Textile Dyeing Process

Dyeing is a method which imparts beauty to the textile by applying various colors and their
shades on to a fabric. Dyeing can be done at any stage of the manufacturing of textile- fiber,
yarn, fabric or a finished textile product including garments and apparels. The property of color
fastness depends upon two factors- selection of proper dye according to the textile material to be
dyed and selection of the method for dyeing the fiber, yarn or fabric.

The following figures illustrate with process flow diagrams the whole operation of finishing
processes and how the dyeing process is a part and parcel of the process of textile making.

Materials used in the Textile Dyeing Process

Materials that are used in textile dyeing process include water, fibre, yarn or cloth. Further, these
include a host of process chemicals like:

Acids, e.g. acetic, formic.

Alkalis- NaOH, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate.

Bleaches- Hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypo chlorite, sodium chlorite etc.

Dyes, for example direct, disperse, pigment, vat.

Salts, e.g. NaCl.

Size, e.g. PVA, starch.

Stabilisers from sodium silicate, sodium nitrate also organic stabilisers.

Surfactants

Auxiliary finishes, like fire retardant, softener

The Dyes are classified based on the products to which they can be applied and the chemical
nature of each dye. Dyes are complex unsaturated aromatic having characteristics like solubility,
intense color, substansiveness and fastness.
A dye-formulation is supposed to have approximately 10-80% pure dyestuff. It is mostly
observed that dyestuffs delivered in powder form have a higher value. While a lower value is
obtained for the liquid formulations.
Dyes may be classified in several ways (e.g., according to chemical constitution, application
class, end-use).

Chemical classification of the Dyes

Dyes can be divided according to the nature of their Chromophore:
Group
Category
Acridine dyes, derivatives of acridine >C=N-and>C=C
:
Category Anthraquinone dyes, derivatives of anthraquinone >C=O
:
and>C=C
Arylmethane dyes
Category
:

Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:

Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane

Triarylmethane dyes, based on triphenyl methane

Azo dyes, based on a -N=N- azo structure

Cyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine
Diazonium dyes, based on diazonium salts
Nitro dyes, based on the -NO2 nitro functional group
Nitroso dyes, are based on a -N=O nitroso functional

Uses
Textiles, leather
Textiles

Category
Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine >C=N
:
Category
Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone
:
Azin dyes
Category
:

Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:
Category
:

Eurhodin dyes

Safranin dyes, derivatives of safranin -C-N=C- -C-N-C

Paper
Wool and paper

Leather and textile

Xanthene dyes, derived from xanthene -O-C6H4-0

Cotton, Silk and

Wool

Indophenol dyes, derivatives of indophenol >C=N-and>C=O

Color photography

Oxazin dyes, derivatives of oxazin -C-N=C =C-O-C=

Calico printing

Oxazone dyes, derivatives of oxazone

Thiazin dyes, derivatives of thiazin
Thiazole dyes, derivatives of thiazole >C=N-and-S-0=
Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene
Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine
Pyronin dyes

Dyes according to the nuclear structure

According to the Nuclear Structure, dyes are categorized into two groups

Cationic Dyes

Anionic Dyes

Intermediate

Industrial Classification of the Dyes

Textile Industries use dyestuff in large amount, so at this level a classification can be done
according to their performances in the dyeing processes. The most consumable dye is Azo dye,
around 60% of the total dyestuffs of the world are based on this dyes. Major classes of dyes in
textile finishing is given here:

Acid

Azoic

Basic

Direct

Disperse

Reactive

Solvent

Sulphur

Vat

Mordant

Classification based on the source of materials

Classification of dyestuff is mainly depend upon the nature of the source from which it is made.
Accordingly the classification could be:

Natural Dyes

Synthetic Dyes

Other important dyes

Based on various applications, a number of other classes of dyes have also been established, that
includes the following:

Optical Brighteners - Used primarily for textile fibres and paper.

Fluorescent Dyes - A very innovative dye. Used for application in sports good etc.

Leuco Dyes - Has a wide variety of applications including electronic industries and
papers.

Oxidation Dyes - Used mainly for hair.

Leather Dyes - Used for leather.

Fuel Dyes - As the name suggests it is used in fuels.

Solvent Dyes - For application in wood staining and production of colored lacquers,
solvent inks, waxes and coloring oils etc.

Inkjet Dyes - Writing industry including the inkjet printers.

Smoke Dyes - Used in military activities.

Sublimation Dyes - For application in textile printing.

Classification of Dyes
Dyes can be classified in several ways, each class has a very unique chemistry, structure and
particular way of bonding. Some dyes can react chemically with the substrates forming strong
bonds in the process, and others can be held by physical forces. Some of the prominent ways of
classification are given below

Natural / Synthetic

Organic / Inorganic

By area and method of application

Chemical classification - Based on the nature of their respective chromophores.

By nature of the Electronic Excitation (i.e., energy transfer colorants, absorption

colorants and fluorescent colorants).

According to the dyeing methods

o Anionic (for Protein fibre)
o Direct (Cellulose)
o Disperse (Polyamide fibres)

US International Trade Commission has advocated the most popular classification of dyes. This
system classifies dyes into 12 types, which are given below:
Group
Application
Direct
Cotton, cellulosic and blended fibres
Vat dyes
Cotton, cellulosic and blended fibres
Sulphur
Cotton, cellulosic fibre
Organic pigments
Cotton, cellulosic, blended fabric, paper
Reactive
Cellulosic fibre and fabric
Disperse dyes
Synthetic fibres
Acid Dyes
Wool, silk, paper, synthetic fibres, leather
Azoic
Printing Inks and Pigments
Basic
Silk, wool, cotton

Methods of Textile Dyeing

Color is applied to fabric by different methods of dyeing for different types of fiber and at
different stages of the textile production process. These methods include: Direct dyeing, Stock
dyeing, Top dyeing, Yarn dyeing, Piece dyeing, Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing, Garment
dyeing etc.
Textile materials are generally dyed using two processes. They are the following:

Batch Dyeing Process

Continuous or Semi- Continuous Process

The following chart gives a comparison between batch dyeing and continuous dyeing

A natural or synthetic substance used to add a color or to change the color of something. Dyes
are the coloring material that color commodities of our day to day use. Dyes are applied
everywhere, from Plastic toys for children to that fabrics you wear, from food to wood; hardly
there is any industry where dyes are not used commercially.
A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. It is
an ionising and aromatic organic compounds. The dye is generally applied in an aqueous
solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.
With the help of dyes we can easily manipulate things according to our liking. At the very basic
level the use of color in identifying individual components of tissue sections can be
accomplished primarily with dyes. Dyes are applied to numerous substrates for example to
textiles, leather, plastic, paper, food etc. The rule that we apply to other chemicals is similarly
applicable to dyes also. They also get completely or atleast partially soluble in which it is being
put to. For example certain kind of dyes can be toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic and can be
hazardous to health.

Evolution of Dyes
It was in 2600 BC when earliest written records of the use of dyestuffs were found in China. The
preparation and application of dyestuffs is one of the oldest forms of human activities. Evidences
of which were found by Excavation at archeological sites where ancient fabrics were unearthed.
There is also mention of it in the Bible and other works of classical antiquity.
The real breakthroughs in the history of dyes came in 1856 when a teenager who was
experimenting at his makeshift laboratory in home made a certain discovery that acted as a sort
of launching pad for the modern chemicals industry.
William Perkin an 18-year-old student was working on chemical synthesis of natural products. In
a classic case of serendipity, the young William Perkin chanced upon his now famous 'Aniline
Mauve' dye while he was attempting to synthesize quinine, the only cure for malaria. Perkin
named his color Mauveine, after the French name of non-fast color which was made of natural
dyes. So "Mauve" (a basic dye) was the first synthetic dye stuff. Mauve was a derivative of coal
tar. It was the first mass-produced dye, that was commercially available and the idea was born
that a color could be made in the factory. It was indeed a revolution.

What makes the Dyes colored ?

Dyes are basically ionising and aromatic compounds, they have Chromophores present in them.
Their structures have Aryl rings that has delocalised electron systems. These structures are said
to be responsible for the absorption of electromagnetic radiation that has varying wavelengths,

based upon the energy of the electron clouds.

Chomophores make the dyes proficient in their ability to absorb radiation. Chromophores act by
making energy changes in the delocalised electron cloud of the dye. This alteration invariably
results in the compound absorbing radiation within the visible range of colors and not outside it.
Human eyes detects this absorption, and responds to the colors.
Electrons may result in loss of color, their removal may cause the rest of the electrons to revert to
the local orbits. A very good example is the Schiff's reagent. As Sulphurous acid reacts with
Pararosanilin, what happens is that a Sulphonic group attaches itself to the compound's central
carbon atom. This hampers the conjugated double bond system of the Quinoid ring, and causes
the electrons to become localised. As a consequence the ring ceases to be a Chromophore. As a
result, the dye becomes colorless.
To conclude chromophores are the atomic configurations which has delocalised electrons.
Generally they are represented as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. They can have alternate
single and double bonds.

How can the color of the Dyes be altered ?

The color of the dyes are altered by the Modifiers. The Color modifiers of methyl or ethyl groups
are responsible for any alteration in the dyes; they alter the energy in the delocalised electrons.
There is a progressive alteration of color by adding a particular modifier. For example: Methyl
Violet Series.
The following diagram explains what happens to the color of the dyes when modifiers are
added.
Step A : When no methylgroup is added the original dye Pararosanil as it is called is red in
colour.

Step B : As Four Methyl groups are added the reddish purple dye Methyl Violet is obtained.

Step C : With the addition of more groups a purple blue dye Crystal Violet is obtained. It has in
it six such groups.

Step D : Further addition of a seventh methyl group the dye that is obtained is called Methyl
green.

What gives the Dyes Solubility and

Cohesiveness ?
Auxochrome, the only substance responsible for providing solubility and cohesiveness to dyes.
An auxochrome is a group of atoms attached to a chromophore which modifies the ability of that
chromophore to absorb light. Examples include the hydroxyl group (-OH), the amino group (NH2), and an aldehyde group (-CHO).
The presence of an auxochrome in the chromogen molecule is essential to make a dye. However,
if an auxochrome is present in the meta position to the chromophore, it does not affect the color.
Auxochrome has the ability to intensify colors. It is a group of atoms which attaches to nonionising compounds yet has the ability to ionise. Auxochromes are of two types, positively
charged or negatively charged.