WELDING TECHNOLOGY SEMINAR 2009

by H.HARASAWA ( Technical Advisor )

3B. DESIGN
(For Welding Engineer)

Edited by the courtesy of textbooks published by The Japan Welding Society for
certification of welding coordination personnel in The Japan Welding Engineering
Society standard ( WES 8103) , and AWS Welding Handbook Vol.1

CONTENTS
3.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.2 PROPERTIES OF METALS
3.2.1 Mechanical Properties of Weld Joints
Static strength, Fatigue strength, Fracture toughness, Creep rupture
3.2.2 Physical Properties
Thermal expansion, Thermal conductivity, Melting point, Specific heat etc.
3.2.3 Corrosion Properties
3.3 RESIDUAL STRESSES AND DISTORTION
3.3.1 Residual Stresses
3.3.2 Distortion
3.4 DESIGN PROGRAM
3.5 WELD JOINT GEOMETRY AND WELDING SYMBOLS
3.6 CALCULATION OF WELD STRENGTH

3.3.RESIDUAL STRESSES AND DISTORTION

3.3.1 Residual Stresses
(1) Characteristics

1) The effects are normally accounted for

in the design rules for the application.
2) In frame structures with residual stress,
precautions should be considered especially
for the reduction of fatigue strength and/or
the risk of stress corrosion crack.
3) In vessel structures with heavy plate thickness,
PWHT ( Post Weld Heat Treatment )
is dominantly applied to eliminate residual stress.

(2) Mechanism and distribution of residual stress

When welding is performed, the weld joint is exposed to very
high temperatures. As the yield point of metal fails at higher
temperatures, the welded area yields due to compression stress
from the surrounding area. This is why deformation occurs after
welding. Fig. 3.8 shows the mechanism of the above behavior.
In this figure, W corresponds to the weld joint.
When only W is heated, B restrains W's expansion. As a result,
tensile stress occurs in B, and compression stress in W. These
stresses, due to difference in temperature, are called thermal
stresses. With further heating of W, stress increases, W's yield
point lowers, and at last W yields due to compression stress
(Fig. 3.8 (b)). When W is cooled to room temperature, it is
shorter than before due to plastic deformation (Fig. 3.8 (c)). In
the case of an actual structure, W has stiffeners affixed on both
ends, tensile stress remains in W, and compression stress
remains in B (Fig. 3.8 (d))

Yield by compression

W is fixed to stiffener by
pulling up

Stiffener

Stiffener
Original

Only W is heated.
( W yields by
compression)

W is cut from
stiffener and
cooled.

W is fixed to stiffener again.

Stress

Fig3. Mechanism of Residual Stress in Weld Joint

Residual stress

-characteristics-

Mechanism
Deformation in free condition is arrested
by RESIDUAL STRESS.
Large R.S. along welding line
Small R.S. transverse to welding line

Characteristics
RESIDUAL STRESS is induced by internal force.
All R.S. in body are balanced

NO RESIDUAL STRESS at free edge.

Nothing to give a reaction

x-direction
y-direction
x-direction

y-direction

(a) y (direction of weld line)

(b) x (direction perpendicular to weld line)

Fig.3. Typical Residual Stress Distributions in Butt Weld

(3) Influence of residual stress on mechanical properties

of weld
A weld joint in a ductile material (such as mild or low alloy
steel) can withstand considerable plastic deformation before
breaking.
When static tensile force acts on a weld joint, the local area
(with residual stress) yields.
The residual stress is eliminated just prior to the yield of the
total joint, so the residual stress does not affect the breaking
stress of the weld joint.

1) Influence of residual stress on fatigue strength

It is not easy to determine the exact influence of residual
stress on fatigue strength, as various other influences such
as metallurgical unevenness, weld defects, and
reinforcement coexist with residual stress in the weld joint.
According to sophisticated tests, as tensile residual stress
raises mean stress levels, fatigue strength lowers.
It is thought that residual stress has little influence on lowcycle fatigue strength, as residual stress is minimized by the
repetition of high stress before the occurrence of a fatigue
crack.
However, when a sharp notch exists in a weld structure,
experiments show that fatigue cracks initiate at far lower
tensile stress than yield stress.

2) Influence of residual stress on brittle fractures

If a sharp notch exists in a structure, even a ductile material
such as mild steel can be broken below designed stress
levels by a brittle fracture at a low temperature.
When tensile residual stress coexists with a notch as shown
in Fig. 3.6, the structure may be broken at far lower stress
levels than normal.
According to experiments, the transition temperature of a
structure with residual stress (as welded condition) is higher
than that for a structure without residual stress.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) can remove residual
stress and is effective in preventing brittle fractures.

3) Influence of residual stress on buckling and stress

corrosion
Residual stress often causes buckling of a structure.
Stress corrosion occurs when, under tensile stress
conditions, a crack appears and widens in the presence
of materials such as H2S and water, alkali, nitrate, coal
gas, liquid ammonia, etc.
In general, cold working and the existence of tensile
stress promotes stress corrosion.

(4) Removal of residual stress

1) Post weld heat treatment and methods
There are mechanical treatments as well as heat treatments to remove
residual stress.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is the most important of these. The
yield point of a metal falls at high temperatures. When a metal under
stress (below the yield point) is subjected to high temperatures, plastic
deformation occurs in the metal to reduce the stress. Both tensile
residual stress and compression residual stress coexist in a weld
structure, and both residual stresses can be eliminated by maintaining
the structure at a high temperature.
Typically, a structure of mild steel is placed into a furnace, heated to
540-600 for 1 hour per 25mm of structure thickness, then slowly
cooled. In the case of a structure of 2.25Cr- 1Mo steel, heating is
carded out at 680 for 1 hour per 25mm of structure thickness. When a
structure is too large to be placed in a furnace, local heat treatment is
applied along the weld joint. Heating temperature should be below
tempering temperature in the case of a structure of quenched and
tempered steel.

(2) Effects of PWHT

The effects of PWHT are not only removal of residual
stress but also the softening of the HAZ, improvement of
elongation, discharging of diffused hydrogen along the
weld joint, recovery of notch toughness, and control of
distortion.
In the case of any steel structure in which toughness at the
weld joint is deemed insufficient and where thickness is
more than 38mm (1 and 1/2inches), PWHT is usually
required. PWHT is often used to control stress corrosion.

3.3.2 Distortion
A weld structure may become distorted due to local
expansion and shrinkage along the weld line as shown in
Fig. 3.10
The effects are also accounted
in the design rules for the application.
Distortion such as angular distortion acts as SCF ( Stress
Concentration Factor )
closely related to the initiation of fatigue crack
and/or brittle fracture.

(1) Typical weld distortion

1) Transverse shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage of butt weld joint S can be
approximated as follows:
S = 0.18L (mm)
L: breadth of weld groove
In other words, the larger the root gap, groove angle, or
deposited metal, the more the transverse shrinkage.
2) Rotative distortion
During manual welding, a weld groove may contract and the
root gap may narrow due to low heat input and slow welding.
Conversely, during submerged arc welding, the root gap may
widen due to excessive heat input and fast welding.

3) Angular distortion
Angular distortion is a result of asymmetric heating on
the face and reverse side of a plate.
This occurs more frequently with multi- pass welding
using a V- groove than when welding using a double Vgroove.
Angular distortion worsens with increasing heat input
until a maximum distortion appears at a certain heat
input. Beyond a certain heat input, distortion is much
less because both sides of the plate are heated.

(a) Transverse shrinkage

(b) Longitudinal shrinkage

Direction of
welding

(c) Longitudinal bending

Direction of
welding

(e) Rotative distortion

(d) Angular distortion

(f) Buckling

In-plane distortion

Out-of-plane distortion

(2) Prevention of distortion

Factors which affect weld distortion include heat input,
preheating temperature, thickness of plate, type of weld
groove, restraint, weld sequence or deposition sequence,
and welding process.
Weld distortion can be controlled by adjusting these
factors. Good weld sequence, good deposition sequence,
and proper use of restraint jigs can reduce distortion
significantly.
Pre-strain can also minimize distortion. Distortion can be
repaired with roller or press machines, or by local heating
and cooling (spot or line heating).

3.4 DESIGN PROGRAM

3.4.1 Determination of Load Conditions
(1)Torque: shaft, revolving part
(2)Forces on members: dead weight of parts
(3)Maximum load on members: crane hoist, shovel,
lift track, material handling equipment
(4)Maximum strength: cables
(5)Shear force: pins
(6)Frequency of applied load: cranes, railway bridges,
vibrating machines/ equipment

3.4.2 Major Design Factors

(1)Strength and stiffness
(2)Safety factor
(3)Good appearance
(4)Deep, symmetrical sections to resist bending
(5)Welding the end of beams rigidly
(6)Rigidity with welded stiffeners to minimize the weight of
material
(7)Tubular sections or diagonal bracing for torsion loading
(8)Standard rolled sections, plate, and bar for economy
and availability
(9)Accessibility for maintenance
(10)Standard, commercially available components
specified by index tables, way units, heads, and columns

3.4.3 Designing The Weldment

(1)General Points for effective design
1)Easy handling of materials, inexpensive tooling, and
accessibility of the joints
2)Check with the shop for ideas to cost savings
3)Establish realistic tolerances based on end use and
suitability for service
4)Minimize the number of pieces to reduce assembly time and
the amount of welding

(2)Part Preparation
Select appropriate method for available material and
equipment and the relative cost
Method: Thermal cutting
Shearing
Sawing
Blanking
Nibbling
Machining
Back weld preparation: Air carbon arc gouging
Oxygen gouging
Chipping

(3)Forming
Factors to choose forming method:
Base metal composition
Part thickness
Over-all dimensions
Production volume
Tolerances
Cost
Cold forming reduces the ductility and increase the yield
strength of metals.
Generally, the relevant standard provides maximum cold
forming allowances.
For example, Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code requires under certain circumstances cold
forming that results in extreme fiber elongation over 5 % in
plates must be stress relieved.

(4) Weld Joint Design

Should be selected primarily on the basis of load
requirement.
However, variables in design and layout can
substantially affect costs.
The application of general rules is mandatory.

(5) Size and Amount of Weld

Over design is a common error,
as is over-welding in production.
Control of weld size begins with design,
but it must be maintained
during the assembly and welding operations.

Basic guides for control the size and amount of welds:

1) Adequate but minimum size and length should be specified.
Oversize welds:
causes excessive distortion and higher residual stress
increases cost
The size of fillet weld is important
because the amount of weld required increases
as the square of the weld size increases.
2) Continuous fillet weld is preferable to intermittent fillet weld.
It is less costly,
and there are fewer weld terminations
that are potential sites of discontinuities.
3) Intermittent fillet weld is used
when static load conditions do not require continuous weld.
This weld should not be used under cyclic loading conditions.

4) To derive maximum advantage of automatic welding,

it may be better to use one continuous weld
rather than several short welds
5) The weld should be placed in the section of least thickness,
and the weld size should be based on the load of that section.
6) Welding of stiffeners and diaphragms should be limited to that required to
carry the load,
and should be based on expected out-of-plane distortion of the supported
components
under service loads as well as during shipment and handling.
7) The amount of welding should be kept to a minimum to limit distortion and
internal stresses and, thus, the need and cost for stress-relieving and
straightening.

(6) Subassemblies
In visualizing assembly procedures, the weldment into
subassemblies in several ways
could offer the greatest cost savings.
The following are advantages of subassemblies:
1) Several subassemblies can be
worked on simultaneously.
2) Better access for welding can be provided,
and automatic welding may be permitted.
3) Distortion may be easier to control.
4) Large size welds may be deposited under
lesser restraint with minimizing residual stresses
in the completed weldment.

5) Machining of subassemblies to close tolerances can be

done before final assembly.
If necessary, stress relief can be performed before final
assembly.
6) Chamber compartment can be leak tested
and painted before final assembly.
7) In-process inspection and repair is facilitated.
8) Handling costs may be much lower.
When possible, it is desirable to construct the weldment from
standard sections,
so that the welding of each can be balanced
about the neutral axis.

3.4.4 Welding Procedures

The following guidelines can be effective in weldment design:
(1) Flat position in welding is preferable for
Quality, Cost, and Delivery.
(2) Joint design requiring welding only from one side should be
considered
to avoid manipulation or overhead welding.
(3) Backing strips increase the speed of welding
for the first pass in groove weld.
(4) The use of low hydrogen electrodes or welding processes
eliminates or reduces preheat requirements.

(5) Reinforcement of a weld is generally unnecessary to

obtain a full- strength joint.
(6) With T-joints in thick plate, lamellar tearing should be
avoided using a material
with improved mechanical properties for
through-thickness directions.
(7) Joints in thick sections should be welded under
conditions of least restraint;
for example, prior to installation of stiffeners.
(8) Sequencing of fit up, fixturing, and welding is important
for box members made of plates,
because correction of distortion
after completion of welding is virtually impossible.

3.4.5.Laminations and Lamellar Tearing

(1) Consideration of the problem of lamellar tearing must
include design aspects
and welding procedures that are consistent
with the through-thickness properties
of the base material.
(2) The designer should specify material properties, and NDE
procedures such as UT
for the receiving inspection of material
and for the critical welds after fabrication.

3.5 WELD JOINT GEOMETRY AND WELDING SYMBOLS

3.5.1 Types of weld joints

(a) Full penetration

(b) Partial penetration

(a) T joint

Fig. 3.11 Butt joint

(b) Cruciform joint

Fig. 3.12 T joint and cruciform joint

Fig. 3.13 Corner joint

Fig. 3.14 Lap joint

Fig. 3.15 Spliced joint

Fig. 3.16 Flare joint

3.5.2 Weld grooves

Square groove
Double-V groove
Double-bevel groove
Double-J groove
Single-V groove

Single-J groove

Single-U groove
Double-U groove

Single-bevel groove

3.5.3 Fillet weld joints

(c) Slanting fillet joint

(a) Front fillet joint

(b) Side fillet joint

(a) Continuous welding

(b) Intermittent parallel welding

(c) Intermittent (staggered) welding

3.5.4 Plug weld and slot weld

(a) Plug welding

(b) Slot welding

3.5.5 Build-up welding

This is not a joining of two plates, but simply weld metal
overlayed on base metal.
Base metals may be overlayed for repair, hard facing, or anticorrosion.
Build up welding is sometimes caned "buttering" because this
operation resembles the buttering on bread.

3.6 Welding symbols

Tail
(Neglected
necessary)

Symbol for full circled

and site welding is written here.

when

not

Reference
line
Arrow

R: Root opening, A: Groove angle,

S: Size of weld joint (depth of groove, leg length, etc.),
L: Weld length, n: number of weld, P: Pitch of weld

Welding symbols

-AWS, JIS-

Penetration depth (AWS)

Field weld flag

Groove depth, if PJP (AWS)

Note

10(15)
Root
opening

Point to
groove face

Bevel

2
60o
G

Flare
U

Fillet

Groove angle
Finishing

Non-symmetric groove
Other side
Arrow side

Square
J

Other side

Point to
groove face

Reference line
in grooved plate side
Arrow side

Other side

Arrow side

Welding symbols
45o

-ExamplesSurrounding with circle

means PJP in JIS

Machine
finishing
10

Point to
groove face

Fillet weld
at other side

6
10

0
45o
M

Bevel groove
at arrow side,
PJP

Fillet
Size=6mm

All around
field weld

All around
field weld,
Size=7mm

Welding symbols

-Examples-

Grooved butt joint of tube

V groove with
depth=10mm
angle=60o
root gap=2mm
Melt through (back bead)
UT from outside after weld

UT
10

2
60o

45o

12
22
6
2
60o

6
12

60o
2

Symmetric information
should be above ref. line

45o

Reference line should be

laid in the grooved plate side

Welding symbols

Symmetric information 40o

should be above ref. line 0

40o

13

13
4
13
r=6

-ExamplesDetail note is
laid in the tail

r=6

Reference line should be

laid in the grooved plate side

40o

Location of welding symbol

Writing welding symbol

for a beveled groove

<Right>

<Wrong>

Auxiliary symbols for NDT etc.

Example of groove weld (1)

Example of groove weld (2)

Example of groove weld (3)

Example of groove weld (4)

Example of fillet weld symbols (1)

Example of fillet weld symbols (2)

Example of fillet weld symbols (3)

Example of fillet weld symbols (4)

Example of fillet weld symbols (5)

Example of fillet weld symbols (6)

Symbols for non-destructive testing

Division

Symbol

Note

Radiographic
test

General

RT

Ultrasonic
test

General

The category General is

the case where only the
method of each test such as
the radiographic test and the
like is shown and the content
is not given.
An appropriate marking can
be used, as required, for
tests not represented by the
symbols shown here.
(Example)
Leak test
LT
Visual test VT
Eddy current test ET

Double wall
photographing

RT-W
UT

Normal beam method

UT-N

Angle beam method

UT-A

Magnetic
particle
testing

General

Penetrant
test

General

Fluorescence detecting

MT
MT-F
PT

Fluorescence detecting

PT-F

Non-fluorescence
detecting

PT-D

Whole test

Spot test (sampling test)

These symbols shall be

suffixed to each symbol of
test.

3.6 Calculation of weld strength

Any weld joint in a structure should furnish enough strength
to withstand any anticipated static or dynamic load.
When PWHT is specified, the base metal and weld materials
should be chosen carefully to ensure required structural
strength.
Structures for public use should be built carefully in
accordance with applicable rules, provisions, and/or
specifications.
Considerations to ease of welding, the possibility of future
non- destructive tests, and future repair operations are
always necessary, and step-by-step communication between
designers and production/welding engineers is also essential.

(1) Load and stress on weld joint

=

P
al

P
al

: Tensile or compressive stress at weld section

: Shear stress at weld section

P : Force
a : Throat thickness of weld

al

: Sum of effective sectional area of weld

l: Effective length of weld

-examples-

Theoretical throat

a=
S

Leg
S1

Safety side design

Leg S
2

Leg

S
0.7S
2

PJP : a = [groove depth]

( a -XX in specific cases )

Assured minimum throat

Throat thickness of full penetration groove joint

(a) Butt joint

(b) Butt welding of different thickness plate

(c) T joint

Leg length

Leg length

Throat thickness of fillet weld

(Fillet weld with equal leg length)

Leg length

Leg length

a
S

S1

Leg length

S1

Leg length

Throat thickness of fillet weld

(Fillet weld with unequal leg length)

Leg length

Leg length

Practice

-theoretical throat-

Determine the throat of the joints as follow;

l4

a1
l2
g

a2
a1

l1

(a)

l1
l2
l3

(b)

l5

(c)

Practice

-effective cross sectional area-

Determine the effective cross sectional area of the joints

60o
as follow;
(b)
(a)
b

60
60o
But joint with partial penetration

(d)

30o

(c)

32

45o

(10X20)

100

10 40
10
100
T joint with partial penetration

20

(2)Required weld size for fillet joint

Fillet size : S

Design Guide Line for Steel Structure

(Architectural Institution of Japan)
t16mm ;
t1S1.3t2 and S4

t1

t2

Design Guide Line for Steel Bridge

(Japanese Society of Civil Engineering)
t1S2 t2 and S6mm

AWS D1.1
t2= ~ 6.4mm
t2= 6.4 ~ 12.7mm
t2= 12.7 ~ 19mm
t2= 19mm ~

S=3mmt1
S=5mmt1
S=6mmt1
S=8mmt1

Shear stress distribution of fillet weld

Japanese construction codes require that to transmit stress,
an effective fillet length should be more than 10 times fillet
size.
For a side fillet weld considering uneven distribution of
shear stress, the effective fillet length should be less than 30
times fillet size. When the fillet length is more than this, the
level of allowable stress should be lowered
Shear stress

Load

Load

Effective length of weld

"The effective fillet length" does not include the start and end
of the weld (i.e. the unstable weld bead at the start and crater
at the end).
For bridges, boxing welds at the start and end of a fillet weld
are not included in calculating effective length.
For buildings, the total length, including the boxing weld
minus twice the fillet size, is taken as the effective length.

(3) Allowable stress in basic design

-normal stress and shear stressApplied
force P

Face joint

Applied
force P

Internal force P

Internal
force P

Applied
force P
Normal stress

Shear stress

= AP

= AP
1

Section A2

Section A1

Applied
force P

Stress= Load
Area
Allowable stressEffective area
Allowable load

Stress

Allowable stress

uts

das
Safety Factor =

ys

s
a

Reference strength s
Allowable stress a
Design stress d
Strain

Reference strength s
Allowable stress a
Allowable stress a

Design Guide Line

for Steel Structure

Design Guide Line

for Steel Bridge

ys, 0.7uts
ys

ys

1.5

1.7

1.5 3

1.7 3

ys

ys
ys

CJP
Fillet
PJP

Example

-basic joint design-

A steel plate is inserted into the slit of a tube. Both of the plate and the
tube are jointed with fillet weld. This joint must be tolerant of 100 kN
tensile loading. Determine the required weld length. Suppose that the
yield strength (ys) of the material are 346 N/mm2. Safety factor should
be taken as 2.
Reference strength s = ys = 346 N/mm2

Allowable a ?

346
a = s =
=173 N/mm2
2
2

173
a = a =
=100 N/mm2
1.73
3

4
4

A-A section

Weld length

0.707 x 4 x L x 4 (path) x 100(N/mm2) = 100 x 103 (N)

Throat of fillet weld

Allowable stress

L=

Practice

105
=89 (mm)
0.707 x 16 x 100

-basic joint design-

The steel piece is welded on the steel plate of 7mm thickness shown in the
figure below. The minimum size of the fillet weld should be referred to
Design Guide Line for Steel Structure (Architectural Institution of Japan) .
Estimate the endurable tensile load P. Suppose that the yield strength (ys)
of the material are 173 N/mm2. Safety factor should be taken as 2. No
bending moment can be assumed in the weld.
Steel plate(7mm)
25mm
P
P

100mm

Practice

-answer-

The steel piece is welded on the steel plate of 7mm thickness shown in the
figure below. The minimum size of the fillet weld should be referred to
Design Guide Line for Steel Structure (Architectural Institution of Japan) .
Estimate the endurable tensile load P. Suppose that the yield strength (ys)
of the material are 173 N/mm2. Safety factor should be taken as 2. No
bending moment can be assumed in the weld.
Allowable stress
a =173/2=86.5 (N/mm2)

Steel plate(7mm)
25mm

86.5
a =
=
=50 (N/mm2)
1.73
3

P
100mm

Fillet weld size

1.3 t2 St1
1.3 25 = 6.5S7
S=6.5(mm)

Length(mm)

6.5 X 0.707 X 2 (25+100) X 50 =57 (kN)

a (N/mm2)

Throat (mm)

Practice

-basic joint design-

Design the plate thickness of the butt joint shown in (b) in order to assure
the same joint strength with the fillet weld joint shown in (a). Suppose the
same steel in both joints.
P
P

10
t
8

20
P
(a)

Depth=100mm

P
(b)

Practice

-answer-

Design the plate thickness of the butt joint shown in (b) in order to assure
the same joint strength with the fillet weld joint shown in (a). Suppose the
same steel in both joints.
P
P

Allowable stress : a

10
t

Endurable strength in (a); Pa?

Weld length(mm)

Pa=0.707 X 8 X 2 X 100 X a X
Throat (mm)

1
3

20

Allowable stress

Fillet weld is designed

by shear stress in any loading

Endurable strength in (b); Pb?

Pb=t X 100 X a

P
(a)

Depth=100mm

(b)

Coming from Pa= Pb

t=

0.707 X 8 X 2
3

=6.5 (mm)