Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Presented at:
Utility Wind Interest Group (UWIG)
6th Annual Distributed Wind/Solar Interconnection Workshop
February 22-24, 2012
Golden, CO
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
Topics
Discussion of Distribution and Subtransmission
Factors Considered in Basic DG integration Studies
Useful Ratios for Screening Analysis of DG Impacts
Review of Some System Impacts:
Voltage Issues
Fault Current Issues
Islanding Issues
Ground Fault Overvoltage Issues
Discussion of
Some Factors to
Consider in DG
Integration
Alt. Feed
Other Substations
with Load and DG
Subtransmission Line
Substation
Transformer
LTC
12.47 kV
Regulator and
LTC Settings
Subtransmission
Source
Adjacent
Feeders
Reclosing and
Relay Settings
Distribution
Feeder
Type of
Grounding
Voltage Regulator
Step Up
Transformer
DG
Primary Feeder
Point of Connection
(POC)
Alt. Feed
Rotating Machine or
Inverter based DG
Customer
Site Load
Capacitor
Bulk
System
Prime mover or
energy source
characteristics
Peak Load
Minimum Weekend
Load
Annual Minimum Load
False Minimum
Name of
Ratio
Very Low
Penetration
Moderate
Penetration
Higher
Penetration(4)
(Increased probability
of serious issues.
>10
10 to 5
Less than 5
Synchronous Gen.
Synchronous Gen.
Synchronous Gen.
>6
6 to 3
Less than 3
Inverters(3)
Inverters(3)
Inverters(3)
>4
4 to 2
Less than 2
Notes:
1. Ratios are meant as guides for radial 4-wire multigrounded neutral distribution system DG applications and are calculated based on aggregate DG on relevant power system sections
2. Minimum load is the lowest annual load on the line section of interest (up to the nearest applicable protective device). Presence of power factor correction banks that result in a surplus
of VARs on the islanded line section of interest may require slightly higher ratios than shown to be sure overvoltage is sufficiently suppressed.
3. Inverters are inherently weaker sources than rotating machines therefore this is why a smaller ratio is shown for them than rotating machines
4. If DG application falls in this higher penetration category it means some system upgrades/adjustments are likely needed to avoid power system issues.
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
NREL Workshop on High Penetration PV: Defining High Penetration PV Multiple Definitions and Where to Apply Them
Screening Ratios
Type of
Ratio
Fault Ratio
Factor
(ISCUtility/ISCDG)
Ground Source
Impedance
Ratio(2)
Stiffness
Factor
(ISCUtililty/IRatedDG)
(Continued)
Moderate
Penetration
Higher
Penetration(3)
(Increased probability
of serious issues.
>100
100 to 20
Less than
20
>100
100 to 20
Less than
20
>100
100 to 50
Less than 50
PV/Wind
PV/Wind
PV/Wind
> 50
50 to 25
Less than 25
Steady Source
Steady Source
Steady Source
Notes:
1. Ratios are meant as guides for radial 4-wire multigrounded neutral distribution system DG applications and are calculated based on aggregate DG on relevant power system sections
2. Useful when DG or its interface transformer provides a ground source contribution. Must include effect of grounding step-up transformer and/or accessory ground banks if present.
3. If DG application falls in this higher penetration category it means some system upgrades/adjustments are likely needed to avoid power system issues.
Fast Reclosing Dead Times: if less than 5 seconds (especially those less
than 2 seconds) consider the danger of reclosing into live island.
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
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11
SUBSTATION
Large DG exports
large amounts of
power up feeder
DG current
at angle
IDG
V I DG X Sin R Cos
Light Load
(DG at High Output)
Voltage
Heavy Load
(DG High Output)
ANSI C84.1 Lower
Limit (114 volts)
Heavy Load No DG
Distance
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
End
12
DG Supports most of
feeder load
Line drop
compensator
LTC Controller
Large DG
(many MW)
ANSI C84.1 Upper Limit (114 volts)
Heavy Load No DG
Voltage
Distance
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
End
13
Normally
Closed
Recloser
Supplementary
Regulator with BiDirectional controls
Normally
Open R
Recloser
Reverse
Power Flow
Due to DG
DG
What happens? Since the feeder is still connected to the substation, the line regulator once it is
forced into the reverse mode will be attempting to regulate the front section of the feeder. To do
this can cause the supplementary regulator to runaway to either its maximum or minimum tap
setting to attempt to achieve the desired set voltage. This in turn could cause dangerously high or
low voltage on the DG side of the regulator. This occurs because the source on DG side of regulator
is voltage following (not aiming to a particular voltage set point) and is weak compared to the
substation source.
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14
Fluctuating Output of a
Photovoltaic Power Plant
Days
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15
Flicker
Screening:
Infinite
Source
IDG
DG Starting Current
and DG Running current
fluctuations
V
Flicker Voltage Example
DG
V I DG X Sin R Cos
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
519 Irritation
Curve x
1.25X
519 Visibility
Curve x 2.0
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PV Flicker Experiences
Use of IEEE 1453 method is a technically very robust
screening methodology for flicker when very accurate
threshold levels need to be determined
However, a suggested modified GE flicker curve can
work well for PV as a conservative tool for simple
screening when less accuracy is required
It is the authors experience that other voltage
problems (LTC cycling, ANSI limits, etc.) related to PV
become problematic at lower capacity thresholds
than flicker flicker is one of the last concerns to arise
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
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19
Separately-Excited
Synchronous Generator
Subtransient Period
Envelope
Fault Current
Transient Period
Envelope
Time
4-10 times
rated current
Induction Machine
Transient Time Constant
Fault Current
100%
37%
Time
Current decays to
essentially zero
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
20
Pre-fault
Irated
Best Case: May last only a few
milliseconds (less than cycle) for many
typical PV, MT and fuel cell inverters
Note: The exact nature and duration of the fault contribution from an
inverter is much more difficult to predict than a rotating machine. It is a
function of the inverter controller design, the thermal protection functions
for the IGBT and the depth of voltage sag at the inverter terminals. In
the worst case if fault contributions do continue for more than cycle,
they are typically no more than 1 to 2 times the inverter steady state
current rating.
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
21
115 kV
Fault Contribution
from DG Might
Trip The Feeder
Breaker and
Recloser
(Nuisance trip)
13.2 kV
Transformer Rupture
Limits (fault magnitude)
Recloser A
Fault
Case 2
Utility
IDG
DG
DG
DG
Fault
Case 1
Utility
Adjacent
Feeder
Iutility
Fault
Case 3
Recloser B
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Unintentional DG
Islanding Issues
Incidents of energized
downed conductors
can increase (safety)
Utility system reclosing
into live island may
damage switchgear
and loads
Service restoration can
be delayed and will
become more
dangerous for crews
Islands may not
maintain suitable
power quality
Damaging overvoltages
can occur during some
conditions
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
115 kV
13.2 kV
Adjacent
Feeder
Recloser A
Islanded Area
DG
Recloser B
(Normally Open)
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25
26
Start
Screening
for
Islanding
Issues
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Islanding Protection is
Adequate
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X 1, X 2
R1, R2
X 1, X 2
R1, R2
X 1, X 2
R1, R2
Phase A
V(t)
Phase B
Source
Transformer
(output side)
Phase C
(t)
Van
Vbn
Fault
Vcn
R0
X0
Van
Voltage
Increases
on Van, Vbn
Neutral
Neutral
Vcn
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
Vbn
Vcn
Vbn
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Van
Voltage
includes 5%
regulation
factor
Ro/X1 < 1
Xo/X1 < 3
Effective grounding limits the
L-G voltage on the unfaulted
phases to roughly about
1.25-1.35 per unit of nominal
during the fault
Effectively
grounded
system
ideally
grounded
system
Vcn
N
Ungrounded
system
1.82 VLN
Vbn
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Acts as grounded
source feeding out to
system only if
generator neutral is
tied to the transformer
grounded neutral
Acts as ungrounded
source feeding out to
system only if generator
neutral is not connected
to transformer grounded
neutral*
Neutral
wye
delta
C
C
Neutral grounding of
generator on low side of
transformer does not impact
grounding condition on high
side
Gen.
Neutral
wye
wye
*IMPORTANT: Generator
neutral must be
connected to the
neutral/ground of the
transformer to establish
zero sequence path to
high side
C
C
B
Gen.
Neutral
wye
wye
C
C
B
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Distribution
Transformer
delta
delta
C
C
B
Neutral grounding of
generator on low side of
transformer does not impact
grounding condition on high
side
No connection to
Transformer Neutral
Acts as ungrounded
source feeding out
to system
Neutral
wye
Gen.
delta
C
C
Neutral grounding of
generator on low side of
transformer does not impact
grounding condition on high
side
Floating Neutral
Acts as
ungrounded
source feeding out
to system
Gen.
delta
wye
C
C
B
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C
Wye
A
Delta
Neutral Terminal
Enclosure bond
to safety
ground
Utility
Distribution
Transformer
480V
Neutral
277V
Building Neutral
Safety Ground
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Utility System
Bulk Source
Feeder
Breaker
Subtransmission
Breaker
Subtransmission
(46kV)
Ground
Fault
DG
12.47 kV Line
Ground
Fault
Distribution
Substation
Transformer Acts as
ungrounded source
(not effectively
grounded)
Distribution
Substation
DG Site 1
Transformer acts as
ungrounded source or acts as
high Z grounded source (if
generator neutral is not
grounded or high z grounded)
DG Site 2
Load
DG
Distribution
Substation
Load
Load
Load
Load
Neutral is Ungrounded
or High Z Grounded
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Vag
Neutral
Neutral
Vcg
Voltage
Increases
on Vag, Vbg
Vbg Vcg=0
X
R
Vbg
Impedance of DG
Source, its transformer
and connecting leads
Vcg=0
Vbg
Utility Source
Open
Breaker
Load
Ground Fault
(phase C)
Voltage does not rise much on Vag, Vbg because the overall size of the
triangle has been reduced (phase to phase voltage has dropped)
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35
Open
Xt=5%
X1PV = 30%
X 0 groundbank
Utility
Primary
Feeder
Inverter
Grounding
Transformer
Bank
X 1 pv
R0 groundbank
X 1 pv
X0groundbank, R0groundbank
Assume inverter X1 is 30% for generic worst case
30% is not the actual impedance since the inverter
impedance varies due to controller dynamics and operating
state. But 30% is a conservative number that factors worst
case conditions whether the inverter is a current controlled
or voltage controlled PV source. A higher number can be
used for some inverters, but care should be exercised if using
a higher value (especially if it exceeds 50%).
X 0 groundbank
X 1 pv
R0 groundbank
X 1 pv
0. 7
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I0 Total
I0 utility
Utility
Source
Path
I0 Ground transformer
Grounding
Transformer
Path
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Normal Voltage
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Voltage
Regulation
Interactions
Most have not required changes to the regulator or regulation settings and no
special mitigation. A few projects have required regulator setting changes to
reduce the chance of LTC cycling or ANSI C84.1 voltage violations. The largest
sites studied are considering reactive compensation to mitigate LTC cycling and
voltage variations.
Fault Current
Interactions
Islanding
Interactions
For islanding protection, roughly 1/3rd of the sites have required something
special beyond the standard UL-1741 inverter with default settings. Some
required more sensitive inverter settings or adjustments to utility reclosing
dead time. A few have needed a radio based or hardwired DTT and/or live line
reclose blocking added.
Ground Fault
Overvoltage
About 1/3rd of the sites need some form of mitigation usually a grounding
transformer bank, a grounded inverter interface, or a time coordinated DTT
Harmonics
Other
Some sites are considering operating in power factor mode producing VARs to
provide reactive power support. One site had a capacitor concern.
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Conclusions
PV and other types of DG today are being successfully
interconnected on distribution feeders all over the country.
In many cases the impacts are not enough to cause
worrisome effects.
However, the size of projects is growing, especially now that
many large commercial and FIT type projects are being
considered at the distribution level. Also, the ongoing
aggregation effects as PV becomes more widely adopted is
leading to more substantial impacts.
Many projects can still be screened using simple methods,
but increasingly, more detailed analytical methods are
becoming necessary.
Prepared by Nova Energy Specialists, LLC
40
Conclusions (continued)
The relative size of the PV (or DG) compared to the power
system to which it is connected plays the key role in system
impact effects. Key factors that gauge the relative size include:
The MLGR, FRF (SCCR), Stiffness Factor, and GSIR
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