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CIVIL,MECHANICAL
1 DEFINED CIVIL
1.1 Hydrological data
The hydrological data is the most important data in a hydropower
project and all of the design depends on it. The data sets should have as
many years of registries as possible. The longer the data period, the more
accurate will be the results.
In ideal conditions there are two main data sets that must be
obtained before the design phase of the project:
Daily flows: Used to compute the flow duration curve (FDC) from which
the projects design flow is derived.
Maximum flood flows: Used to predict the maximum flood flow for a
given return period.
Usually the hydrological data is obtained from a gauging station.
1.
Daily Flows
Normal
Gumbel
Pearson III
LogPearson III
3
enough
information
for
computing
flood
levels
upstream
and
Intake
Intake Canal
Gravel trap
Side Spillway
Approach canal
Settling Basin
Headrace Canal
Forebay
Penstock design
Power calculations
Anchor blocks
Weir Stability
Intake:
Choose the position of the intake and set the river bed level BLu/s,
then set the clearance from river bed level (ClRBL) which should be
at least 0.30 m. This value is to account for bed load such as debris
and boulders carried by the river during the flood period. If
according to local conditions there is a high risk of the intake being
blocked during flood season then increase the clearance to a level
considered safe. However it has to be noted that the higher the
clearance the higher the construction costs with the intake and the
weir.
Set the flow velocity through the intake. This value should be
between 1.0 and 1.5 m/s for stone masonry and not more than 3.0
m/s for concrete intakes. It has to be noted that a higher velocity
will lead to smaller intakes but make them more prone to attract
debris.
Set the width (w) of the intake. The height of the intake will be
automatically calculated accordingly to the area that resulted from
the velocity assumed for the flow at the intake.
6
Intake Canal:
Set slope of the vertical canal walls (m) to zero. Set a slope for the
canal. Compute goal seek by setting dif Q to zero by changing h. If
the water depth in the canal is not at least 5 cm higher than the
height of the intake orifice then set a new slope and do goal seek
again. Repeat the process as many times as necessary until the
water depth in the canal is at least 5 cm higher than the height of
the intake orifice. This is to assure the orifice is submerged.
Intake:
The water level downstream of the intake, hD/S, orifice is now the
level set previously in the intake canal. From this level it is
calculated the water level upstream the intake, hU/S. which will set
the normal water level, NWL. If the levels obtained are not suited for
site conditions, try different canal widths.
Set the maximum flood discharge (Q maxflood) and the normal flood
discharge (Qnormflood) accordingly to the values obtained from a
hydrological study.
7
Set the length of the weir crest, L. This value should be set
accordingly to the local conditions on the area were the weir will be
placed, which usually is a few meters downstream the intake.
After the referred variables are set, the water depth over the weir
crest for both of the flood flows (hpf and hnf) is calculated by using
the equation for discharge over a weir. These values are outputs
that will be used as inputs for the calculation of the flow going
through the intake in flood conditions.
Set the freeboard for the floodwalls. This value should be at least
0.3 m and its choice will depend on the quality of the hydrological
study. If the designer is not confident about the maximum peak
flood discharge then he should increase the freeboard. After the
freeboard is set the height of the flood walls is calculated.
Set
the
Manning
coefficient
accordingly
to
the
river
bed
characteristics
Pick a point some meters upstream the selected cross section and
other a few meter downstream and compute the longitudinal slope
of the river. Input the value in cell Slope.
From the cross section profile get the slope from the river banks (m
left bank and m right bank)
Run goal seek by setting cell dif Q to zero by changing h. This will
compute the uniform water depth for the approximate cross section
of the river.
Set the depth of stilling basin bed level from downstream bed level,
, to zero. This means that for the calculations of the hydraulic jump
it is considered that the bed level of the stilling basin is the same as
that of the river in the section immediately downstream.
For the calculation of the hydraulic jump, the first step is to consider
that between the weir crest and the bottom of the weir the total
energy of the flow will remain constant because rapidly varied flow
will occur. The water depth at the end of the weir is computed in
accordance to this principle. For this in the table named Energy
conservation at weir the cell dif E, using goal seek, must be set to
zero by changing D1 which is the water depth at the end of the weir.
The height of the walls of the stilling basin will also be computed
automatically after the value of the water depth after the hydraulic
jump, D2, is calculated. The equation considers a freeboard of 25%
D2.
Gravel trap
The design discharge for the gravel trap is the flow in the intake
canal that results from a flood with a return period of 5 years. This
will ensure that the gravel trap is oversized for normal operation
conditions, which will help to prevent malfunction during regular
flood periods due to the lack of flushing according to the time
interval considered during the design.
Set the width of the gravel trap. This value should be 2 to 5 times
the width of the intake canal.
10
Set the safety factor, SF. This is an oversizing factor for the design of
the gravel trap and its main purpose is to account for the turbulence
in the flow which will decrease the efficiency of the settling process.
In comparison to a settling basin a gravel trap is usually a smaller
structure in length because the settling velocity of particles is
higher, thus they need a shorter distance from the beginning of
structure to settle. As a result of this, for the same volume of
particles to store between flushing, a gravel trap will need a bigger
collection depth. However this value should be kept in a reasonable
range to prevent an excess of excavation. Increasing the safety
factor is a way to solve this problem because as the size of the
gravel trap increases the collection depth decreases.
Check if the ratio L\W is ok. This ratio should be between 1.5 and
2.0, however it is not a problem if it gets a little higher or smaller
than the range. If the gravel trap is made smaller than the flushing
frequency will be higher and if it is made larger than the flushing
frequency can be decreased.
Check if the horizontal flow velocity, vp, is less or equal to the limit
velocity, vlimit, if not increase the width of the gravel trap. x Set the
angle of the walls at the entrance and exit transitions. The entrance
should be smoother, thus with a smaller angle (around 20 degrees),
in order to avoid turbulence in the flow. At the exit this criteria is not
so strict and decision will also depend on the alignment of the canal
if there is room for a smoother and longer transition or not).
11
Set the river carrying load of gravel. This kind of data is very rare, so
usually depending on the characteristics of the river the designer
can assume a value between 0.5 and 2.0 kg/m3 . x Set the flushing
time. In ideal conditions this time should be equal to the flushing
frequency of the settling basin in order to make easier and simpler
the operation of the scheme. However this is not always possible
because it would lead to a high collection depth. It has also to be
noted that the design flushing frequency is for flood season which
means that during the remaining year when the river carrying load
is much lower the flushing frequency will decrease.
From the previous inputs the dimensions and depths of the gravel
trap are defined. The settling depth is considered equal to the depth
of the flow in the intake canal. The freeboard is considered to be the
same used in the intake canal (0.30 m).
Side spillway
12
Set the safety factor, SF. This is to account for the approximations
considered in the design of the spillway. Usually it is used 1.5 but
this value can go up to 2. The designer must have in mind that the
higher the safety factor the higher the length of the crest.
Approach canal
The flow is the design flow and is linked to the intake sheet
Set the slope of the canal. If possible make it equal to the one of the
intake canal (this is for easy of construction).
Set the width of the canal. The approach canal will not have to
convey flood flow (since flood flows are spilled from the side spillway
upstream), but only the design flows and thus the canal can be
narrowed. Choose a width, b, which makes the height of the canal
walls (including the freeboard), hwalls, about double its size.
Use goal seek to set the cell dif Q to zero by changing h. If the
height of the canal walls (including the freeboard), hwalls, is not
about two times the size of the width of the canal, b, change the
width of the canal and repeat the goal seek.
10 Settling
Basin
The settling basin is designed for the intake design discharge and
this value is linked to the intake sheet.
13
Set the width of the settling basin. This value should be 2 to 5 times
the width of the approach canal.
Set the safety factor, SF. This is an oversizing factor for the design of
the settling basin and its main purpose is to account for the
turbulence in the flow which will decrease the efficiency of the
settling process. Usually the safety factor, SF, ranges between 1 and
2. x Check if the ratio L\W is ok. This ratio should be between 4
and 10, however it is not a problem if it gets a little higher or
smaller than the range. As in the case of gravel trap only the
flushing frequency will have to be changed.
Check if the horizontal flow velocity, vp, is less or equal to the limit
velocity, vlimit, if not increase the width of the settling basin.
Set the angle of the walls at the entrance and exit transitions. These
transitions should be smooth and have an angle that makes the
length of the transition at least equal to the width of the settling
basin.
Set the river carrying load of sand. This kind of data is usually hard
to get, so depending on the characteristics of the river the designer
can assume a value between 0,5 and 2,0 kg/m3 . 10 Renewable
Energy Guidelines Nov. 2013 Volume 11 Micro/Mini Hydropower
Design Aspects
14
Set the flushing time. In ideal conditions this time should be equal to
the flushing frequency of the gravel trap in order to make easier and
simpler the operation of the scheme. However this is not always
possible because the smaller dimensions of the gravel trap reduce
its storage capacity, thus leading to higher flushing frequencies. It
has also to be noted that the design flushing frequency is for flood
season, when the river carries a high sediment load, which means
that during the remaining year when the sediment load is much
lower, the emptying frequency will decrease.
From the previous inputs the dimensions and depths of the settling
basin are defined. The settling depth is considered equal to the
depth of the flow in the approach canal. The freeboard is considered
to be the same used in the approach canal (0.30 m).
Note that if the collection tank has sloped side walls the computed
Dcollection is not the real depth to be used. In this case the designer
should decide on the longitudinal slope of the settling basin bottom
and then set the collection depths at the beginning and end of the
settling/collection area in a way that the volume for sediment
storage is at least equal to Volsand.
11 Settling
Equation 1 accounts for the situation when the basin is full and its
volume and the incoming flow will be totally flushed. Equation 2
accounts for the situation when the basin is already empty and only
the incoming flow will be flushed.
15
If the flushing system to adopt has a pipe then its diameter will be
dflushing. If the system is a gate and a downstream flushing canal
then the gate will be sized based on the area of the orifice. For this,
set the width and the height will be automatically calculated.
12 Headrace
canal
The flow is the design discharge and is linked to the intake sheet
Set the slope of the canal. If possible make it equal to the one of the
intake canal (this is for easy of construction).
Set the width of the canal. Choose a width, b, which make the height
of the canal walls (including the freeboard), hwalls, about double its
size.
Use goal seek to set the cell dif Q to zero by changing h. If the
height of the canal walls (including the freeboard), hwalls, is not
about two times the size of the width of the canal, b, change the
width of the canal and repeat the goal seek.
13
Penstock design
16
Set the design head for the penstock, Hp, which is equal to the
gross head of the scheme.
Set the ultimate tensile strength of the penstock material. The most
common material is mild steel and the value for steel is 3.5x108
N/m2 . Note that steels with higher ultimate tensile strength are also
available in the market but are not generally used in micro/mini
hydropower plants. However, if the grade of the steel is known (e.g.,
test certificates are available) then this value should be used in the
calculations.
Check the flow velocity in the penstock for the chosen diameter.
This value should be in the following ranges: 23 m/s for low head,
34 m/s for medium head and 45 m/s for high head schemes (head
(H): low H < 50 m; medium 50 H 250, high H > 250). It has also
to be noted that the smaller the diameter of the penstock the higher
will be the continuous head losses and the lower the net head.
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Set the surge head factor. This will depend on the selected turbine.
For Pelton and CrossFlow 10 20%, and for Francis turbines 3040%.
x Check the safety factor, SF. If the value is less than 3.5 then
increase the effective thickness, teff, until it the SF is at least 3.5.
14 Forebay
Set the width of the forebay. As a thumb rule, to start the design, it
can be assumed that the length of the forebay will be 2 to 2.5 times
this size. However according to the required volume of water above
the penstock and to meet the site conditions the designer may have
to change this ratio.
Set the clearance of the penstock from the bottom of the forebay.
This is to avoid that particles and sediments settled in the forebay
get in the penstock. The minimum clearance is 0.30 m. 0.50 m is a
common and reasonable value to use.
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Set the depth of water over the crest of the spillway. Have in mind
that the higher the water depth the smaller will be the crest length
of the spillway. The spillway is designed to spill all the design flow in
case the powerhouse is shut down and no flow is going through the
penstock.
Set the freeboard for the spillway. This is a safety margin in case
higher flows than the design flow arrive to the forebay. Consider a
value that is half the water depth over the weir crest. This will
increase, if necessary, in 50% of the discharge capacity of the
spillway.
Set the angle of the transition walls at the entrance of the penstock.
This transition must be smooth so mild angles are recommended
(around 20%). However to fit site conditions the values can be
adjusted.
For the final placing of the forebay the designer has to set the
normal water level (NWL) in meters above sea level. If there is no
need to gain extra head with this, then the NWL can be set at the
same level of the water level in the head race canal just before the
forebay. This means that the bed level of the forebay will be set by
subtracting the normal depth (hnorm) to the NWL. So, Fbl=NWL
hnorm and according to this set the forebay bed level. x Note that
the crest of the spillway will be placed 0.05 m above the NWL so
that small changes in the flow or fluctuations or turbulence in the
water surface (like wind) do not cause an immediate spilling.
After inputting all the previous mentioned values the water levels in
the forebay and its dimensions are automatically calculated.
15 Head
loss calculation
19
Set the distance between bars, s (this value will depend on the
selected turbine and the specifications of the manufacturer. In a
preliminary design consider this value around 2 or 3 cm. Note that
the smaller the spacing between bars the more protected the
turbine will be, but the head loss will increase as well as the
clogging and the consequently the cleaning frequency).
Set the angle of the trash rack with the horizontal, , typically it is
used 72 degrees which is equivalent to a slope of 1:3 (H:V).
Set the cross section shape factor, , accordingly to the shape of the
bar cross section. x After all the mentioned inputs the head loss in
the trash rack is calculated
Set the entrance factor, ke, factor accordingly to the shape of the
transition between the forebay and the penstock. The head loss is
calculated after this values is set.
For the head loss in a bend, set the angle of the bend, , and the
bend factor, (use the table for bends on the right as reference),
the head loss is then computed. Add as many bends as necessary. If
the bend has two components (horizontal and vertical) then
calculate them separately accordingly to the bending angles.
For the head loss due to contraction (reduction of the pipe size at
the joint between the penstock and the turbine) set the diameter of
the smaller pipe, D2 (usually this value depends on the dimensions
of the turbine, but in a preliminary phase can be considered 0.4 m
for low power Francis turbines.
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Set the loss factor, ke. For this type of transition ke=0.05. The head
loss is then calculated.
All of the losses are resumed in point 3 and the total head loss is
calculated.
As stated earlier, if the head loss is too high repeat the calculations
assuming a larger pipe diameter.
16
Tailrace canal
The flow is the design discharge and is linked to the Penstock Design
sheet.
Set the slope of the canal. If the tailrace canal is stepped then set
the slope to zero.
If the canal is made of steps then it is assumed that the flow will be
critical, hence the water depth will be equal to the critical depth.
Set the width of the canal. Choose a width, b, which make the height
of the canal walls (including the freeboard), hwalls, about double its
size.
If the canal has a slope then use goal seek to set the cell dif Q to
zero by changing h. If the height of the canal walls (including the
freeboard), hwalls, is not about two times the size of the width of
the canal, b, change the width of the canal and repeat the goal
seek.
Note that for safety if the flow regime in the tailrace canal is
supercritical the first 50 meters of the tailrace canal should always
have the height of the vertical walls determined by the critical
depth.
17 River
Set
the
Manning
coefficient
accordingly
to
the
river
bed
characteristics
Pick a point some meters upstream the selected cross section and
other a few meter downstream and compute the longitudinal slope
of the river. Input the value in cell Slope.
From the cross section profile get the slope from the river banks (m
left bank and m right bank)
Run goal seek by setting cell dif Q to zero by changing h. This will
compute the uniform water depth for the approximate cross section
of the river.
The computed river water level will be used to decide the location of
the end of the tailrace canal.
18 Power
calculations
Set the basic data inputs: density of water and gravity acceleration.
The design discharge and net head are linked to respectively the
penstock design and head loss calculations sheets.
Expansion joints
Anchor blocks
Input the hydraulic data: set the water head in the penstock for
each of the anchor blocks (the surge head will be automatically
computed accordingly to the type of turbine that was set in the
sheet Penstock Design; set the upstream diameter of the
penstock, D1, (this can be understood as the diameter of the
penstock that goes in the anchor block); set the plan and profile
angles of the upstream penstock (1h and 1v), set the downstream
diameter of the penstock, D2, (this can be understood as the
diameter of the penstock that goes out of the anchor block); set the
plan and profile angles of the downstream penstock (2h and 2v).
After inputting the previous data all of the hydraulic forces are
automatically computed using the Euler Theorem.
Check the safety factors for sliding and overturning. These factors
must be at least equal to 3. Note also that the resultant force should
be in the middle third of the base for stability against overturning. If
these conditions are not verified then go back to the dimensions of
the anchor blocks and change them. Usually the solution will be to
increase the anchor block dimensions, and if this does not work or
the final dimensions of the anchor block are too big, then consider
changing the alignment of the penstock (in plan and/or profile)
23
For the bearing capacity: set the depth of the base of the foundation
(this depth is measured in relation to the final ground level above
the anchor block foundation). In accordance to the friction angle of
the soil, , input the bearing capacity factors Nq and N (obtain
these values from the table that is in the spreadsheet template on
the right of the calculation for bearing capacity).
Check the safety factor for the bearing capacity. This value must be
equal or greater than 3. If not then change de dimensions of the
anchor block in a way that the maximum bearing load is reduced
(increase the length and width, and decrease the height).
Weir
Set the specific weights of water, soil, saturated soil, and weir. Set
also the friction angle of the soil,. The soil characteristics should be
obtained from samples collected at the site, however if this data is
not available values of 17 kN/m3 for the specific weight of the soil,
19 kN/m3 for the saturated specific weight of the soil, and between
25 and 30 degrees for the friction angle should be considered.
According to the shape of the weir divide its cross section in simple
geometric figures and input the areas of each one of them as well as
the length of their base.
Set the factor for calculating the horizontal coordinate of the center
of gravity, CGfactor, for each of the internal shapes of the weir.
Set the depth for the high flood level (hf). This depth is measured
from the point where the upstream weir apron intersects the ground
level.
Set the height between the turning point (the point in the
downstream extremity of the weir body that is in contact with the
foundation) and the upstream river bed level.
After the previous input data all of the loads are automatically
calculated.
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Check the safety factors for sliding and overturning. These factors
must be at least equal to 3. Note also that the resultant force should
be in the middle third of the base for stability against overturning. If
these conditions are not verified then go back to the dimensions of
the weir and change them. If the problem is safety against sliding
then increase the weight of the weir and increase the contact
surface between the weir and the foundation soil. If the problem is
in the safety against the overturning then increase the length of the
weir, B, and particularly increase the length and cross section area
of the upstream section of the weir (by upstream section of the weir
shall be understood the section of the weir upstream the crest).
For the bearing capacity: set the depth of the base of the foundation
(this depth is measured in relation to the final river bed level above
the weir foundation; if the river slope is too high and the depth of
the foundation cannot be considered the same upstream and
downstream the use an average value). In accordance to the friction
angle of the soil, , input the bearing capacity factors Nq and N
(obtain these values from the table that is in the spreadsheet
template on the right of the calculation for bearing capacity).
Check the safety factor for the bearing capacity. This value must be
equal or greater than 3. If not then change de dimensions of the
weir in a way that the maximum bearing load is reduced (increase
the length).
The powerhouse should be safe from not only annual floods but also
rare flood events. Discussions should be held with the local
community members to ensure that flood waters have not reached
the proposed powerhouse site within at least the past 20 years.
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