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Unit 3 Stars & Stellar Evolution

Horsehead
ebula (EBernard 33),
1500 LY, East on Orion's Belt, and is part of the much larger Orion Molecular Cloud Complex
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earson
ducation, Inc.

Significance of Stars

Stars are the building blocks of the universe.

Stars to the universe are like atoms to matter.

Stars are the source of both matter1 and light.

Life on planets depends on the light and heat received from the stars they
orbit

Stars provide their solar systems with energy (light and heat) during their
lifetime and during their death as supernovae they enrich the universe with
the chemical elements they produced. These material are then recycled to
make new solar systems.

1 Except for hydrogen and helium that were made right after the Big Bang, all other elements are made by the

stars through the thermonuclear fusion during their lifetime or during their death as supernovae.
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The life cycle of stars


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The Sun

To learn the physics of stars, we study the sun.

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The sun compared to solar system planets

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The sun is a mid-size star

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The sun compared to larger stars


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The Surprising Power of the Sun

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16.1 Physical Properties of


the Sun
Radius: 700,000 km
Mass: 2.0 1030 kg
Density: 1400 kg/m3
Rotation: Differential; period about a month
Surface temperature: 5800 K
Apparent surface of Sun is photosphere

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16.1 Physical Properties of


the Sun
This is a filtered image of the Sun showing sunspots, the
sharp edge of the Sun due to the thin photosphere, and the
corona.

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16.1 Physical Properties of the Sun


Interior structure
of the Sun:
Outer layers are
not to scale
The core is
where nuclear
fusion takes
place

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ated in all directions from the Sun, not just the small
fraction intercepted by our detector or by Earth. Imagine
a three-dimensional sphere is centered on the Sun and
just large enough that its surface intersects Earths
center (Figure 16.3). The spheres radius is 1 AU, and
its surface area is therefore 4 3 (1 AU)2 , or approximately 2.8 3 1023 m 2 . Multiplying the rate at which solar

TABLE 16.1

energy leaves the Suns surface. This quantity is known as


the luminosity of the Sun. It turns out to be just under
4 3 1026 W.
The Sun is an enormously powerful source of energy.
Every second, it produces an amount of energy equivalent
to the detonation of about 10 billion 1-megaton nuclear
bombs. Six seconds worth of solar energy output, suitably

The Standard Solar Model

Region

Inner Radius (km)

Core

Temperature (K)

Density (kg/m3)

Defining Properties

15,000,000

150,000

Radiation zone

200,000

7,000,000

15,000

Convection zone

496,000*

2,000,000

150

Photosphere

696,000*

5800

2 3 104

Electromagnetic radiation can escapethe part


of the Sun we see

Chromosphere

696,500*

4500

5 3 106

Cool lower atmosphere

Transition zone

698,000*

8000

2 3 1010

Corona

706,000*

3,000,000

1012

Hot, low-density upper atmosphere

10,000,000

> 1,000,000

1023

Solar material escapes into space and flows outward through the solar system

Solar wind

Energy generated by nuclear fusion


Energy transported by electromagnetic radiation
Energy carried by convection

Rapid increase in temperature

* These radii are based on the accurately determined radius of the photosphere. The other radii quoted are approximate, round numbers.

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16.1 Physical Properties of


the Sun
Luminositytotal energy radiated by the Sun can be
calculated from the fraction of that energy that reaches Earth.
Solar constantamount of Sun's energy reaching Earthis
1400 W/m2 . (this is in units of flux: energy/area/time)
Total luminosity is about 41026 Wthe equivalent of 10
billion 1-megaton nuclear bombs per second.
About 50 to 70 percent of the incoming energy from the Sun reaches Earths surface; the
rest is intercepted by the atmosphere (30 percent) or reflected away by clouds (0 to 20
percent). Thus, on a clear day, a sunbathers body having a total surface area of about
0.5 m2 receives solar energy at a rate of roughly 1400 W/m2 3 0.70 (70 percent) 3 0.5
m2 < 500 W, equivalent to the output of a small electric room heater or five 100-watt
lightbulbs.
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16.1 Physical Properties of


the Sun
This diagram illustrates
how one can extrapolate
from the radiation hitting
Earth to the entire output
of the Sun

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16.2 The Solar Interior


Mathematical models, consistent with observation and
physical principles, provide information about the Suns
interior

In equilibrium, inward
gravitational force must
be balanced by
outward pressure

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Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Balance)


Gravity and thermonuclear fusion are coupled together,
resulting in an equilibrium balance

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16.2 The Solar Interior


Doppler shifts of solar spectral lines indicate a complex
pattern of vibrations

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Can you imagine simulating


the resulting vibrational noise?

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The Sound of the Sun

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How about the


other stars?

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Video: The Sound of Y Cam A

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16.2 The Solar Interior


Solar density and temperature, according
to the standard solar model

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16.2 The Solar Interior


Energy transport:
The radiation zone is relatively transparent; the cooler
convection zone is opaque

Solar Convection Energy is physically transported in the Suns convection zone, which here is
visualized as a boiling, seething sea of gas. As drawn, the convective cell sizes become
progressively larger at greater depths. This is a highly simplified diagram; there are many
different
cell sizes,
and Inc.
they are not so neatly arranged.
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Education,

16.2 The Solar Interior


The visible top layer of the
convection zone is granulated,
with areas of upwelling
material surrounded by areas
of sinking material
Solar Granulation This photograph of the
granulated solar photosphere, taken with
the 1-m Swedish Solar Telescope looking
directly down on the Suns surface, shows
typical solar granules comparable in size to
Earths continents. The bright portions of
the image are regions where hot material
upwells from below. The darker (redder)
regions correspond to cooler gas that is
sinking back down into the interior.
(SST/Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
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Discovery 16-1:
Eavesdropping on the Sun
SOHO: Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory; orbits at Earths L1
point, outside its
magnetosphere
SDO: Solar Dynamics
Observatory, in
geosynchronous orbit, also
outside magnetosphere
Each carries multiple
instruments measuring
magnetic field, corona,
vibrations, and ultraviolet
emissions
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16.3 The Suns Atmosphere


Spectral analysis can tell us what elements are present, but
only in the chromosphere and photosphere of the Sun. This
spectrum has lines from 67 different elements.

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16.3 The Suns Atmosphere


Spectral lines are formed when light is absorbed before
escaping from the Sun; this happens when its energy is close
398 CHAPTER 16 The Sun
to an atomic transition, so it is absorbed.
TABLE 16.2

The Composition of the Sun

Element

Percentage of Total
Number of Atoms

Hydrogen
Helium
Oxygen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Silicon
Magnesium
Neon
Iron
Sulfur
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91.2
8.7
0.078
0.043
0.0088
0.0045
0.0038
0.0035
0.0030
0.0015

Percentage of
Total Mass

71.0
27.1
0.97
0.40
0.096
0.099
0.076
0.058
0.14
0.040

Stefans law, the brigh


its temperaturethe
(Sec. 3.4) Th
ates.)
direct evidence that th
decreases with height a
Strictly speaking
conclusions only abo
formthe photosphe
astronomers think th
(where nuclear reactio
tionsee Sec. 16.6), t
of the entire Sun. Tha
the excellent agreeme
which makes the sam
observations of the so

16.3 The Suns Atmosphere


The cooler chromosphere is above the photosphere.
Difficult to see directly,
as photosphere is too
bright, unless Moon
covers photosphere and
not chromosphere
during eclipse.
Solar Chromosphere This
photograph of a total solar
eclipse shows the solar
chromosphere a few
thousand kilometers above
the Suns surface. Note the
prominence at left.
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16.3 The Suns Atmosphere


Small solar storms in chromosphere emit spicules

Solar Spicules Short-lived, narrow jets of gas that typically last mere
minutes can be seen sprouting up from the solar chromosphere in this
H image of the Sun. These so-called spicules are the thin spikelike
regions whose gas escapes from the Sun at speeds of about 100 km/s.
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16.3 The Suns Atmosphere


Solar corona can be seen during eclipse if both photosphere
and chromosphere are blocked
Solar Corona When both
the photosphere and the
chromosphere are
obscured by the Moon
during a solar eclipse, the
faint corona becomes
visible

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16.3 The Suns Atmosphere


Corona is much hotter than layers below it must have a
heat source, probably electromagnetic interactions
Solar Atmospheric Temperature
The change of gas temperature
in the lower solar atmosphere is
dramatic. The temperature,
indicated by the blue line,
reaches a minimum of 4500 K in
the chromosphere and then
rises sharply in the transition
zone, finally leveling off at
around 3 million K in the corona.

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16.4 Solar Magnetism / Sunspots


SECTION 16.4 Solar Magnetism
Magnetism

401
401

Sunspots
Sunspotsappear
appear
dark
darkbecause
because
they
theyare
areslightly
slightly
cooler
coolerthan
thanthe
the
surrounding
surroundinggas.
gas.

(a)

50,000 km

Penumbra
Penumbra

Umbra
Umbra
RR
II
VVsunspot
U
X
U
X
The magnetic field in a typical
isGG

FIGURE
16.14
This
the
FIGURE
16.14 Sunspots
Sunspots
This photograph
photograph
the entire
entire
Sun,
taken
about
1000
times greater
thanofofthe
fieldSun,
intaken
during
duringaaperiod
periodof
ofmaximum
maximumsolar
solar activity,
activity, shows
shows several
several groups
groups of
of
neighboring,
photospheric
sunspots.
spots
more
sunspots.The
Thelargest
largestundisturbed
spotsin
inthe
theimage
image are
are
more than
than 20,000
20,000 km
km
across,
nearly
twice
the
diameter
of
Earth.
Typical
sunspots
are
only
across,
nearly
twice
the
diameter
of
Earth.
Typical
sunspots
are
only
regions
(which
is
itself
several
times
about
abouthalf
halfthat
thatsize.
size.(Palomar
(PalomarObservatory/Caltech)
Observatory/Caltech)
stronger
than
Earths
field)
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Inc.

(b)

10,000 km
R

FIGURE 16.15

V
V

U
U

X
X

G
G

Sunspots, Up Close (a) An enlarged


enlarged photo
photo of
of the
the

/VIDEO Sunspot

This
Thisspot
spotisisabout
about
the
thesize
sizeof
ofEarth.
Earth.

16.4 Solar Magnetism


Sunspots: Appear dark
because slightly cooler
than surroundings

Sunspots, Up Close (a) An enlarged


photo of the largest pair of
sunspots in Figure 16.14 shows
how each spot consists of a cool,
dark umbra surrounded by a
warmer, brighter penumbra. (b) A
high-resolution image of a single
typical sunspot shows details of its
structure as well as the surface
granules surrounding it.
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Sunspots come and go, typically


in a few days.
Sunspots are linked by pairs of
magnetic field lines.

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(a) The Suns magnetic field lines emerge from


the surface through one member of a sunspot
pair and reenter the Sun through the other
member. If the magnetic field lines are directed
into the Sun in one leading spot, they are
inwardly directed in all other leading spots in
that hemisphere. The opposite is the case in the
southern hemisphere, where the polarities are
always opposite those in the north. (b) An
ultraviolet image taken by the Transition Region
and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) satellite, showing
magnetic field lines arching between two
sunspot groups

Sunspots originate when magnetic field lines are


distorted by Suns differential rotation

Solar Rotation (a, b) The Suns differential rotation wraps and distorts the solar magnetic field.
(c) Occasionally, the field lines burst out of the surface and loop through the lower atmosphere,
thereby creating a sunspot pair. The underlying pattern of the solar field lines explains the
observed pattern of sunspot polarities
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How Big are Solar Flares: video

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The magnetic field and atmosphere protect Earth


from most solar storms

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Impact of Solar Flares:


Expansion and ionization of the
atmosphere (due to heating)
Drag force affecting orbiting satellites
Increased radiation level in high altitudes
(airline flights)
Damage to solar panels and CCDs
Possible damage to power plans in
northern areas
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The Northern Light (Aurora)

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Solar Observations from Space: video

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The Sun has an 11-year sunspot cycle, during which


sunspot numbers rise, fall, and then rise again
Sunspot Cycle (a) Monthly number of
sunspots during the 20th century clearly
displays the (roughly) 11-year solar cycle. At
the time of minimum solar activity, hardly
any sunspots are seen. About 4 years later, at
maximum solar activity, about 100 spots are
observed per month. (b) Sunspots cluster at
high latitudes when solar activity is at a
minimum. They appear at lower and lower
latitudes as the number of sunspots peaks.
They are again prominent near the Suns
equator as solar minimum is approached
once more.

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16.4 Solar Magnetism


This is really a 22-year cycle, because the spots switch
polarities between the northern and southern hemispheres
every 11 years
Maunder minimum: few, if any, sunspots

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16.5 The Active Sun


Areas around sunspots are active;
large eruptions may occur in
photosphere
Solar prominence is large sheet of
ejected gas
Solar Prominences (a) This particularly large solar
prominence was observed by ultraviolet detectors
aboard the SOHO spacecraft in 2002. (b) Like a
phoenix rising from the solar surface, this filament
of hot gas measures more than 100,000 km in
length. Earth could easily fit between its
outstretched arms. Dark regions in this TRACE
image have temperatures less than 20,000 K; the
brightest regions are about 1 million K. Most of the
gas will subsequently cool and fall back into the
photosphere
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Solar flare is a large explosion on Suns surface, emitting a


similar amount of energy to a prominence, but in seconds or
minutes rather than days or weeks
Solar Flare Much more
violent than a prominence, a
solar flare is an explosion on
the Suns surface that
sweeps across an active
region in a matter of
minutes, accelerating solar
material to high speeds and
blasting it into space.

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Coronal mass ejection occurs when


a large bubble detaches from the
Sun and escapes into space
Coronal Mass Ejection (a) A few times per week, on average, a
giant magnetized bubble of solar material detaches itself
from the Sun and rapidly escapes into space, as shown in this
SOHO image taken in 2002. The circles are artifacts of an
imaging system designed to block out the light from the Sun
itself and exaggerate faint features at larger radii. (b) Should a
coronal mass ejection encounter Earth with its magnetic field
oriented opposite to our own, as illustrated, the field lines can
join together as in part (c), allowing high-energy particles to
enter and possibly severely disrupt our planets
magnetosphere. By contrast, if the fields are oriented in the
same direction, the coronal mass ejection can slide by Earth
with little effect.

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Solar wind escapes Sun mostly through coronal holes,


which can be seen in X-ray images

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Coronal Hole (a) Images of X-ray emission from the


Sun observed by the Yohkoh satellite. Note the
dark, V-shaped coronal hole traveling from left to
right, where the X-ray observations outline in
dramatic detail the abnormally thin regions
through which the high-speed solar wind streams
forth. (b) Charged particles follow magnetic field
lines that compete with gravity. When the field is
trapped and loops back toward the photosphere,
the particles are also trapped; otherwise, they can
escape as part of the solar wind.

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