his ideas was to use balloons to suspend transmitting and
receiving electrodes in the air above 30,000 feet (9,100
m) in altitude, where the pressure is lower.[87] At this altitude, Tesla claimed, an ionized layer would allow electricity to be sent at high voltages (millions of volts) over
long distances.

In 1901, Tesla began construction of a large high-voltage

wireless power station, now called the Wardenclye
Tower, at Shoreham, New York. Although he promoted
it to investors as a transatlantic radiotelegraphy station, he
also intended it to transmit electric power as a prototype
to
(left) Experiment in resonant inductive transfer by Tesla transmitter for a "World Wireless System" that was
[85][89]
broadcast
both
information
and
power
worldwide.
at Colorado Springs 1899. The coil is in resonance with

10

Resonant wireless power demonstration at the Franklin Institute,

Philadelphia, 1937. The vacuum tube oscillator (left) transmits
power inductively to the resonant circuit receiver (right), lighting
the bulb. Visitors could adjust the receivers tuned circuit with the
two knobs. When the resonant frequency of the receiver was out
of tune with the transmitter, the light would go out.

By 1904 his investors had pulled out, and the facility was
never completed. Although Tesla claimed his ideas were
proven, he had a history of failing to conrm his ideas by
experiment,[90][91] and there seems to be no evidence that
he ever transmitted signicant power beyond the shortrange demonstrations above.[15][36][37][80][91][92][93][94][95]
The only report of long-distance transmission by Tesla is
a claim, not found in reliable sources, that in 1899 he
wirelessly lit 200 light bulbs at a distance of 26 miles
(42 km).[80][92] There is no independent conrmation of
this putative demonstration;[80][92][96] Tesla did not mention it,[92] and it does not appear in his meticulous laboratory notes.[96][97] It originated in 1944 from Teslas
rst biographer, John J. O'Neill,[80] who said he pieced
it together from fragmentary material... in a number
of publications.[98] In the 110 years since Teslas experiments, eorts using similar equipment have failed
to achieve long distance power transmission,[38][80][92][94]
and the scientic consensus is his World Wireless system
would not have worked.[15][36][37][85][92][99][100][101][102]
Teslas world power transmission scheme remains today
what it was in Teslas time, a fascinating dream.[15][85]

6.2

Microwaves

Before World War 2, little progress was made in wireless

power transmission.[93] Radio was developed for communication uses, but couldn't be used for power transmission due to the fact that the relatively low-frequency
radio waves spread out in all directions and little energy
reached the receiver.[15][36][93] In radio communication,
at the receiver, an amplier intensies a weak signal using
energy from another source. For power transmission, efcient transmission required transmitters that could generate higher-frequency microwaves, which can be focused
in narrow beams towards a receiver.[15][36][93][100]
The development of microwave technology during World
War 2, such as the klystron and magnetron tubes and
parabolic antennas[93] made radiative (far-eld) methods
practical for the rst time, and the rst long-distance
wireless power transmission was achieved in the 1960s

HISTORY

by William C. Brown.[15][36] In 1964 Brown invented the

rectenna which could eciently convert microwaves to
DC power, and in 1964 demonstrated it with the rst
wireless-powered aircraft, a model helicopter powered
by microwaves beamed from the ground.[15][93] A major
motivation for microwave research in the 1970s and 80s
was to develop a solar power satellite.[36][93] Conceived
in 1968 by Peter Glaser, this would harvest energy from
sunlight using solar cells and beam it down to Earth as
microwaves to huge rectennas, which would convert it
to electrical energy on the electric power grid.[15][103] In
landmark 1975 high power experiments, Brown demonstrated short range transmission of 475 W of microwaves
at 54% DC to DC eciency, and he and Robert Dickinson at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory transmitted 30 kW DC output power across 1.5 km with 2.38
GHz microwaves from a 26 m dish to a 7.3 x 3.5 m
rectenna array.[15][104] The incident-RF to DC conversion eciency of the rectenna was 80%.[15][104] In 1983
Japan launched MINIX (Microwave Ionosphere Nonlinear Interation Experiment), a rocket experiment to
test transmission of high power microwaves through the
ionosphere.[15]
In recent years a focus of research has been the development of wireless-powered drone aircraft, which began in
1959 with the Dept. of Defenses RAMP (Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform) project[93] which sponsored
Browns research. In 1987 Canadas Communications
Research Center developed a small prototype airplane
called Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP)
to relay telecommunication data between points on earth
similar to a communication satellite. Powered by a
rectenna, it could y at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and
stay aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto University
built a more advanced craft called MILAX (MIcrowave
Lifted Airplane eXperiment). In 2003 NASA ew the
rst laser powered aircraft. The small model planes motor was powered by electricity generated by photocells
from a beam of infrared light from a ground based laser,
while a control system kept the laser pointed at the plane.

6.3 Near-eld technologies

Inductive power transfer between nearby coils of wire is
an old technology, existing since the transformer was developed in the 1800s. Induction heating has been used
for 100 years. With the advent of cordless appliances,
inductive charging stands were developed for appliances
used in wet environments like electric toothbrushes and
electric razors to reduce the hazard of electric shock.
One eld to which inductive transfer has been applied is
to power electric vehicles. In 1892 Maurice Hutin and
Maurice Leblanc patented a wireless method of powering
railroad trains using resonant coils inductively coupled to
a track wire at 3 kHz.[105] The rst passive RFID (Radio
Frequency Identication) technologies were invented by
Mario Cardullo[106] (1973) and Koelle et al.[107] (1975)

11
and by the 1990s were being used in proximity cards and
contactless smartcards.
The proliferation of portable wireless communication devices such as cellphones, tablet, and laptop computers in
recent decades is currently driving the development of
wireless powering and charging technology to eliminate
the need for these devices to be tethered to wall plugs during charging.[108] The Wireless Power Consortium was
established in 2008 to develop interoperable standards
across manufacturers.[108] Its Qi inductive power standard
published in August 2009 enables charging and powering
of portable devices of up to 5 watts over distances of 4
cm (1.6 inches).[109] The wireless device is placed on a
at charger plate (which could be embedded in table tops
at cafes, for example) and power is transferred from a at
coil in the charger to a similar one in the device.
In 2007, a team led by Marin Soljai at MIT used coupled tuned circuits made of a 25 cm resonant coil at 10
MHz to transfer 60 W of power over a distance of 2 meters (6.6 ft) (8 times the coil diameter) at around 40%
eciency.[38][41]

See also
Beam-powered propulsion

Tomar, Anuradha; Gupta, Sunil (July 2012).

Wireless power Transmission: Applications and
Components. International Journal of Engineering
Research & Technology (ESRSA Publications Pvt.
Ltd.) 1 (5): 18. ISSN 2278-0181. Brief survey of
state of wireless power and applications
Kurs, Andr; Karalis, Aristeidis; Moatt, Robert
(July 2007). Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly
Coupled Magnetic Resonances (PDF). Science
(American Association for the Advancement of Science) 317: 8385. Bibcode:2007Sci...317...83K.
doi:10.1126/science.1143254. ISSN 1095-9203.
PMID 17556549. Landmark paper on MIT teams
2007 development of mid-range resonant wireless
transmission
Thibault, G. (2014). Wireless Pasts and Wired Futures. In J. Hadlaw, A. Herman, & T. Swiss (Eds.),
Theories of the Mobile Internet. Materialities and
Imaginaries. (pp. 126154). London: Routledge.
A short cultural history of wireless power
Patents

Beam Power Challenge one of the NASA

Centennial Challenges

U.S. Patent 4,955,562, Microwave powered aircraft,

John E. Martin, et al. (1990).

Electricity distribution

U.S. Patent 3,933,323, Solid state solar to microwave energy converter system and apparatus,
Kenneth W. Dudley, et al. (1976).

Electric power transmission

Electromagnetic compatibility
Electromagnetic radiation and health
Energy harvesting
Friis transmission equation
Microwave power transmission
Resonant inductive coupling
Thinned array curse
Wardenclye Tower
World Wireless System

Shinohara, Naoki (2014). Wireless Power Transfer via Radiowaves. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
1118862961. Engineering text

Further reading

Books and Articles

Agbinya, Johnson I., Ed. (2012). Wireless Power
Transfer. River Publishers. ISBN 8792329233.
Comprehensive, theoretical engineering text

U.S. Patent 3,535,543, Microwave power receiving

antenna, Carroll C. Dailey (1970).

9 References
[1] Shinohara, Naoki (2014). Wireless Power Transfer via
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12

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10 External links

[97] Tesla, Nikola; Marini, Aleksandar, Ed. (1977).

Colorado Springs Notes, 18991900. Beograd, Yugoslavia: The Nikola Tesla Museum.

Howstuworks How Wireless Power Works describes near-range and mid-range wireless power
transmission using induction and radiation techniques.

[98] O'Neill, John J. (1944). Prodigal Genius: The life of

Nikola Tesla. Ives Washburn, Inc. p. 193.

Microwave Power Transmission, its history before

1980.

[99] Wearing, Judy (2009). Edisons Concrete Piano: Flying

Tanks, Six-Nippled Sheep, Walk-On-Water Shoes, and 12
Other Flops From Great Inventors. ECW Press. p. 98.
ISBN 1554905516.

The Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform

(SHARP), microwave beam powered.

[100] Curty, Jari-Pascal; Declercq, Michel; Dehollain, Catherine; Joehl, Norbert (2006). Design and Optimization of
Passive UHF RFID Systems. Springer. p. 4. ISBN
0387447105.
[101] Belohlavek, Peter; Wagner, John W (2008). Innovation:
The Lessons of Nikola Tesla. Blue Eagle Group. pp. 78
79. ISBN 9876510096.
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[103] Glaser, Peter E. (November 22, 1968).
Power
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[105] US Patent No. 527857A, Maurice Hutin, Maurice
Leblanc, Transformer system for electric railways, led
November 16, 1892; granted October 23, 1894

Marin Soljai's MIT WiTricity wireless power

transmission pages.
Rezence ocial site of a wireless power standard
promoted by the Alliance for Wireless Power
Qi ocial site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Wireless Power Consortium
PMA ocial site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Power Matters Alliance
WiPow ocial site of the WiPow Coalition, promoting standardized wireless power for medical,
mobility and wheeled devices

16

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Wireless power Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power?oldid=690664612 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, Bryan Derksen,

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Wjbeaty, Gil Dawson, Wolfkeeper, Fleminra, Ssd, Remy B, Bobblewik, Beland, Icairns, GaryPeterson, JamesTeterenko, Punga~enwiki,
Shadanan, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, YUL89YYZ, Pjrich, Adambro, Jordin, John Vandenberg, Jag123, Sparkgap, Bert Hickman, Jeodesic, Kundor, Pearle, Justinc, Passw0rd, Merenta, Hcm1955, Gary, RPaschotta, Hackwrench, Wouterstomp,
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Eurosong, WAS 4.250, 2over0, Peter Judge, Back ache, Georey.landis, Mossig, AGToth, Tierce, Katieh5584, Tom Morris, SmackBot,
Prebys, Thierry Caro, Luketheobscure, Jagged 85, Alan McBeth, BiT, Gilliam, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Thumperward, Oli Filth, NeoJay, Quackslikeaduck, A. B., Theneokid, Achilles03, Trekphiler, Rrburke, Worrydream, Addshore, GVnayR, NOS, Ohconfucius, LN2,
Rjmorris, Teneri, Sbmehta, Jaganath, Soumyasch, JorisvS, Shawnborgia, Mr. Blake, BillFlis, Akitstika, Peter Horn, Kvng, Hu12, Iridescent, Cbrown1023, MGlosenger, Benplowman, Dikasths~enwiki, SamerZiadeh, Tawkerbot2, G-W, Chetvorno, Chris55, MightyWarrior,
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WI Keith, IPSOS, Anna Lincoln, Gillyweed, J Casanova, YordanGeorgiev, KarusaUK, Legoktm, Demize, Hazel77, HybridBoy, Sylvia
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11.2

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File:2010-12-08-Sonicare-4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/2010-12-08-Sonicare-4.jpg License:

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: English: This Photo has been taken with a AIPTEK AHD Z700 EXTREME camera. Original artist:
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href='https://books.google.com/books?id=q8cNAAAAYAAJ,<span>,&,</span>,pg=PA229'>Elmer Ellesworth Burns (1910) The Story
of Great Inventions, Harper and Brothers, New York, p. 229, g. 114</a> on Google Books Original artist: Elmer Ellesworth Burns
File:Power_2.0_Ecosystem_illustration_-_Powermat_charging_spots_on_counter_in_a_coffee_shop.jpg
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11.3

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File:TeslaWirelessIllustration.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/TeslaWirelessIllustration.png License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from http://peswiki.com/index.php/Image:TeslaWirelessIllustration.png. First published
in Nikola Tesla, The Problem of Increasing Human Energy, Century Magazine, The Century Co., New York, June 1900, g. 4. Also
appears in Nikola Tesla, Aleksandar Marini 1978 Colorado Springs Notes, 1899-1900, Nikola Tesla Museum, Beograd, Serbia, g. 25
Original artist: Photo was taken by Dickenson V. Alley, photographer at the Century Magazines
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File:U._S._Marine_Forces_Reserve_scored_a_100_percent_on_physical_facility_security_during_a_Command_Cyber_
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