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Bremsstrahlung, charateristic radiation, Bragg scattering, law of
absorption, mass absorption coefficient, absorption edge, halfvalue thickness, photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair
production.
Principle and task
Polychromatic X-rays are to be energy selected using a
monocrystal analyzer. The monochromatic radiation obtained is
to serve as the primary radiation source for examination of the
absorption behaviour of various metals as a function of the
absorber thickness and the wavelength of the primary radiation.
Equipment
X-ray basic unit, 35 kV
Goniometer for x-ray unit, 35 kV
Plug-in module with Cu x-ray tube
Counter tube, type B
Lithium fluoride crystal, mounted
Absorption set for x-rays
Recommended accessories:
Software x-ray unit, 35 kV
Data cable, 2 x SUB-D, plug/socket, 9 pole
PC
09058.99
09058.10
09058.50
09005.00
09056.05
09056.02
1
1
1
1
1
1
14407.61
14602.00
1
1
Problems
1. The intensity attenuation of the primary radiation is to be
measured for aluminium and zinc as a function of the material thickness and at two different wavelengths. The mass
absorption coefficients are to be determined from the graphical representation of the measured values.
Fig. 1:
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Phywe Series of publication Handbook Physics X-Ray Experiments PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH D-37070 Gttingen
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Absorption of X-rays
Due to counter dead time t, high pulse rates N* should be corrected to the true pulse rates N by means of the relation:
N
N*
1 tN*
d1>2 0.69
1
m
(3)
(2)
m=t+s
I/I
0
In order to be able to directly compare the absorptivities of various materials, it is advantageous to use the so-called half-value
thickness d1/2. This symbolizes the material thickness that
reduces the intensity of primary radiation by one half. On applying the half-value thickness, equation (2) becomes:
(4)
Fig. 3:
3
2m>r for aluminium and tin as a function of the primary radiation wavelength; Ua = 25 kV.
5.0
3
2
m>r
4.5
g 1>3cm2>3
5
4.0
4
3
Sn
3.5
3.0
10
9
8
7
6
2.5
5
2.0
Al
3
1.5
1.0
1
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
d/mm
46
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0.20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
l/pm
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Absorption of X-rays
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m
t
k 1l3Z3 2
r
r
(5)
(6)
q
= the glancing angle
n (1, 2, 3...) = the scattering order
d
= 201.4 pm = the lattice constant of the LiF crystal
Fig. 2 shows the measured pulse rates for different absorber
thicknesses and two different wavelengths plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale. Curves 1 and 2 apply to aluminium (Z = 13, r =
2.7 g/cm3) and curve 3 to zinc (Z = 30, r = 7.14 g/cm3).
It is apparent from Fig. 2 that absorption increases with both the
wavelength of the primary radiation and the atomic number. The
results from Fig. 2, obtained using (2) to (6), are listed in Table 1.
The wavelength dependency of aluminium absorption according
to (5) is apparent. A check on the Z dependency of the mass
EK
hc
elK
(7)
where
h = 6.6256 10-34Js Planck's quantum of action
(Plancks constant)
c = 2.9979 108 m/s-1 the velocity of light
e = 1.6021 10-19 C as the elementary charge
the following value for the energy of the copper K level is
obtained:
Cu - EK = 8.98 keV (literature value; 8.98 keV).
The deviation of the absorption from linearity in front of the
absorption edge is produced by the gain in short waved photons
produced by 2nd order of diffraction scattering.
Fig. 5 shows the absorption curve for nickel (Z = 28, r =
8.99 g/cm3). Since the atomic number of nickel is smaller than
that of copper, EK (Ni) < EK (Cu) also applies here, as well as
lK(Ni) > lK(Cu). This is actually true in the case of lK(Ni) =
149 pm.
Using this value for lK(Ni) in (7) we obtain:
EK (Ni) = 8.32 keV (literature value; 8.33 keV).
d1>2
cm
m>r
2 1
cm g
m1>r
m2>r
l1 3
b
l2
Al (Z = 13)
r = 2.7 g/cm-3
l = 139 pm
112
6.2 10-3
41.5
l = 70 pm
14.1
20.4
5.2
7.98
7.83
Zn (Z = 30)
r = 7.14 g/cm-3
l = 139 pm
280
2.5 10-3
39.2
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Absorption of X-rays
Nickel filters are used to monochromatize the radiation from copper X-ray tubes. When this is done, only the characteristic Ka
copper radiation E(Ka) = EK - EL2,3 = (8.98 - 0.95) keV =
8.03 keV is allowed to pass, while the Kb line E(Kb) = EK - EM2,3
= (8.98 - 0.074) keV = 8.9 is absorbed (see also Experiment
5.4.06). The reduction in the absorption curve at l < 100 pm is
the result of 2nd order of diffraction scattering.
A short calculation might be helpful here to help emphasize this
fact.
The beginning of the X-ray spectrum at high energy is determined by the acceleration voltage of the X-ray tube (see also
Experiment 5.4.09) According to (7), an acceleration voltage of
25 kV complies with a wavelength of lc = 49.6 pm. If this value is
inserted in the Bragg equation for the 2nd order of diffraction
(n = 2), then scattering is expected to be under glancing angle
q = 14.3.
Under this glancing angle, X-rays of wavelength l= 99.2 pm are
emitted from the 1st order of diffraction, so that the primary radiation colliding with the absorber under a glancing angle of
q > 1.3 (q > 99.2 pm) contains a percentage of shorter wavelength photons. As a consequence, the absorber appears to be
more transparent than it really is. This disturbing effect does not
appear as drastically in Fig. 5. Due to the conscious choice of a
reduced primary voltage of Ua = 20 kV, the bremsstrahlung is
only activated under larger glancing angles.
Furthermore, the intensity of the bremsstrahlung at Ua = 35 kV is
less than at Ua = 20 kV.
Finally, Fig. 6 shows the dependence of the absorption on the
atomic number Z. Keeping in mind that the absorption behaviour
is different for the ranges l < lK and l > lK, the Z dependence
of absorption coefficients can only be compared within equivalent
absorption ranges. Literature values marked by a cross are additionally used to support the measured values.
Fig. 4:
Fig. 5:
Literature
Energy level values have been taken from:
"Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", CRC-Press Inc, Florida.
g 1>3cm2>3
g 1>3cm2>3
Cu
5.5
5.5
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
lK = 138 pm
1.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
l/pm
48
Ni
6.0
3
2
m>r
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180
lK = 149 pm
1.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
l/pm
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Absorption of X-rays
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3
2
m>r
g 1>3cm2>3
8.0
7.0
l>lK
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
l<lK
2.0
1.0
10
20
30
40
50
60
3
Fig. 6:
2
m>r = f (Z); values marked with a circle are literature values.
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Absorption of X-rays
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Phywe Series of publication Handbook Physics X-Ray Experiments PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH D-37070 Gttingen