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I. I NTRODUCTION
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TABLE I
STROMS AVERAGE VOLTAGE GRADIENT [6]
Fig. 2.
thermal convection;
electromagnetic forces;
burn back of electrode material;
arc extinction and restriking;
plasma jets.
III. C HARACTERISTICS OF AN A RC
As shown in Fig. 2, an arc consists of three regions: the anode
region, the plasma column, and the cathode region. The electrode regions (anode and cathode) form the transition regions
between the gaseous plasma cloud and the solid conductors.
As shown in Fig. 2, an arc is also commonly associated
with a voltage profile. The voltage gradient across the arc
plasma depends on the actual arc length; the arc may deviate
from the gap width between the electrodes. Less deviation
is expected for short gap widths, series electrodes, and less
turbulent conditions.
A number of researchers have postulated that the voltage
gradient in the plasma column of an arc is nearly independent
of the arcing current. For example, Browne found that the
voltage gradient in the arc column is nearly independent of the
arc current for magnitudes above 50 A and is approximately
12 V/cm (30.5 V/in) for arcs in open air [5]. Brownes research
investigated arc behavior in both dc and ac circuits. In 1946,
Strom published that the voltage gradient in the arc is affected
very little by current magnitude [6]. Strom found that, for
arc gap widths from 0.125 to 48 in (0.32 to 122 cm), the arc
voltages averaged 34 V/in (13.4 V/cm) during arc tests, which
produced peak ac currents ranging from 68 to 21 750 A. Table I
summarizes the results of Stroms findings. These numbers are
comparable to Brownes finding.
A. Arc V I Characteristics
Fig. 3 shows the quasi-static V I characteristic for an arc
of fixed length. In the low-current region (identified by the
dotted line), the arc voltage drops as the arc current increases;
as a result, the arc power (P = V I) tends to remain relatively
constant in this region. For larger currents, the arc voltage
increases slightly with increasing arc current. (A transition
current, which defines the boundaries between the low- and
high-current regions, is presented later). With wall-stabilized
arcs, the arc plasma is only partially ionized in the low-current
region, whereas the plasma becomes fully ionized above some
threshold current [2]. A similar transition in the level of ionization is observed for free-burning arcs.
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Fig. 6.
B. Steinmetz Equation
In 1906, Steinmetz derived a semiempirical V I equation
based on carbon and magnetite arc experiments [10]
Varc = A +
C(L + D)
.
0.5
Iarc
(2)
130(1 + 0.33)
.
0.5
Iarc
(3)
C. Nottingham Equation
IV. DC-A RC V I C HARACTERISTICS AND E QUATIONS
Much of the early arc research was focused on the use
of an arc as an illuminant. Low-current arcs were relatively
stable, while their high-current counterparts were considered
unpredictable and dangerous. This belief, coupled with the
availability of low-power dc supplies, explains why most early
arc research focused on low-current dc arcs, which exhibited
inverse V I characteristics. This section highlights some of
the early and selected key publications; it also provides a
comparison of methods used to model a dc arc.
A. Ayrton Equation
Ayrton formulated the first known equation used to model
the electrical properties of a steady-state arc [9]. Developed in
1902, (1) was derived for arcs in air initiated between carbon
electrodes separated by a few millimeters
Varc = A + BL +
C + DL
.
Iarc
(1)
B
.
n
Iarc
(4)
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8750L
.
0.4
Iarc
(6)
In (6), L is the arc length in feet. Van and Warrington confirmed the early research performed by Ayrton and Steinmetz
by showing that arc voltages are proportional to the arc length
and decrease with increasing arcing current. The inverse characteristic was probably exhibited in this current range because
of the large gap distance between the electrodes.
E. Miller and Hildenbrand
Fig. 7. DC-arc voltage versus current in 9.5-mm (3/8 in) gap [16].
Fig. 8. (a) Minimum arc voltage for horizontal arcs [17]. Minimum voltage
characteristics for copper electrodes. Continuous lines are measured. Broken
lines are calculated based on power characteristics. Gap widths for curves
from bottom to top: 5, 20, 100, and 500 mm (0.20, 0.79, 3.94, and 19.7 in).
(b) Minimum arc voltage for horizontal arcs [17]. Stokes and Oppenlander data
presented on a linear scale (500-mm (19.7-in) gap).
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Fig. 10.
Fig. 9. Minimum arc voltage for vertical arcs [17]. Minimum voltage characteristics for aluminum electrodes. Continuous lines are measured. Broken
lines are calculated based on power characteristics. Gap widths for curves from
bottom to top: 5, 20, 100, and 500 mm (0.20, 0.79, 3.94, and 19.7 in).
TABLE II
EMPIRICAL ARC FORMULAS FOR Iarc < 100 A [18]
(7)
TABLE III
EMPIRICAL ARC FORMULAS FOR 100 A < Iarc < 100 kA [18]
20 + 0.534zg
.
0.88
Iarc
(8)
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(9)
(10)
(11)
Earc
.
4d2
(12)
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TABLE IV
OPTIMUM VALUES OF a AND k [22]
Fig. 17. Incident energy (arc-in-a-box) versus arc duration for 32-mm
(1.25-in) gap and 457-mm (18-in) working distance.
Fig. 16. Incident energy (open air) versus arc duration for 32-mm (1.25-in)
gap and 457-mm (18-in) working distance.
Earc
.
a2 + d2
(13)
Fire Protection Association 70E [24]. For the selected enclosure type and test distance, the incident energies calculated
for enclosures are 2.2 times larger than the incident energies
calculated for open air.
VII. DC D ISTRIBUTION S YSTEM : C ASE S TUDIES
Two case studies of a large power plant illustrate a method
for estimating the potential dc-arc flash hazard associated with
high-current batteries. The one-line diagram in Fig. 18 shows
operational units feeding a 250-V dc bus through rectifiers.
The bus is backed up with 258-V battery banks. The dc-supply
sources include batteries, rectifiers, and battery chargers; any
of these sources might sustain a dc arcing fault, depending on
system operating conditions and the fault location. The dc bus
serves a variety of loads, such as motors, inverters, relay coils,
and lamps.
For the fault calculations presented in this section, it is
assumed that a fault occurs on the dc bus while being supplied
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Fig. 20. Incident energy (open air) versus arc duration for 20-mm (0.79 in)
gap and 457-mm (18 in) working distance.
TABLE VI
ITERATIVE SOLUTION RESULTS
model shown in Fig. 19. As an initial guess, the arc current was
set to be equal to 50% of the bolted-fault current and converged
rapidly. The arc gap width was defined as 20 mm since a 250-V
source has limited voltage potential to sustain arcs across large
gap widths. The arc current and arc resistance for each system
are provided in Table VI.
For the single-string and double-string systems, the battery
banks lack upstream overcurrent circuit protective devices, so
immediate dc-arc interruption is not likely for sustainable gap
widths. Equations (11) and (12) were used to calculate the
incident energies at 457 mm (18 in). The incident energies,
plotted as a function of time and shown in Fig. 20, merit
concern. In particular, the magnitude of the incident energy for
the double-string battery bank increases quickly as a function of
time and reaches Hazard Category 4 soon after 1.1 s. A higher
risk of serious burn is certainly associated with the doublestring battery bank. These cases were calculated for a dc arcing
fault which occurs at the 250-V bus. However, if an arcing fault
initiates between battery terminals, chemical burns present an
additional hazard.
VIII. C ONCLUSION
The models presented in this paper have been based on tests
conducted over more than a century by different researchers
in different countries and under very different protocol. Considering the wide range of testing methods and conditions, the
results are remarkably similar. At low current levels, the V I
characteristic is inversely proportional and nonlinear. At high
arcing-current levels, the analysis in this paper has shown that
the arc-resistance voltage-drop approaches a constant value. In
an effort to quantify the risks associated with high-current dc
systems, a method has been presented to estimate the incidentenergy levels possible during an arcing fault. Results from a
case study demonstrated that the risks associated with highcurrent dc systems may be significant.
Arcing behavior is highly variable, and the existing dcarc models cannot accurately and reliably assess all the
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Ravel F. Ammerman (SM09) received the B.S. degree in engineering (electric power/instrumentation)
from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, in
1981, the M.S. degree in electrical engineering
(power/control) from the University of Colorado,
Denver, in 1987, and the Ph.D. degree in engineering
systems (electrical specialtypower systems) from
the Colorado School of Mines, in 2008.
He has over 28 years of combined teaching, research, and industrial experience. He is currently
with the Colorado School of Mines. He has coauthored and published a number of award winning technical articles, published in
archival journals. His research interests include arc flash hazard analysis, electrical safety, computer applications in power system analysis, and engineering
education.
Dr. Ammerman is a member of the IEEE/NFPA Arc Flash Collaborative
Research and Testing Project Team.