Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TRAINING REPORT
ON
SUMMER INTERNSHIP
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of
Bachelor of Technology Degree
Of
Rajasthan Technical University, KOTA
2014-15
Submitted To:
Shri K.K.SRIVASTAVA
(ASSISTANT ENGINEER)
Submitted By:
Mohit Kumar Gupta
IVth year (ECE)
Submitted To:
PRASAR BHARATI
( INDIAS PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTER )
ALWAR-301001 (RAJASTHAN)
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Front page.....i
Table of contents ..ii - iii
Figure Index..iv-v
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Modulation
2-6
Chapter3 propagation
7-8
Chapter4 Microphones
10-13
14
15
16
Chapter9 Amplifiers
17-19
ii
Chapter10 A.C.Plant
20
21-22
Chapter12 M.P.Studio
23-24
Chapter13 Antenna
25-27
28
iii
FIGURE INDEX
Modulation
Amplitude modulation
Phase modulation
Frequency modulation
Sky propagation
Space propagation
Micro-phone
Rack controller
11
Net c.c.u.
12
Transmitter
13
14
Isolation transformer
15
Dummy load
16
Class a amplifier
17
Class c amplifier
18
Class d amplifier
19
20
21
Generator (63.5kva)
22
iv
Phone in console
23
Dipole Antenna
24
25
26
Chapter1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter2
MODULATION
Modulation
fig(a)
1.a. Need of Modulation :(i). modulate a signal is to allow the use of a smaller antenna. A
baseband (low frequency) signal would need a huge antenna because in order to
be efficient, the antenna needs to be about 1/10th the length of the wavelength.
Modulation shifts the baseband signal up to a much higher frequency, which has
much smaller wavelengths and allows the use of a much smaller antenna.
(ii). consider a channel that essentially acts like a bandpass filter:
both the lowest frequency components and the highest frequency components are
attenuated or unusable in some way, with transmission only being practical over
some intermediate frequency range. If we can't send low-frequency signals, then
we need to shift our signal up the frequency ladder. Modulation allows us to send
a signal over a bandpass frequency range. If every signal gets its own frequency
range, then we can transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel,
all using different frequency ranges.
2.. Types of Modulation :There are 3 basic types of modulation: Amplitude modulation,
Frequency modulation, and Phase modulation.
2.a. Amplitude modulation :a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier
signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while the frequency
and phase are kept constant.
AM was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. It remains in use
today in many forms of communication; for example it is used in portable two way
radios, VHF aircraft radio and in computer modems .AM is often used to refer to medium
wave AM radio broadcasting.
One disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques (not only standard AM) is that
the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal
proportion to the signal.
amplitude modulation
Fig (b)
2.b.Phase Modulation :A type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied
accordance to the low frequency of the message signal is known as phase modulation.
signal) is
modulates the phase the greater m(t) is at a point in time, the greater the
phase shift of the modulated signal at that point. It can also be viewed as a change of the
frequency of the carrier signal, and phase modulation can thus be considered a special case of
FM in which the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of phase
modulation.
Phase modulation
Fig (c)
Frequency modulation
Fig(d)
Chapter-3
PROPOGATION
3.Wave Propogation:Wave propogation is any of the ways in which travel with respect to
the direction of the oscillation relative to the propogation direction, we can distinguish between
longitudinal wave and transverse wave.
.
3.a. Ground to Ground Propagation :It is a method of radio frequency propagation that uses the area
between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere for transmission. The ground wave can
propagate a considerable distance over the earth's surface particularly in the low
frequency and medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum. Ground wave radio
propagation is used to provide relatively local radio communications coverage.
.3.b. Sky Propagation :Sky wave propagation is of radio waves bent back to the Earths
surface by the ionosphere. As a result of sky wave propagation , a night time broadcast signal
from a distant am broadcasting or shortwave radio station can sometimes be heard as clearly as
local stations .
Most long-distance high frequency radio communication ( between 3 and 30 MHZ ) is a result
of sky wave propagation.
Sky propagation
Fig(e)
3.c. Space propagation:The radio waves having high frequencies are basically called as
space waves. These waves have the ability to propagate through atmosphere, from transmitter
antenna to receiver antenna. These waves can travel directly or can travel after reflecting from
earths surface to the troposphere surface of earth. So, it is also called as Tropospherical
Propagation. In the diagram of medium wave propagation, c shows the space wave propagation.
Basically the technique of space wave propagation is used in bands having very high
frequencies. E.g. V.H.F. band, U.H.F band etc. At such higher frequencies the other wave
propagation techniques like sky wave propagation, ground wave propagation cant work. Only
space wave propagation is left which can handle frequency waves of higher frequencies. The
other name of space wave propagation is line of sight propagation. There are some limitations
of space wave propagation.
Space propagation
Fig (f)
Chapter 4
MICROPHONES
4.Microphones :A micro-phone ( colloquially called a mic or mike ; both pronounced is
an acoustic to- electric transducer or sensor that converts sound in air into an electrical signal
Micro-phone are used in many application such as telephones ,taps recorder, karaoke system,
hearing aids, motion picture production ,live and recoded audio engineering, megaphones in
radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, speech recognition and
for non-acoustic purpose such as ultrasonic checking .
Most microphones today use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance
change (condenser microphone) or piezoelectric generation to produce an electrical signal from
air pressure variations. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the
signal can be amplified with an audio power
Micro-phone
Fig (g)
Chapter 5
Control Room
R&SNR8210 VHF FM Solid-State Transmitters :5.a Features of Transmitter :1.Powerful FM transmitters of solidstate design with excellent specifications.
2. Compact models featuring only 800 mm rack depth and up to 15 kW output power in a 19
rack.
3. All transmitters feature outstanding technical parameters, an optimum cost/benefit ratio, plus
maximum reliability and ease of servicing.
4.frequency range :- 87.5 MHz to 108 MHz (103.1 MHz )
5. Internal tunning :- menu-controlled in 10 kHz steps Internal tunnternal tuning
6. Sound broadcasting at its very best 2.5 to 30 kW.
5.b. Exciter :
10
5.c. Rack controller :Rack controller is a line of controllers designed for the more
complex and advanced systems. The availability of inputs and outputs covers the requirements
of the most sophisticated compressor racks in terms of the number and the function of the
required control algorithms. The control software in six languages, compatible with the different
sizes of hardware, satisfies both the most common control requirements as well as the more
advanced applications. Possibility to separate compressor and fan control on one single user
interface, with local network connection between the controllers. Drastic reduction in the cost
of electrical connections to remote fans. Modulating capacity control using special inverter
outputs for the compressors and/or inverter/phase control outputs for the condenser fans.
Operation with fl oating condensing and evaporation* pressure to increase the efficiency and
the performance of the compressor racks. * requires a compatible CAREL supervision software.
Rack controller
Fig (h)
5.d Net C.C.U. :The Control Unit R&S NetCCU800is included as a common distributing
center both in the new generation of R&SNH/NV8200 TV transmitters and in the new family
of VHF FM Transmitters R&SNR8200. For network operators, this has the advantage of low
operation and training costs as well as simplified logistics with regard to stock keeping of spare
parts. For the first time, the control concept and user interfaces in TV and FM transmitters are
uniform.
This also simplifies their integration into network management systems and facilitates the setup
and putting them into operation, plus reduces maintenance and service costs
11
net c.c.u
Fig(i)
5.e.Power Amplifier :The term power amplifier is a relative term with respect to the amount of
power delivered to the load and/or provided by the power supply circuit. In general the power
amplifier is the last 'amplifier' or actual circuit in a signal chain (the output stage) and is the
amplifier stage that requires attention to power efficiency. Efficiency considerations lead to the
various classes of power amplifier based on the biasing of the output transistors or tubes:
see power amplifier classes.
Power amplifiers by application
12
10
13
Chapter 6
14
Chapter 7
ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
Isolation transformer
fig(l)
15
Chapter 8
DUMMY LOAD
In radio this device is also known as a dummy antenna or a radio frequency termination. It is a
device used in place of an antenna to aid in testing a radio transmitter. It is substituted for the
antenna while adjusting the transmitter, so that the transmitter does not interfere with other
radio transmitters during the adjustments. If a transmitter is tested without a load, such as an
antenna or a dummy load, the transmitter could be damaged. Also, if a transmitter is adjusted
without a load, it will operate differently from with the load, and the adjustments may be
incorrect.
The dummy load ordinarily should be a pure resistance; the amount of resistance should be the
same as the impedance of the antenna or transmission line that is used with the transmitter
(usually 50 or 75 ). The radio energy that is absorbed by the dummy load is converted to
heat. A dummy load must be chosen or designed to tolerate the amount of power that can be
delivered by the transmitter.
The ideal dummy load provides a standing wave ratio (SWR) of 1:1 at the given impedance.
Veterinarian-grade mineral oil, an inexpensive source for mineral oil, is frequently used
by amateur radio operators as coolant in RF dummy loads.
Dummy load
Fig (m)
16
Chapter 9
AMPLIFIERS
9.Amplifiers :An electronic amplifier, amplifier, or (informally) amp is an electronic device
that increases the power of a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power supply and
controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude. In this sense,
an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply.
Amplifiers divided into different types:-
9.a. Class A Amplifiers :Amplifying devices operating in class A conduct over the entire
range of the input cycle. A class-a amplifier is distinguished by the output stage devices
being biased for class A operation. Class A stages where the grid is allowed to be driven slightly
positive on signal peaks, resulting in slightly more power than normal class A (A1; where the
grid is always negative), but this incurs a higher distortion level.
Amplifier
Fig(n)
17
9.b. Class B Amplifier :Class-B amplifiers only amplify half of the input
wave cycle, thus creating a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved
and is much better than class A. Class-B amplifiers are also favoured in battery-operated
devices, such as transistor radios. Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of /4. (
78.5%) This is because the amplifying element is switched off altogether half of the time, and
so cannot dissipate power.
9.c. Class C Amplifier :Class-C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal
and the distortion at the output is high, but high efficiencies (up to 90%) are possible. The usual
application for class-C amplifiers is in RF transmitters operating at a single fixed carrier
frequency, where the distortion is controlled by a tuned load on the amplifier. The input signal is
used to switch the active device causing pulses of current to flow through a tuned
circuit forming part of the load.
Class c amplifier
Fig(o)
18
9.d. Class D Amplifier:In the class-D amplifier the active devices (transistors)
function as electronic switches instead of linear gain devices; they are either on or off. The
analog signal is converted to a stream of pulses that represents the signal by pulse width
modulation, pulse density modulation, delta-sigma modulation or a related modulation
technique before being applied to the amplifier. The time average power value of the pulses is
directly proportional to the analog signal, so after amplification the signal can be converted
back to an analog signal by a passive low-pass filter
19
Chapter10
A.C.Plant
Air conditioning (often referred to as air con, AC or A/C) is the process of altering the
properties of air (primarily temperature and humidity) to more favourable conditions, typically
with the aim of distributing the conditioned air to an occupied space to improve comfort. In the
most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology, heating, cooling, dehumidification, humidification, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement, that modifies the
condition of air.
Internal structure of AC
Fig(q)
Air conditioning can also be provided by a simple process called free cooling which uses pumps
to circulate a coolant (typically water or a glycol mix) from a cold source, which in turn acts as
a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Free cooling systems can have
very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy
storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common storage
media are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of smalldiameter, heat exchanger equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storage are hybrids,
using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the
circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because the temperature of the
storage gradually increase during the cooling season, thereby declining in effectiveness. Free
cooling and hybrid systems aremature technology
20
Chapter11
Desial Generator
21
Generator Working :An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy
obtained from an external source into electrical energy as the output.
It is important to understand that a generator does not actually
create electrical energy. Instead, it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the
movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric
circuit. This flow of electric charges constitutes the output electric current supplied by the
generator. This mechanism can be understood by considering the generator to be analogous to a
water pump, which causes the flow of water but does not actually create the water flowing
through it.
The modern-day generator works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831-32. Faraday discovered that the above flow of
electric charges could be induced by moving an electrical conductor, such as a wire that
contains electric charges, in a magnetic field. This movement creates a voltage difference
between the two ends of the wire or electrical conductor, which in turn causes the electric
charges to flow, thus generating electric current.
22
Chapter12
M.P.Studio
M.P.Studio means multi purpose studio. It is used for transmit the signal and receive the signal.
When the transmission booth section is not work properly then we used m.p. studio for relay the
program. Basically m.p.studio work as a control room and transmission booth , because when
the equipments established in control room is not work properly then we use multi purpose
studio for handling the programs which is transmit by the different radio station.
23
Phonein console
Fig (t)
Chapter13
ANTENNA
This is a device connected to the base station / repeater to propagate the Radio Frequency (RF)
energy. Antenna system plays an important role to determine the efficiency of converting
electrical energy into RF energy. Thus, determine the area of coverage.
There are several antenna configurations to meet various condition and terrain.
A typical antenna parameters are:
Frequency Band: This is the range of the band that the antenna will operate in (i.e. 806870 MHz). This only means that the antenna will operate within this band. It usually
does not necessarily mean that the antenna will operate over the entire band.
Bandwidth: The maximum frequency separation that this antenna will operate within the
frequency band.
Gain: Antenna gain is proportional to the product of directivity and the antennas
efficiency. Directivity is a measure of how an antenna focuses energy. Antennas
efficiency accounts for loss associated with antenna. Gain is achieved in an antenna by
re-directing energy from some directions into the desired directions. The higher the gain
of the antenna, the further the coverage obtained. However, a higher gain antenna
typically means higher cost.
Maximum Input Power: Look for the specs with the maximum input power rating of
the antenna is greater than the RF power output rating of the transmitter(s).
VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio): A high VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio) implies a large amount of reflected power. This means that the amount of forward
power is less. Therefore, the higher the VSWR, the less efficient the antenna.
Length: This refers to the physical length of the antenna. A long antenna is
cumbersome to ship, store or install.
Wind Loading: In windy areas, the load of the wind on the antenna must be taken
into account.
25
13.a.Dipole Antenna :A dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used
class of antenna. It consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods,
which are usually bilaterally symmetrical. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or
for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the
antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the
conductors. This contrasts with a monopole antenna, which consists of a single rod or conductor
with one side of the feedline connected to it, and the other side connected to some type
of ground. A common example of a dipole is the "rabbit ears" television antenna found on
broadcast television sets.
The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same
axis, with the feedline connected to the two adjacent ends. This is the simplest type of antenna
from a theoretical point of view. Dipoles are resonant antennas, meaning that the elements serve
as resonators, with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends.
So the length of the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves used.
[3]
The most common form is the half-wave dipole, in which each of the two rod elements is
approximately 1/4 wavelength long, so the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long.
Dipole antenna
Fig(u)
26
27
Chapter14
Transmission Booth
It is the place where the operator is operate the program .In transmission booth the operator play
the song and other programs according to the choice of customer .In the the transmission booth
we consider these parts which is provide the help for easily operate the transmission booth.
1.Transmission console
2.two- computer system
3.turn table
Turn Table:The first one is a Broadcast Electronics model 16C with a Rek-O-Kut tonearm.
This is a 3 speed turntable that will play records up to 16" in diameter. Surprisingly, this TT was
made in the mid 80's.
28