Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW: UTILIZING DOMESTIC OFF-CAMPUS

Literature Review: Utilizing Domestic Off-Campus Experiences to Improve Learning and Career
Readiness
Lillianna S. Franco
Loyola University Chicago

LITERATURE REVIEW: UTILIZING DOMESTIC OFF-CAMPUS

Literature Review: Utilizing Domestic Off-Campus Experiences to Improve Learning and Career
Readiness
Introduction
According to Baum, Ma, & Payea (2013) although college rates are increasing, there are
large gaps in enrollment that are associated with specific demographic groups. For example,
minority students are associated with low college enrollment because of their low socioeconomic
status, race and ethnicity, and lack of access to college information. These students are further
stratified into low performing high schools with minimal amounts of support and resources.
They tend to be underrepresented in colleges and universities, and later lack social mobility due
to an absence of higher education (Baum et al., 2013). Financial resources, academic
preparation, support from counselors and others, and information about college and financial aid
are categories that can predict college choice and enrollment (Perna & Jones, 2013). While
college enrollment is lacking in underrepresented groups a surge in college access programming
has come forth. However, college access models usually focus on the students deficits and do
not utilize an asset-based thinking approach. Some literature touches upon this but others focus
on utilizing increased funding to solve the college access issue. Unfortunately, funding for these
types of programs is never guaranteed. Therefore, the focus must be on innovative ideas such as
anchoring intuitions in the surrounding communities to not only serve youth in receiving college
access support but also utilize these experiences to help educate college students in civic
engagement within the community.
This literature review will examine the Target New Transitions (TNT) program, found at
Loyola University Chicago, and the variety of research articles that illustrate why this program is
a model for utilizing domestic off-campus experiences to improve college access. The purpose

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of this literature review is not only to gain a better understanding of this specific program but
also how other institutions could replicate this program and increase college access in their
surrounding communities. The analysis of current information will depict why and how this
program is positively related to increased college access for high school student and also how it
increases civic engagement for college students. By comprehending how research supports this
program, it will help us gain a better understanding about how this program can grow all over the
nation. Increasing the educational attainment of this target group has to be our number-one
priority if we are to improve the overall educational attainment level in the Unite States- and to
reduce disparities related to race/ethnicity (Bowen, Chingos, & McPhweaon, 2009, p. 213).
About TNT
TNT is an academic support program that is open to high school freshmen that are
matched with high achieving college students to meet on Saturday mornings, for three hours, to
work on homework and develop relationships (Target New Transitions, 2015). The purpose of
the TNT program is to increase academic performance in underrepresented students attending
two of the most impoverished high schools in the Chicago Public School (CPS) system, increase
information and knowledge students receive around the college choice process, and provide
mentorship, support, and access to social networks. The college students are trained to be
academic coaches through orientations, retreats, and professional development sessions (M.
Charles, personal communication, September 24, 2015). Currently, the TNT program is located
at two at-risk high schools in Chicago. The ninth graders are helped with adjusting to the high
school experience academically and socially. The students gain help with their homework, learn
study strategies, and develop supportive relationships. See Appendix A for a detailed logic
model of the TNT program and the outcomes they expect. The college students provide the

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tools high school freshmen need to succeed in high school and to realistically envision their
future transition to college (Target New Transitions, 2015). While the high school students gain
confidence, the Loyola students get excellent field experience, while also giving back to their
community.
Methodology
In order to locate a substantial amount of research related to domestic off-campus
experiences to improve college access, the research process included categorizing TNT program
benefits. The categories were separated into benefits for high school students, for college
students, and for the institution and community. Under each category is a theme that provides
benefits for that particular subset of individuals. Below benefits for high school students is the
following: academic improvement, college knowledge and support, and building cultural wealth.
For benefits for college students, the following it outlined: professional skill building, social
justice engagement and learning, and vocational discernment. Finally, the communities and the
universities benefit from increasing civic engagement and obtaining resources. After reviewing
sources and research, commonalities were found among various research articles regarding these
categories and their sub-categories. Moreover, sources that showed detriment to these
categories, within the program, were included in order to gain a deeper understanding of the TNT
program. Validity was proven by comparing various sources to verify benefits and challenges of
domestic off-campus experiences that improve college access.
Analysis and Discussion
Benefits for High School Students
Academic Improvement

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The main mission of the TNT program is to increase the academic grades of high school
freshmen in underrepresented high schools in Chicago. According to the TNT program, in 2015
TNT students obtained higher grades in English and math during freshman year compared to
students who do not attend the program (see Appendix B). With this proof, it is obvious that
academic coaches and a three-hour a week commitment to homework does improve grades.
According to Cooper, Robinson, & Patall (2006), there is a positive correlation between
achievement and homework for seventh thru 12th graders. With there being a strong correlation
for all grades leading up to college, many would inquire why TNT doesnt focus on all the
academic grades. While financial and human resources may be a hindrance, there is a bigger
reason for focusing on freshmen in high schools. The motive for which TNT only focuses on
freshmen year is because student success at this point of high school is connected to high school
completion rates (Willet & Singer, 1991). With this said, it is the hope of the program to give
students a fresh start as they transition to high school and teach them the skills they need, such as
study skills, in order to succeed academically during their remanding years in high school.
However, skills arent the only things academic coaches provide. Some may assume that
they are simply tutors however; it is highly encouraged to call the college students academic
coaches because they provide personal support and mentorships along side of homework
assistance. In a study that researched effective ninth-grade transition programs, it was
highlighted that students must feel connected to the school and that educators must play a crucial
role in engaging with students (Roybal, Thornton, & Reno, 2014). In order to feel connected,
social relationships are important and therefore, the relationships that academic coaches create
with the students are a great first step to creating a comfort level during their freshmen year.
Moreover, the academic coaches are like educators but because they are closer in age to these

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students they could relate more closely and therefore increase a healthy transition to high school.
While these articles shared the importance of concentrating on freshmen in high school and
providing them with academic coaches to improve their academic grades, they did miss out on a
few themes. Research should focus on only ninth graders and how their homework can affect
their grades in the following years and their enrollment to college. Moreover, the research
should put more of an emphasis on specific demographics: such as low socioeconomic status and
race/ethnicity. These are demographic groups that are most at-risk for not succeeding
academically and progressing to college. Finally, it is highly recommended that the TNT
program perform further evaluation that follows the students who attended the TNT program
regularly throughout their high school career and collect data that shows grades and college
enrollment to prove its strength and reasoning behind focusing on freshmen only.
College Knowledge and Support
There are various levels of knowledge that students require to understand the college
enrollment process. They must understand the application process, the selection process, and
financial aid issues. Where it gets even more complex is when it involves underrepresented
minorities who have little access to this information and guidance. Most individuals receive this
information from family and/or counselors however, typically underrepresented minorities lack
these connections and support. Consequently, human capital and social capital are essential in
order to navigate the college application process. This can be directly connected to their
immediate family. According to Baum et al. (2013), those who do not attend college are highly
correlated with their parents lack of education. Cabrera and La Nasa (2000) created a model of
college choice for disadvantaged students that showed a connection to parental characteristics
and influences. Most students, who lack the direction of their parents, look to high school

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teachers, counselors, and administrators for assistance in the pursuit of a higher education.
Unfortunately, many minority parents and students reported expecting information about college
from school personal but never did or received it too late (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).
Furthermore, underrepresented minority serving high schools tend to have a high number ratio of
counselors to students and this impedes the availability of providing information to all students
(Perna & Jones, 2013). Finally, minorities search for support among each other. Peers play a
very influential role to students because they can associate and trust each other. Formal peermentoring programs show prosperity toward improving college access (Tierney & Venegas,
2006). This theory is proven by the idea of chain enrollment and college enclaves. Person &
Rosenbaum (2006), found that Latinos, for example, were more likely to find information about
a college from social contacts who attended that institution.
With this said, the TNT program provides high school students with access to human and
social capital that are knowledgeable about college access and that can also, relate to the students
because they are close in age. Otherwise, they would not have a strong connection to a mentor
who can help them navigate the complex college process. Levine & Nidiffer (1996) describe
how mentors can be essential to helping students in their college decisions. Working-class
minority students are especially dependent on nonfamilial institutional agents for essential
college-related information, particularly if they are the first in their family or community to
attend college (Perna & Jones, 2013, p. 14). According to Cotterell (1996) community
organizations can help create opportunities for mentoring to occur that otherwise formal high
school settings might not. However, in this case, the TNT program is bringing this typical
outside mentorship into the school which helps give the students a sense of support at their high
school. In regards to racial demographics, Black and Latino youth that interact with those who

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can help guide their vocation, prepare them to transition from high school to college (Phillips et
al., 2002). Consequently, the TNT program provides underrepresented students with networks
and mentors who can help them through the college knowledge attainment and decision process.
While the TNT program does their best to provide high school students with diverse
support, they may not always make a clear match. Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville (2007)
interject with the aspect that Black and Latino students may be more influenced by mentors who
are their same race, ethnicity, or gender. Further research should continue to explore the value of
mentorship intersected with other identities such as age because the TNT program uniquely
provides students with a mentor near their age. The TNT program should also continue to
expand their program to diverse students on campus in order to have the deepest connection they
could possibly have with diverse high school students. However, TNT academic coaches are
prepared to share college experience and knowledge with the high school students and are
equipped to help engage the students with confidence building interactions so that they can feel
supported in believing that they can obtain a higher education (M. Charles, personal
communication, September 24, 2015). Accurate information and guidance is not only essential
for this particular population, it is necessary to help create social mobility and equity for these
students using their positive cultural characteristics.
Building Cultural Wealth
Much of the literature reviewed framed underrepresented students college choices with
challenges that put this population at a deficit. Articles cited even used words like disadvantaged
when describing underrepresented students on college campuses. However, there are positive
implications to the cultural wealth that minority students bring to their college search and choice
process. Yosso (2005) challenged Bourdieus traditional form of cultural capital by considering

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community cultural wealth or assets that people of color bring to the classroom and their lives.
In particular, this model combats the idea that there should be a focus on parents level of
education but rather that the value that parents put on education is more of an indicator of their
childrens success (Bergerson, 2009). Yosso (2005) described the seven forms of capital as
aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, cultural, navigational, and resistant. These forms of
capital prove why some minorities do attend college and should be taught to those who work
with youth of color in order to promote higher education through an asset-based approach.
The TNT academic coaches receive orientation to teach students about asset-based
approaches and utilize various methods to engage students through motivation rather than selfpity. It is clear that by approaching students through a cultural wealth lens they will feel more
confident in their abilities and networks to attend college. However, when students interact with
those who believe they are at a disadvantaged, due to their situation, the students themselves
begin to believe it and choose not to utilize the cultural wealth that already have. Instead they
are encouraged to utilize the cultural wealth that they do not have or cannot easily obtain and
therefore, become discouraged. Motivation and self-confidence are predictors of academic
performance (Travani & Losh, 2003). This article articulates the importance of confidence and
motivation. However, there needs to be an extended amount of research in how positive
motivation can help influence college going confidence. In theory, utilizing cultural wealth
paradigms seems to be beneficial for people of color but further research should be done on how
mentors who focus on these aspects give these individuals the validation and confidence they
need to succeed. It is important to make sure the community cultural wealth model becomes a
well-known model; in particular in communities in which underserved and minority populations
are served. Engberg & Wolniak (2010) emphasized the importance to encourage human, social,

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and cultural capital in communities in which the sharing of capital is scarce because of the
positive influence in enrollment patterns.
Benefits for College Students
Professional Development and Vocational Discernment
The TNT program provides college students, also known as academic coaches, with the
ability to engage in high impact learning experiences. High impact learning practices include
service learning, internships, undergraduate research opportunities, learning communities,
collaborative assignments, reflective intensive courses, and diversity/global learning (Kuh,
2008). While the TNT program has a grant that helps compensate the students for their work,
many of the students still feel that it is a service learning experience. Additionally, other
institutions can replicate this program utilizing less funding as a service learning opportunity.
The reason this program is more closely related to service learning is because students get the
experience of engaging with issues within the community such as a lack of access to education
(Kuh, 2008). Benefits to the college students include professional development during
orientations, workshops, and retreats. Through this professional development students gain
many skills that they put into practice during their service learning experiences. During their
workshops they learn about asset-based thinking, active listening, motivational interviewing,
interpersonal skills, team building, and understanding the environmental context (M. Charles,
personal communication, September 24, 2015). For example, asset-based thinking is when
individuals think that someone or something can utilize positive contributions toward the success
of something (Cramer & Wasiak, 2006). Interpersonal skills are developed by role-playing and
team building interactions during the orientation and workshops. However, skills arent only
developed during orientation. Skills are also developed while experiencing high impact

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practices. For example, for service learning experiences, students are expected to develop the
following skills: leadership, social self-confidence, critical thinking, interpersonal skills, conflict
resolution skills, cooperation, ability to engage with people of different cultures and races,
understanding of problems faced by the community and nation, and preparation for future career
(Astin & Sax, 1998). The skills learned through orientation and the experience itself is not only
positive for the students professional development but also for their future performance in the
career of their choice.
Service learning experiences also benefit college students because participation in service
helps with vocational discernment. For example internships, cooperative education programs,
and apprenticeships, are designed to help students develop a self-concept, gain an understanding
of various career choices and organizational environments, and allow students to check for fit
between individual characteristics and the demands of different jobs (Greenhaus, Callanan, &
Godshalk, 2000). Since service learning allows students to gain an understanding of different
environments, career choices, and passions for a career, it is clear that it gives students the
confidence to discern between career options. Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, &Yee (2000) found
that service learning helps with choice of a service intensive career and plans on participating in
service after college. Therefore, it gives students the ability to differentiate between a career in
for-profit fields and one in service related careers. While the articles utilized did provide various
supports for how college student develop professional skills and career discernment through high
impact learning practices, they did not reflect on specific demographic populations such as race,
ethnicity, gender, or first-generation status. These demographics may showcase a different
outcome for each finding. For example, skill development maybe differently developed among
gender differences and vocational decrement may be diverse between race, ethnicity or first-

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generation status. It is highly encouraged that further research look into diverse perspectives
regarding these topics.
Social Justice Engagement and Learning
As previously stated, students engage in high impact learning practices and gain benefits
for their professional careers. Additionally, college students also engage with social justice
issues when experiencing service learning because service is connected to the community issues
that many face. High impact learning is active learning practices, which make it possible for
students to have a cumulative learning experience. Kuh (2008) describes how service learning
gives students experience in analyzing and problem solving in the community and promotes the
idea of giving back, which in turn prepares students to be civically engaged on off-campus
experiences. Ash, Clayton, & Atkinson (2005) has even shared how service learning has
supported the development of personal and civic identities. In the TNT program, academic
coaches face the many systemic and oppressive issues that the high school students must
overcome and this allows them to engage in social justice action. Furthermore, the students tend
to develop a sense of civic responsibility and choose to continue their commitment to social
justice action (M. Charles, personal communication, September 24, 2015). However, it isnt just
engaging in social justice work that gets students excited about community engagement, it is the
reflection that they have about their service that allows them to understand their commitment.
Service learning requires not only the action of volunteering but also the reaction of the
volunteering experience. Kuh (2005) describes the need for service learning individuals to
engage in reflection and to make meaning of the experience. Service learning is associated with
courses that offer readings related to the community issues that students face. This allows for
college students to engage in thoughts of community contexts and environments, positionality

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and perspective, and privilege and oppression (Hullender, Hinck, Wood-Nartker, Burton, &
Bowlby, 2015). Course materials inflict points of discussions between professors, other students,
and within written reflections (Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, &Yee, 2000). This reflection can help
student examine beliefs, assumptions and search for alternative viewpoints that can help develop
their understanding of complex issues (Brookfield, 2010). According to Preskill & Brookfield
(2009) learning to critically reflect allows individuals to not only become informed leaders but to
also take action on social injustices. Students who engage in critical reflection develop social
justice leadership skills because they gain a deeper understanding of their identity and the
identity of others. In this case, service learning can be described as helping in the development
of self-authorship. Ongoing reflection helps with the development of the relationship between
self and other (intrapersonal); shifts in the nature of commitments made, including career plans
and aspirations (interpersonal); and increased open-mindedness about new people, experiences,
and ideas (cognitive) (Jones & Abes, 2004, p. 153). These three outcomes are also connected to
building a global perspective, which is needed for students to develop with the complexities of
our global society. The extended understanding of others allows for diversity, equity, and justice
for all. Fay (2008) highlights the importance of understanding cultural and multiple differences
in order to recognize identities in the developing multicultural nation of today. With the
recognition of oppression and privilege in domestic off-campus service learning experiences,
multiculturalism can be accepted and utilized to create social and political change.
Although most research shows that service learning benefits students, it does not apply to
all different demographics. Some research shows that there is no gender difference (Tomkovick,
Lester, Flunker, & Wells, 2008). However, Pragman, Flannery, & Bowyer (2012) found that
females benefit from the service learning experiences more than males. Since there are two

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similar studies that showed different results it is obvious that another demographic may be at
cause for seeing growth results from students who are involved in service learning. For instance,
first-generation students might find that service learning may help then develop differently than
second-generation college students. Many research articles found various diverse findings on the
idea of first-generation students and their growth in service learning. Some related their
experience with positive outcomes such as helping these first-generation students achieve their
academic goals and feel connected to the college community (McKay & Estrella, 2008). Others
saw no difference between first and second-generation students. For example, Pelco, Ball, &
Lockeman (2014) found that both first and second-generation students felt positive and believed
that they service learning classes helped academic and professional growth. In terms of race and
the building of global perspective one research article found that, Blacks, Hispanic, and Asian
students were associated with the highest scores on the social interaction scale compared to their
White counterparts (Engberg & Fox, 2011, p. 98). That same research article also found that
racial and ethnic minorities, females, and seniors participated more in service learning
experiences. Therefore, service learning is applicable to helping develop underrepresented
college students. However, further research should explore variables such as socioeconomic
status and feature different types of institutions, in order to understand what generates the
different outcomes associated to generational status and race.
Benefits for the University and Community
Increasing Civic Engagement
With a program like TNT, any institution and community would highly benefit from its
outcomes. Universities would obtain the learning outcomes needed for a well-rounded
curriculum and communities would gain continued community engagement. By providing

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students with diverse learning opportunities, they gain a holistic understanding of how to connect
curriculum to high impact learning practices (Wawrzynski & Baldwin, 20014). In order for
students to make this connection, faculty must motivate students to ask themselves to reconsider
their belief or assumptions. When the domestic off-campus experiences offers the volunteer
experience and time for reflection, it is sure to show success in terms of producing students who
think critically and with a diverse understanding of differences. Some institutions might find
that international service learning programs are more beneficial because they provide intense
engagement in diverse cultural competency (Niehaus & Crain, 2013) but what is most beneficial
with domestic off-campus experiences is that they provide students an understanding about their
local community and therefore, provides the community with long term committed citizenship
engagement (Miller & Gonzalez, 2009). While there is research that showcases how students
from demographic differences learn differently, there is no research that proves that the learning
outcomes would be distinct. The only difference is the path they take, personally, to reflect and
discover the learning outcomes desired by the curriculum.
In terms of benefiting the community, students are more likely to increase their civic
engagement and their desire to take social justice action. Jones & Abes (2004) depict students to
develop civic engagement-related outcomes such as the increase of students commitments to
social responsible labor. However, students do not always commit to changing their careers to
service minded positions, rather they become more aware of the systemic issues and take on
citizenship-like practices to help affect change in the community. For example, students gain a
political awareness (Simons & Cleary, 2006) and feel more responsible for society (Engberg &
Fox, 2011). This responsibility comes from a change in a students attitude toward social justice
and equity (Rockquemore & Schaffer, 2000). Above all, institutions where students were

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involved in civic engagement with proper course accompaniment will reap the benefits and so
will the community that helped foster their learning. The research utilized was viable because
their resources were valid and reliable. However, further analysis can be done upon how civic
engagement continues for various demographic differences.
Utilizing Resources
Both entities (institutions and communities) could find this type of program to be
financially workable and beneficial. In particular, the TNT program pays its academic coaches
because they have grants supporting the mission. But any institutions wanting to replicate this
program could easily just promote it as a non-paid internship or volunteer opportunity. Although
it is highly recommended that money should be secured for coordinators and assistants (Bringle
& Hatcher, 1996), it should be known that this article is not recent enough and that students are
the greatest resource that an institution can utilize to bring about a program such as this.
Although financial resources will be needed, students can be the main driving force if trained and
motivated effectively to do the job well.
For the surrounding communities, the financial benefit of these types of programs can be
extremely helpful. As previously stated, the communities where underrepresented students live,
are low in resources to have impactful programming for high school students. In order to create
a healthy community partnership, the community partner should receive significant benefits from
the service learning project (Kaye, 2004). Unfortunately, there is a lack of analysis of how the
community partners can benefit financially from the use of academic coaches in their high
schools and communities. However, there is a lot of research advocating for communityuniversity partnerships as it strengthens networks, develops social capital, and creates
opportunities. In particular, communities benefit from service learning programs by accessing

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university resources, saving on budgets, saving on the labor of student volunteers, energy
provided by the student volunteers, and gaining visibility in the community (Crus & Giles,
2000). To be specific, these universities or colleges can become anchor institutions and truly
advocate and work with the communities to create direct and meaningful ties. An anchor
institutions mission is to invest capital, financial or human, in connecting to a certain location
(Webber & Karlstrm, 2009). Not only do Webber & Karlstrm (2009) recommend becoming
an anchor institution because of the potential impact an institution can have on a neighborhood
but also because they believe the benefits to the cost ratio can be abundant if they are outweighed
and analyzed. Additionally, many outside grants, foundations, and donors, can offset costs and
increase the budgets capacity for impact. The benefit an institution can gain from a community
partnership is the communitys investment in the co-education of their college students during
their off-campus service learning engagement (McDonald & Dominguez, 2015). There should
be more research that proves how communities can benefit from institutions service learning
programs, in particular in regards to communities with low socioeconomic status because these
communities could highly benefit from an anchor institution and all the resources they can offer.
Conclusion and Critique
While the benefits for high school students, college students, communities, and
institutions seem remarkable for programs that utilize domestic off-campus experiences to
improve college access, there is still more work to be done. In order to truly gage the profound
impact an experience such as the TNT program can have, it is essential that more research and
evaluation be done. In particular, research should focus more on specific demographic groups
such as: race/ethnicity, gender, economic status, and generational status. Above all, the TNT
program should evaluate the following: the outcomes their high school students obtain through

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participation over a longitudinal study, the civic engagement commitment their academic
coaches gain, and the full amount of resources that the university and high school profit from the
community connection. With further research and evaluation we can prove the strengths of this
program through scholarship that provides critical and diverse lenses and bring value to the
program with evidence. For now, it is safe to say that the TNT program provides students with
academic support, college access, and confidence through mentorship. Furthermore, college
student gain many professional skills, an understanding of diverse and global perspectives, and a
continued commitment to social justice. Colleges and universities gain complex and
advantageous learning outcomes from their students participation in such programs and
community partners increase their resources to help combat some of the systemic issues that
exist in society. When a college campus anchors themself in a domestic off-campus community,
it is an equal trade-off for everyone.