Community Ecology

Community or biocoenosis is the association of

populations of two or more different especies
occupying the same geographical place at the same
time (or during a particular moment of their lifes).
Group of organisms in a specific place or time.
Community ecology or synecology is the study of the
interactions between species in communities on many
spatial and temporal scales:distribution, structure,
abundance, demography and interactions at
populational level.

Community ecology studies variation in species richness,

equitability, productivity and food web structure
(predator-prey population dynamics, succesion and
community assembly).

Species Interactions
Interaction

Cost (-)/Benefit(+) to the Species

Competition

(/)

Predation

Commensalism

(+/)
(+/)
(+/+)
(+/0)

Amensalism

(0/0)

Parasitism
Mutualism

Symbiosis
(coevolution)

Competition
Used to be thought of as THE driving force

behind community structure

Important force for natural selection
Character displacement

Difficult to prove
- Ghost of competition past
- Apparent competition

Mechanisms
- Interference competition
- Exploitation competition

Competitive exclusion principle

Predation
Kills prey

Predator-prey cycles
Keystone species
Powerful evolutionary force
- Defense structures
- Speed
- Aposematism
- Mimicry
> Batesian
> Muellerian

Herbivory

Predator and prey population cycling

The cycling of lynx and snowshoe hare populations in Northern Ontario is an example of predator-prey dynamics.As hare populations increase,the lynx
populations also increase due to increased food supplies.Many lynx eating many hares causes a decline in the hare population size.This results in a
decrease in the lynx population.Then the cycle begins again.

Keystone species maintain biodiveristy

The <em>Pisaster ochraceus</em> sea star is a keystone species.When this animal is removed from certain areas, its prey species greatly alters the
dynamics of the ecosystem, reducing biodiversity.

Defenses against predation and herbivory

The (a) honey locust tree (<em>Gleditsia triacanthos</em>) uses thorns, a mechanical defense, against herbivores, while the (b) Florida red-bellied turtle
(<em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em>) uses its shell as a mechanical defense against predators.(c) Foxglove (<em>Digitalis</em> sp.) uses a chemical defense:
toxins produced by the plant can cause nausea, vomiting, hallucinations, convulsions, or death when consumed.(d) The North American millipede
(<em>Narceus americanus</em>) uses both mechanical and chemical defenses: when threatened, the millipede curls into a defensive ball, producing a
noxious substance that irritates eyes and skin.

Examples of aposematic coloration

(a) The strawberry poison dart frog (<em>Oophaga pumilio</em>) uses aposematic coloration to warn predators that it is toxic, while the (b) striped
skunk (<em>Mephitis mephitis)</em> uses aposematic coloration to warn predators of the unpleasant odor it produces.

Parasitism
Ideally does not kill host

Increasingly recognized as an important

interaction shaping communities and evolutionary
patterns.
- Understudied in wildlife studies as a density
dependent factor
- Evolution of sex
- The Red Queen change to maintain the status
quo

Mutualism
Perhaps also underestimated
- Corrals
- Mycorrhiza

Depends on our knowledge of the system

- Ox birds
- Galapagos finches

Foundation species
Coral is the foundation species of coral reef ecosystems.The photosynthetic algae within the corals provides energy for them so that they can build the
reefs.

Commensalism
How common is it really?

Ant birds
Nesting birds or insects
Cattle egrets

Commensalistic relationship
The southern masked-weaver bird is starting to make a nest in a tree in Zambezi Valley, Zambia.This is an example of a commensal relationship, in
which one species (the bird) benefits, while the other (the tree) neither benefits nor is harmed.

How does a community form?

Species interactions
- Communities are discrete units

Individual responses to abiotic factors

- There really are no communities

Ecological Succession
What happens after a community is destroyed or

created
Primary succession: islands rising from the sea
Secondary succession: not all is gone (soil still
present, seedbank, not all animals are dead)

Pioneer species are the first to colonize

During primary succession in lava on Maui, Hawaii, succulent plants are the pioneer species.After weathering breaks down the lava into soil, the plants
are able to take root.These plants will help to further change the soil by adding nutrients to it.

Secondary succession in the forest

Secondary succession is shown in an oak and hickory forest after a forest fire.Those organisms that could not escape are killed, but their bodies
decompose, adding nutrients to the soil.These nutrients provide the basis for new plants to grow.