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Horsehead
ebula (EBernard 33),
1500 LY, East on Orion's Belt, and is part of the much larger Orion Molecular Cloud Complex
2014 Pn
earson
ducation, Inc.
Significance of Stars
Life on planets depends on the light and heat received from the stars they
orbit
Stars provide their solar systems with energy (light and heat) during their
lifetime and during their death as supernovae they enrich the universe with
the chemical elements they produced. These material are then recycled to
make new solar systems.
1 Except for hydrogen and helium that were made right after the Big Bang, all other elements are made by the
stars through the thermonuclear fusion during their lifetime or during their death as supernovae.
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Sun
ated in all directions from the Sun, not just the small
fraction intercepted by our detector or by Earth. Imagine
a three-dimensional sphere is centered on the Sun and
just large enough that its surface intersects Earths
center (Figure 16.3). The spheres radius is 1 AU, and
its surface area is therefore 4 3 (1 AU)2 , or approximately 2.8 3 1023 m 2 . Multiplying the rate at which solar
TABLE 16.1
Region
Core
Temperature (K)
Density (kg/m3)
Defining Properties
15,000,000
150,000
Radiation zone
200,000
7,000,000
15,000
Convection zone
496,000*
2,000,000
150
Photosphere
696,000*
5800
2 3 104
Chromosphere
696,500*
4500
5 3 106
Transition zone
698,000*
8000
2 3 1010
Corona
706,000*
3,000,000
1012
10,000,000
> 1,000,000
1023
Solar material escapes into space and flows outward through the solar system
Solar wind
* These radii are based on the accurately determined radius of the photosphere. The other radii quoted are approximate, round numbers.
In equilibrium, inward
gravitational force must
be balanced by
outward pressure
Solar
Convection
Energy
is
physically
transported
in
the
Suns
convection
zone,
which
here
is
visualized
as
a
boiling,
seething
sea
of
gas.
As
drawn,
the
convective
cell
sizes
become
progressively
larger
at
greater
depths.
This
is
a
highly
simplified
diagram;
there
are
many
different
cell
sizes,
and
Inc.
they
are
not
so
neatly
arranged.
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Education,
Discovery 16-1:
Eavesdropping on the Sun
SOHO: Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory; orbits at Earths L1
point, outside its
magnetosphere
SDO: Solar Dynamics
Observatory, in
geosynchronous orbit, also
outside magnetosphere
Each carries multiple
instruments measuring
magnetic field, corona,
vibrations, and ultraviolet
emissions
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Element
Percentage of Total
Number of Atoms
Hydrogen
Helium
Oxygen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Silicon
Magnesium
Neon
Iron
Sulfur
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
91.2
8.7
0.078
0.043
0.0088
0.0045
0.0038
0.0035
0.0030
0.0015
Percentage of
Total Mass
71.0
27.1
0.97
0.40
0.096
0.099
0.076
0.058
0.14
0.040
Solar
Spicules
Short-lived,
narrow
jets
of
gas
that
typically
last
mere
minutes
can
be
seen
sprouting
up
from
the
solar
chromosphere
in
this
H image
of
the
Sun.
These
so-called
spicules
are
the
thin
spikelike
regions
whose
gas
escapes
from
the
Sun
at
speeds
of
about
100
km/s.
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401
401
Sunspots
Sunspotsappear
appear
dark
darkbecause
because
they
theyare
areslightly
slightly
cooler
coolerthan
thanthe
the
surrounding
surroundinggas.
gas.
(a)
50,000 km
Penumbra
Penumbra
Umbra
Umbra
RR
II
VVsunspot
U
X
U
X
The magnetic field in a typical
isGG
FIGURE
16.14
This
the
FIGURE
16.14 Sunspots
Sunspots
This photograph
photograph
the entire
entire
Sun,
taken
about
1000
times greater
thanofofthe
fieldSun,
intaken
during
duringaaperiod
periodof
ofmaximum
maximumsolar
solar activity,
activity, shows
shows several
several groups
groups of
of
neighboring,
photospheric
sunspots.
spots
more
sunspots.The
Thelargest
largestundisturbed
spotsin
inthe
theimage
image are
are
more than
than 20,000
20,000 km
km
across,
nearly
twice
the
diameter
of
Earth.
Typical
sunspots
are
only
across,
nearly
twice
the
diameter
of
Earth.
Typical
sunspots
are
only
regions
(which
is
itself
several
times
about
abouthalf
halfthat
thatsize.
size.(Palomar
(PalomarObservatory/Caltech)
Observatory/Caltech)
stronger
than
Earths
field)
2014 Pearson Education, magnetic
Inc.
(b)
10,000 km
R
FIGURE 16.15
V
V
U
U
X
X
G
G
/VIDEO Sunspot
This
Thisspot
spotisisabout
about
the
thesize
sizeof
ofEarth.
Earth.
Solar
Rotation
(a,
b)
The
Suns
differential
rotation
wraps
and
distorts
the
solar
magnetic
field.
(c)
Occasionally,
the
field
lines
burst
out
of
the
surface
and
loop
through
the
lower
atmosphere,
thereby
creating
a
sunspot
pair.
The
underlying
pattern
of
the
solar
field
lines
explains
the
observed
pattern
of
sunspot
polarities
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