Joseph GAZALET

HW ID: H00176400
BEng Mechanical Engineering, Year 3

Monday, November 9th, 2015

B59EI Mechanical Engineering Science 9

The Pelton Wheel

Supervisor: Dr M. Nazarinia

B59EI Mechanical Engineering Science 9

The Pelton Wheel

Joseph GAZALET, HW ID: H00176400
BEng Mechanical Engineering, Year 3, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt
University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Laboratory Report, for the Pelton Wheel Experiment Laboratory Session, Held on Monday, October
26th, 2015, Experiment Supervisor: Dr M. Nazarinia

Summary
The following experiment deals with the performance analysis of a Pelton wheel turbine. The analysis
is conducted by measuring the rotational speed of the runner under different loading conditions (by
applying a measured torque on the runner dynamometer) at constant conditions of nozzle pressure
and flow rate. The measurements are conducted at three separate combinations of constant nozzle
pressure and flow rate. The measurements are used to determine turbine output power at different
loading conditions, while the set operating conditions allow for the calculation on input power.
Knowledge of input and output powers allows for the calculation of efficiency under different operating
conditions, and performance charts are established for each combination of nozzle pressure and flow
rate.

Table of Contents

Introduction...................................................................................................... 5
Apparatus......................................................................................................... 6
Theory............................................................................................................... 7
Experimental Method.....................................................................................18
Results............................................................................................................ 20
Discussion of Results................................................................................... 21
Conclusions................................................................................................... 24
Appendix A..................................................................................................... 25
Appendix B..................................................................................................... 26
References..................................................................................................... 27

Introduction
Despite the wide variety of fluid machinery available, fluid machines can be classified into two broad
categories based on their operating principles: positive-displacement machines and rotodynamic
machines. The operation of positive-displacement machines is based on volume variations of the fluid
within a control space such as a piston or portion of conduit with a flexible boundary. With the possible
exception of relatively new and limited use oceanic energy harnessing technology, the majority of
positive-displacement machines are pumps, which are used to convey kinetic or pressure energy to a
fluid. On the other hand, energy transfers between fluids and rotodynamic machines occur at the
contact between the fluid and a rotating part called a rotor which consists of a set of radially symmetric
blades or vanes. Depending on the orientation of the rotor relative to the direction of flow across it,
rotodynamic machines can further be differentiated into axial-flow machines, radial-flow machines, and
mixed-flow machines. The term axial-flow describes machines for which the rotation axis of the rotor
is parallel to the direction of flow, whereas machines for which the rotating motion of the rotor occurs
within the plane of fluid flow are classified as radial-flow machines. If the orientation of the machines
rotor is somewhere in between the axial-flow and radial-flow orientations, the machine is classified as
a mixed-flow machine. Similarly to positive-displacement machines with the same function,
rotodynamic machines designed to convey energy to a fluid are called pumps. However, rotodynamic
machines designed as mediums for transfers in the opposite direction are specifically called turbines
(derived from turbo, the Latin word used to describe circular motion). Some fluid rotodynamic
machines are able to operate as both pumps and turbines. Pump rotors are designated as impellers,
and are driven by a shaft, whereas turbine rotors are classified as runners, and are used to drive a
shaft which is usually connected to a generator for electrical power production. In one way or another,
the majority of modern electrical power plants - from coal power plants to nuclear power plants and
passing by hydro-electric power plants - make use of a turbine in order to extract energy from a
working fluid, usually steam or water. Gas turbines are also built into jet engines with the sole purpose
of driving the compressor at the entrance of the engine. Turbochargers for use in the internal
combustion engines (ICE) of land, air, and marine vehicles demonstrate another, somewhat similar
application of turbine technology, whereby the flow of gases from an ICEs exhaust powers a turbine
which in turn drives a compressor used to compress air at the ICEs air intake, enabling more air to
enter into the combustion chamber. The increase in air intake combined with a proportional increase in
fuel injection results in superior power output and efficiency. In gas power plants, the power
generating unit is essentially a stationary jet engine in which the turbine is also connected to a
generator for electrical power production. Two general terms are used to characterize turbines:
reaction and impulse. The main difference between reaction turbines and impulse turbines lies in
the type of energy that is extracted from the fluid flow: whereas reaction turbines extract static
pressure energy from the flow, resulting in a pressure drop between the inlet and outlet of the turbine,
impulse turbines rely on the kinetic energy of the flow in order to produce power. The runner of a
reaction turbine is entirely submerged in the flow, and as the fluid passes through it, kinetic energy is
conserved (the flow velocity is constant), while static pressure gradually drops as it causes the loaded
runner to rotate. On the other hand, the flow that reaches the runner of an impulse turbine is an
unconfined high velocity jet at constant pressure (usually atmospheric pressure). Such a jet is
obtained via the use of a nozzle which ideally ensures that the entirety of the fluid pressure induces an
increase in the kinetic energy of the jet, while maintaining the desired volumetric flow rate. The flow
only comes into contact with one or two runner vanes at a time, and the majority of its kinetic energy is
exhausted by setting the loaded runner into rotation. Ideally, the discharge fluid velocity is only just
high enough to allow clearing of the fluid from the runner. Impulse turbines are well suited to
applications involving availability of high head flows, which is conducive to high jet velocity. Examples
of reaction turbines include the radial-flow Francis turbine of the kind developed by the American
engineer James B. Francis (1815-1892), and the axial-flow propeller turbine. By far, the most common
hydraulic impulse turbine in use today is the Pelton wheel, which is a radial-flow turbine named after
Lester A. Pelton (1829-1908), an American engineer who is credited as one of the main contributors to
its development around 1880. The aim of this experiment is the analysis of a Pelton wheels
performance under different operating conditions. This is achieved by the measurement of runner
rotational velocity under different loading conditions (measured torque applied on the runner
dynamometer) at constant conditions of nozzle pressure and flow rate. Such measurements are
conducted for three combinations of constant nozzle pressure and flow rate, and performance charts
are established for each combination.

Apparatus
The experimental apparatus used for the purpose of this experiment is shown in figure 1. Figure 1 a) is
taken from the Heriot-Watt University Dubai Campus laboratory sheet titled The Pelton Wheel, and
figures 1 b), 1 c), and 1 d) are provided by Taabish SIDDIQUI, who took apparatus photographs for
group 9 of the Mechanical Engineering Science 9 module of the year 2015.

Figure 1 Experimental Apparatus

Water is pumped from a reservoir at the bottom of the hydraulics bench by the pump shown in figure 1
c), which provides enough head to the water flow in order to ensure the proper functioning of the
apparatus. At its optimal level, the pump draws 0.37 of power. The flow rate can be controlled by a
valve placed in the pipe system, and is left in the fully open throughout the experiment. A nozzle
ensures the proper formation of an unconfined jet at atmospheric temperature. The nozzle is equipped
with a special valve called a spear valve which controls the flow rate by adjusting the area at the
nozzle exit in order to keep the jet velocity constant. This is achieved by moving a spear shaped
component in the valve (hence the name of the valve) inwards and outwards along the direction of
flow using a manually operated spindle on the nozzle. As the spear is moved forward along the flow
direction, it induces a reduction in annular area available at the nozzle exit, which reduces flow rate
and increases pressure at the nozzle. The opposite occurs when the spear is retracted. The spear is
so shaped that it ensures the annular flow it produces coalesces into a circular flow almost
immediately. A pressure gauge mounted on the nozzle provides an indication of its pressure in bars
(1 = 105 ). The jet impacts the Pelton wheel buckets (shown in figure 5 in the next section) at
a pitch radius of = 80 and causes the wheel to rotate. A mechanical brake, which comprises

two spring balances attached to a frame and connected by a strap, is used to apply a loading torque
on the turbine dynamometer with a measured circumference = 34.5 , as shown in figure 1
b). The spring balance designated as spring balance 1 displays the tensile load to which it is
subjected in grams of force (1 = 9.81 103 ), while the spring balance denominated spring
balance 2 displays its tensile load in a scale of kilograms of force (1 = 9.81 ). A reflector is
placed on the dynamometer and permits the use of a portable laser tachometer for the measuring of
dynamometer rotational speed (which is the same as that of the turbine). The available tachometer
2

model displays rotational speed in rotations per minute or (1 =

/). A valve at the
60
bottom of the measuring tank can be shut, which initiates the filling of the tank as water is discharged
from the turbine. The flow rate can then be determined by measuring the time required to fill an
arbitrary tank volume using a stopwatch which displays time in seconds. The filled volume is displayed
by the indicator shown in figure 1 d) in liters (1 = 1 3 = 0.001 3 ).

Theory
When dealing with fluids, the concept of pressure is fundamental. Pressure can only properly be
defined by considering an infinitely small outer surface of a random volume with a total outer
surface such as the one illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2 Random Volume under Pressure

Pressure is defined at a point and is the result of the total force applied at that point in the direction
normal (i.e. perpendicular) to the infinitely small surface around it being distributed uniformly over that
elementary surface. If a non-normal force is applied at a point, only the normal component of that
force will result in pressure at that point. If a normal force is applied to a point within the elementary
surface , the pressure exerted at that point on the elementary surface is =

If several

normal forces are applied at different points across the outer surface of the considered control
volume, the total normal force applied to the surface is =
. This total force is different from
the net force which takes into account the directions of the forces. If a force is applied at every
point on the volume outer surface, the pressure at each point is =

The total force applied

normally to the surface is = = . If additionally the forces applied at every point

across the volume surface are equal, such that = , then the pressure at every point on the

surface is the same and = = . In such a case, the pressure is said to be uniform across the

surface, and the total normal force is uniformly distributed over the entire surface . Thus for a uniform
pressure field over a surface , the total normal force applied on that surface can be written as follows:

= =

Any surface submerged within a fluid volume experiences pressure due to the weight of the fluid
directly above it. This pressure is called hydrostatic pressure. As its name implies, this pressure is an
inherent consequence of the simple existence of the fluid volume (which has a mass) within a
gravitational field, and is present in all fluid volumes, even at rest. In order to quantify this pressure,
the density of the fluid, which is the mass of this fluid per unit volume, must be known. The density
of an infinitely small volume of matter with a corresponding mass is expressed as follows:

If this ratio is the same for all the infinitely small volumes that constitute a volume of matter, the
mass of that matter is given by the following expression:

= = =

In such a case, the volume is said to be of uniform (or constant) density. Fluids for which the density
fluctuates significantly with changes in applied pressure are characterized as compressible.
Conversely, fluids for which significant increases in density only occur at pressures several orders of
magnitude greater than the applied pressures are considered to be incompressible. The density of
water at an atmospheric pressure 1.013 and an ambient temperature of 20 is
1000 /3. Within a homogenous volume of fluid of uniform density, an infinitely thin
layer of that fluid is subjected to the weight of the fluid column above it. If the considered layer has an
area , and is located at a distance below the fluid surface, the column volume is = .
Therefore, the weight of that column is = , where = 9.81 / is the acceleration due to
gravity on the earths surface. Since the density is constant throughout the fluid, this weight is
uniformly distributed over the layer surface, and the pressure at any point of that layer can be

expressed as = = . Since the atmosphere is composed of air, which is also a fluid, any point

on earth is subjected to some hydrostatic pressure called atmospheric pressure. At sea level, this
pressure is 1.013 1.013 105 . Therefore, in reality, any surface submerged at a
depth from a reference point within a homogenous fluid with a density is subjected to a pressure
= 0 + where 0 is the pressure at the chosen reference point, which must also be within the
fluid. If the reference point is at the fluid surface, 0 is equal to the atmospheric pressure at that
surface. Pressure gauges only display variations from atmospheric pressure, called gauge pressure,
and therefore the actual pressure, called absolute pressure, at the measured point is = +
. If an ideal, homogenous, incompressible, and inviscid fluid is in steady flow conditions, at any
point within the fluid flow, it possesses a velocity which can be different from one cross-section of
the flow to another, but which remains constant with regards to time at any given cross-section of the
flow (i.e. the temporal acceleration of the flow at any cross section is null). Such a fluid flow is
represented in figure 3 (inspired from figure 3.3, page 92 of the 8th edition of Bernard Masseys
Mechanics of Fluids).

Figure 3 Fluid Flow

Referring to figure 3, if a small element located between two flow cross-sections separated by a
distance is considered, the force acting on the element surface upstream of the flow is and the
force acting on the element surface downstream of the flow is ( + )( + ), where is the
pressure variation between the two cross-sections, and is the variation in area between the two
cross sections. Additionally, the pressure at the outer boundary of the flow varies across the length of
the element, but can be assumed as equivalent to a mean pressure + , uniform across the
entire boundary, where is a positive fraction less than unity. If the flow is radially symmetrical, this
pressure does not result in a net force component applied to the element in the direction normal to the
flow. It does however result in a net force component in the direction of flow due to that pressure
acting upon the projected volume . The resulting force on the element in the direction of flow is thus
( + ). It can be noted that this force is non-existent if there is no variation in cross-sectional
area between the two points of the flow. Finally, the flow element is also subjected to the axial
component of the weight of the fluid it contains, the radial component being compensated by the flow
boundary. The axial component of weight acting on the element is cos = cos where is
the volume of the element. If the length of the element is infinitely small, it can be written as ,
and the volume of the element can be expressed as follows:

lim = =

Therefore, for an element of flow with an infinitely small length, the net force acting on the element
is:

lim = = + ( + ) ( + )( + ) cos

Noting that cos = , where is the elevation of a flow point above a conveniently set reference,
and applying Newtons second law, the following equation can be established:

= + ( + ) ( + )( + ) =
Where is the axial acceleration of the particles within the considered element. In general terms, the
axial acceleration of a fluid particle within a flow is a function of both time and position . Indeed, the
axial velocity change of a fluid particle which is displaced by a distance in a period of time is
due to the fact that the flow imposes a certain velocity upon any particle passing through the point at a
distance from the initial position of the considered particle which is initially different from the initial

velocity of the particle by , and the fact that in the time , the imposed velocity at that point
changes by . The change in axial velocity is then:

If this variation of axial velocity is considered over an infinitely small period of time at a given point
of the flow, then the corresponding displacement of a particle at that point is = . Assuming the
variations in axial velocity with regards to time and position are predictable at that point, the quantities

and

are such that lim

and lim

and the total variation of axial velocity at

the considered point can be expressed as an exact differential as follows:

+
=
+

Finally, an expression for axial acceleration with regards to time at the considered point can be
derived:

=
+

If the variations in axial velocity are predictable with regards to time and position at every crosssection and at any time, this expression is applicable to the entire flow for its entire duration. Recalling
that the studied flow is steady, its velocity at any point is constant with regards to time, which implies
that the velocity of any particle in the flow is only dependent on its position in the direction of flow.
Thus

= 0 and the axial acceleration of any particle at a given cross-section becomes:

=

Injecting this result in the equation for net force applied to the element considered previously yields:

+ ( + ) ( + )( + ) =

Neglecting small quantities of the second order simplifies the expression. Furthermore, if the variation
in pressure along the length of the element is predictable, it can be expressed as an exact differential
.

1
=

+
+
=0

Since the considered fluid is incompressible, its density is constant and the above expression can be
integrated to yield:

2
+
+=
2
Where is a constant. This result is known as Bernoullis equation, and is an expression of
conservation of flow energy along a flow upon which no exterior forces act. This is not to be confused
with the energy of a volume of fluid moving along the flow, which is variable with regards to position in
the flow, and thus dependent on time. In the form presented above, this equation provides the total
head of the flow. Head is a quantity which is homogenous with a length, and represents the theoretical
height that a static column of the same fluid as the actual fluid would need to have in order to provide
a hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the column equivalent to the total pressure at the considered

10

point of flow. Referring to the term on the left side of the equation, the quantity on the left is the
pressure head, the quantity in the middle is the dynamic head, and the quantity on the right is the
elevation head. The pressure head possessed by the flow at a given point is the head provided by the
pressure at that point. The Dynamic head at a given point is due to the motion of the flow at that point.
The elevation of a point of the flow determines the elevation head available to the flow at that point. It
essentially represents the head that has the potential to be converted into pressure head or dynamic
head. For the ideal flow considered, this velocity is uniform across any cross sectional area of the flow.
In reality however, actual Newtonian fluids possess a certain viscosity which induces a different
distribution of fluid velocity across the flow cross-section, with the maximum velocity occurring at the
central streamline of the flow, and a gradual decrease of streamline velocity occurring towards the
boundaries of the flow. The rate at which the velocity decreases depends on the properties of the
Newtonian fluid in the flow, as well as the properties of the flow. This is generally circumvented by
considering that the flow velocity at any point of a cross-section is the mean velocity of the flow at that
cross-section. A further consequence of fluid viscosity is the existence of friction at the flow boundary
and within the fluid itself. Because the boundary friction forces are exterior forces acting on the flow at
its boundary with the outside environment, they initiate a transfer of energy between the two
aforementioned systems. The detailed analysis of fluid friction is beyond the scope of this particular
experiment, and for the sake of brevity, it will be assumed that the losses incurred can be expressed
using the following Steady State Energy Equation (SSEE) for two separate points within the flow,
which is an adaptation of Bernoullis equation:

1 1 2
2 2 2
+
+ 1 =
+
+ 2 +
2
2
The subscripts 1 and 2 characterize the parameters of flow at a point upstream of the flow and a point
downstream of the flow respectively, and the head loss incurred by the flow between points 1 and 2
due to the fluid viscosity. The head loss is generally expressed as some factor of dynamic head as
follows:

= ,
=1

2
2

Where is the total number of flow portions with uniform velocities throughout them between points 1
and 2, and , is a constant for a portion of uniform velocity , dependent on the conduit in which
that section of flow takes place, as well as the flow parameters at that section and the inherent
properties of the fluid involved. No further detail shall be provided regarding fluid friction in this section,
as it is a vast topic. If a pump is placed between points 1 and 2, the head provided by the pump is
accounted for in the SSEE as follows:

1 1 2
2 2 2
+
+ 1 + =
+
+ 2 +
2
2
Similarly, insertion of a turbine which extracts a head between the two points modifies the
expression as follows:

1 1 2
2 2 2
+
+ 1 + =
+
+ 2 + +
2
2
Attention will now be directed towards the experimental apparatus. Figures 4, 5 and 6 are taken from
the Heriot-Watt University Dubai Campus laboratory sheet titled The Pelton Wheel and slightly
modified to ensure nomenclature continuity.

11

Figure 4 Pelton (Impulse) Turbine Construction (Arrows indicate fluid flow direction)

Figure 5 Schematic of the Pelton Wheel Bucket

Figure 6 Bucket Velocity Diagram

12

These figures illustrate the general operating principles of a Pelton wheel, as well as the action of the
fluid jet on the turbine vanes, which will henceforth be referred to as buckets. It is worth noting that
figures 5 and 6 represent sections of the jet and bucket taken such that the sectioning plane is parallel
to the Pelton wheel axis and contains the axis of the jet (which is assumed to be circular in shape).
Since the jet is separated evenly and symmetrically upon reaching the bucket, the results produced by
the analysis of one half of the bucket can be applied to the other by symmetry. Throughout the
following analysis, it will be assumed that the Pelton wheel has already been accelerated to an
angular velocity which remains constant. If the pitch radius of the Pelton wheel (the radius at which
the jet acts perpendicularly to the bucket) is , the magnitude of the tangential velocity of at any
point on the pitch radius is = . This velocity is called the velocity of whirl, and it acts in the
direction called the direction of whirl. The magnitude is obviously constant with regards to time since
the angular velocity and pitch radius are both constant. While the jet is acting on a bucket, the Pelton
wheel is rotating and, as a consequence, so are all the buckets. However, the resulting effects are
assumed to be relatively negligible, and it is considered that the tangential velocity of the bucket is
always in the same direction as the jet. Inherently due to the previous assumptions, the fluid is also
discharged from the bucket at the pitch radius. Another assumption is that the jets diameter is
relatively small compared to the pitch radius, such that the entire jet can be considered to impact the
bucket at the pitch radius. Taking the bucket, which is considered to be moving at a constant velocity
= for the duration of the jets action, as the inertial frame of reference, one final assumption is
that the jet flow along the bucket profile is steady and uniform. Therefore, the previously established
SSEE can be applied to the jet within the moving inertial reference frame of the bucket as follows:

1 1 2
2 2 2
+
+ 1 =
+
+ 2 +
2
2
The subscripts 1 and 2 denote the striking point of the jet on the bucket and the point of discharge
from the bucket respectively. It must be noted that 1 and 2 are the magnitudes of the relative
velocities of the jet at points 1 and 2 with regards to the bucket. The head loss in the jet is due to the
action of friction forces applied to the fluid by the buckets surface as it flows over the bucket profile, as
well as the non-null thickness of the buckets central ridge. As stated in the introduction, the Pelton
wheel is an impulse turbine, which implies that the jet is at a constant pressure throughout (usually
atmospheric pressure). Furthermore, for a vertical turbine struck by a horizontal jet, there is no
difference in elevation between the two points since they are both at pitch radius. The relationship
between the magnitudes of the relative velocities is therefore:

2 = 1 2 2 = 1 2 2

1 2
= 1 1 = 1
2

Where must be a positive fraction smaller than unity in order for the flow to be possible in this
particular case, and thus = 1 is also a positive fraction smaller than unity. If losses are
neglected, = 1 and both velocities are equal in magnitude. Let
1 = 1
denote the velocity of the
jet of magnitude 1 up until the point of impact with the bucket in the absolute reference frame.
Likewise,
2 , denotes the velocity of the jet at discharge within the same frame of reference. The
velocities of the fluid in the buckets inertial frame of reference upon impact and at discharge are
therefore respectively
1 =
1 = (1 ) and
2 = 1 cos
+ 1 sin
=
2
with being the angle of deflection of the jet due to the bucket profile. According to Newtons second
law, the force being applied to the jet by the bucket is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the
jet with regards to the bucket. Therefore, the total force being applied to portion of jet between the
point of impact and the discharge point, where the relative velocity changes from
1 to
2 in a time
period can be expressed as follows:

1 =

(
2
)
1

13

Where is the mass of fluid within the considered portion of jet flow. Since the jet is steady within
the buckets frame of reference, this mass is constant due to the principle of conservation of mass.
The rate of mass transfer through that portion of the jet is therefore constant and equal to

and is

equivalent to half of the mass flow rate of the jet before it is evenly split by the central ridge. The
expression for the force applied on the jet portion thus becomes:

1 =

( )[( cos 1) + sin ]

2 1

By symmetry, the force applied to the jet portion on the other half of the bucket is:

2 =

( )[( cos 1) sin ]

2 1

The net force applied by the bucket to the entirety of the jet flowing over it is therefore:

=
1 +
2 = (1 )( cos 1)
As a result of Newtons third law, the force acting on the bucket due to the action of the jet is the exact
opposite of the force expressed above. Therefore, the work done by the jet on the bucket over an
infinitely small bucket displacement =
is:

. = (1 )(1 cos )
The corresponding power provided to the bucket by the jet is consequently:

(1 )(1 cos )

= (1 )(1 cos ) = (1 )(1 cos )

If a volume of fluid is considered such that it is located between the cross-section at the exit of the
nozzle, and a cross-section upstream separated from the first by an infinitely small distance , the
areas of both cross-sections can be considered as equal to the area at the exit of the nozzle,
which is also the area of the jet. If the absolute pressures in the nozzle and at the exit are ,
and , respectively, the net force applied to the volume can be expressed as follows:

= (, , )
If the jet pressure is the same as the atmospheric pressure at which the nozzle pressure is measured
using a pressure gauge, the pressure difference in the expression above is equal to the displayed
gauge pressure. In order to exit the nozzle, the volume must be displaced by a distance . The total
work done by the flow on that volume as it exits the nozzle is thus:

= (, , ) = (, , )
The corresponding power transferred to the fluid by the flow is:

=
Where =

(, , )
= (, , )

is the volumetric flow rate of the flow, which is constant at any point of the

flow since the flow is steady (constant mass flow rate) and incompressible (constant density). The
equation above also describes the input power to the Pelton turbine. Furthermore, noting that
the force applied to the fluid can also be expressed as follows:

14

 =
Where is the tangential acceleration of any particle at a given cross section of flow which has

already been shown to be = . The work done on the volume as it exits the nozzle can

thus also be expressed as follows:

1
= (1 2 2 )
2

Where is the velocity of the flow at the nozzle. Applying the above expression to a theoretical
mass of fluid with an initial energy , which is initially at rest and accelerated to a velocity , the work
done can be expressed as:

1
= = 2
2
0

Since the work done on a system is the energy transferred to it, the energy of the accelerated fluid
1
2

1
2

mass is = + = + 2 . A term = 2 , universally referred to as kinetic energy, can

therefore be defined, which describes the contribution of a systems velocity to its overall energy.
Applying the concept of kinetic energy to the previously considered infinitely small volume exiting the
1

nozzle, the initial energy of the volume is = + 2, where is the energy of the fluid
2
due to other factors (internal energy, potential energy etc.). The Energy of the volume as it exits the
nozzle is then:

1
1
1
+ = + 2 + (1 2 2 ) = + 1 2
2
2
2
Since within the context of the turbine operation, only the kinetic energy of the fluid is capable of
causing rotation, it is used as the reference for the determination of turbine efficiency. ). If it is
assumed that the jet is not subjected to any losses due to friction while it travels towards the bucket,
the kinetic energy possessed by an infinitely small volume of jet with a mass at the impact point at
1
2

any moment of time is still = 1 2 . The power available due to the jet at the point of impact is
the rate at which the kinetic energy of the volume is replenished, and since the mass of that volume is
replenished at a rate =

the power of the jet at the point of impact is:

1
= 1 2
2
Therefore, the efficiency of the wheel can be determined by the following expression:

(1 )(1 cos )


=2
(1
) (1 cos )
1
1
1
2

1
2

If friction losses are neglected, the efficiency becomes:

=2
The ratio

(1
) (1 cos )
1
1

= is often termed the speed ratio. Let =

= . Using such nomenclature, the

1

expression for efficiency can be rearranged in the following form:

15

= 2(1 cos ) ( )
For a given value of , it can be noted that the efficiency of the wheel is maximal when the term
(1 cos ) is maximal, which occurs when = (and obviously when is equal to unity), which
equates to a 180 deflection of the jet at the bucket. This is unfortunately unachievable in practice, as
it would result in the deflected jet impacting the back of the succeeding bucket, lowering overall
performance. In practice, the deflection is confined to around 165. The variations of efficiency with
regards to variations of the speed ratio can easily be studied by deriving the expression for efficiency
with regards to the speed ratio as follows:

= 2(1 cos )(1 2 )

The efficiency is maximal when the derivative above is null, which occurs when = . The absolute
2
maximum efficiency theoretically possible is = 1, and occurs when the jet is deflected a full 180
1

with no friction occurring along the bucket and the speed ratio is = . On the other hand, the
2
efficiency is null when the velocity ratio is either null or equal to unity, which occurs when the velocity
of whirl is null or when it is equal to the jet velocity (and beyond). Indeed, if the wheel is not rotating,
the jet simply smashes against the bucket without causing any movement of the wheel and all its
energy is dissipated by other means (heat, potential deformation of the bucket etc.). On the other
hand, if the bucket is moving at the same velocity as the jet or at a greater velocity, the jet is no longer
able to establish contact with the bucket and no power can be transferred. It can also be noted that the
turbine driving power follows a similar trend, with the maximum, absolute maximum (which is
equal to the kinetic power of the jet) and both null values occurring at the same values of speed ratio
and angular deflection as for the efficiency. In practice, the speed ratio conducive to optimal efficiency
is slightly lower than 0.5, and its value generally falls in the vicinity of 0.46. This is due to the fact that
the frictional forces at the bearings connecting the wheel to the turbine shaft, as well as the frictional
forces (termed windage) of the surrounding atmospheric fluid, increase significantly with relatively
small increases of whirl velocity. From the preceding analysis, it is apparent that the speed ratio must
be carefully controlled and maintained to ensure optimal operation of the turbine. In a practical
context, the jet speed is generally fixed by the head available at the nozzle, which is itself fixed by the
environment in which the turbine is installed. The velocity of the jet can be determined by applying the
SSEE between the entrance and exit of the nozzle. For simplicity, the head loss term is omitted, and
losses of energy which occur at the nozzle shall be accounted for later in the analysis. The SSEE
applied to the nozzle is:

, 1 2
, 2
+
+ =
+
+

2
The nozzle and jet are at the same elevation. The expression for jet velocity is thus:

1 =

2(, , )
+ 2

In order to account for friction losses within the nozzle, a constant which is less than unity (usually
around 0.98 or 0.99) can be implemented such that:

2(, , )
1 =
+ 2

Applying the SSEE equation between some known reference point upstream of the flow (for which the
parameters are designated by the subscript 1) and the nozzle, the head available at the nozzle can be
determined as follows:

16

1 1 2
, 2
+
+ 1 =
+
+ +
2

2
Which yields:

2(, 1 )
+ 2 = 1 2 + 2(1 ) 2

Noting that the pressure 1 can be written as 1 = (1 , ) + , , the head available at the
nozzle can be determined:

2(, , )
2(1 , )
+ 2 =
+ 1 2 + 2(1 ) 2

Hence, the jet velocity can also be expressed as follows:

2(1 , )
1 =
+ 1 2 + 2(1 ) 2

Generally, it is not unreasonable to omit the effects of flow speed on the available head since they are
usually negligible compared to the total head. This results in a slightly simpler expression:

2(1 , )
1
+ 2(1 ) 2

The Pelton wheel can then be designed to ensure an optimal speed ratio for the desired turbine shaft
speed . Indeed, since the optimal velocity of whirl is = = 0.51 , the optimal pitch radius of the
wheel is:

0.51

The factor 0.5 may be replaced by another slightly lower value obtained by empirical means if it is
deemed more suitable (usually around 0.46). Turbines in real world applications are inevitably
subjected to inconsistencies in the loads applied to them, due to fluctuations in power demand.
However changes in the rotational speed of a turbine are usually not permissible, as such
modifications would alter the frequency of the electrical signal produced within the generator. For a
given turbine, which has a set pitch diameter and is to operate optimally, this constraint transfers over
to the velocity of whirl, which in turn imposes a constancy restriction on the jet velocity by way of the
optimal speed ratio. It has already been established that the power driving the wheel is =
(1 )(1 cos ) . Any fluctuation of load power must be met with a corresponding
change in the aforementioned driving power. Since constancy restrictions are imposed on both
velocities, and that the angle of deflection and loss factor are turbine dependent and unchanging,
the only variable remaining is the mass flow rate. Since the fluid is considered incompressible, its
density is constant and therefore only the volumetric flow rate may be adjusted. This volumetric flow
rate can be expressed as follows by considering an infinitely small volume = of jet fluid
being displaced by a distance equivalent to its length:

=
= 1

17

The jet velocity being constant, only the area of the jet may be modified. Such an adjustment is carried
out at the nozzle entrance by way of the spear valve. The effect of changes in flow rate on the
pressure differential at the nozzle become apparent from the previously derived expression for jet
speed:
2
2(, , )
2(, , )

1 =
+ 2
1 =
+(
)

Where is the cross-sectional area at the nozzle. Rearranging to express flow rate with regards
to nozzle pressure differential, the resulting expression is as follows:

2 2 (
, )

1 2 ,

From the above expression, it can be seen that a reduction of flow rate is accompanied by a
corresponding rise in the pressure differential at the nozzle. Conversely, a flow rate increase is
accompanied by a drop in nozzle differential pressure.

Experimental Method
The steps used to conduct the experiment are as follows:
1. Clearance of the turbine dynamometer is checked to ensure no harm or damage or occurs to
people or equipment.
2. If necessary, the adjusting screws on the spring balances are loosened to ensure the
connecting strap is clear of the dynamometer.
3. The pump is powered by using the pump power switch on the pump control panel.
4. The valve handle is rotated until the valve is fully open.
5. The spindle on the nozzle is used to adjust its pressure until its gauge pressure ,
reaches a value of , = 1.0 . This pressure is to be maintained constant until stated
otherwise in the following steps.
6. In order to measure the flow rate, the valve at the bottom of the tank is shut, and the time
taken for an arbitrary volume of the measuring tank to be filled is monitored using a stop watch
and noted down. The filled volume of the tank is monitored using the volume indicator on the
side of the tank. Care must be taken as a small volume of the tank is initially filled, even with
the valve fully open. This volume must be subtracted to the total filled volume for an accurate
measurement. Once the flow rate measurement is complete, the valve at the bottom of the
tank is fully opened.
7. Ensuring once more that the dynamometer is initially unloaded, the tachometer beam is
directed at the reflector placed on the dynamometer, and the displayed rotational speed is
noted down once it becomes somewhat stable.
8. After the first unloaded measurement, the adjusting screws on the spring balances are
tightened until the connecting strap begins to act as a mechanical brake on the dynamometer.
Care is taken to ensure that the both spring balances are adjusted to avoid the displacement
of the connecting strap over to one side. The tension readings on both spring balances are
noted, and a new reading of rotational speed is taken using the tachometer.
9. The load on the dynamometer is increased by tightening the adjusting screws further, and the
measurements of spring balance load and rotational speed are repeated as previously
mentioned.
10. Step 9 is repeated until a total of eight sets of measurements for increasing loads on the
dynamometer are obtained, including the measurements obtained for the unloaded
dynamometer.
11. Once eight sets of measurements are obtained for a constant reading of nozzle gauge
pressure, the adjusting screws are loosened until the dynamometer is unloaded once more.

18

12. Steps 5-10 are repeated for nozzle gauge pressures of 1.2 and 1.5 .
13. Once all measurements have been carried out, the valve is shut, the power to the pump cut,
and all used equipment placed back in its original position.

19

Results

Table 1 Experimental Results

Dynamometer

Test
No.

Nozzle
gauge
Pressure
(bar)

Results

Force
Flow Rate
(m3/s)

Spring
Balance
1 (gf)

Spring
Balance
2 (gf)

Calibrated
Spring
Balance 1
(gf)

Calibrated
Spring
Balance 2
(gf)

Net
Force
(N)

Speed
(rpm)

Torque
(N.m)

Input
Power (W)

Output
Power (W)

Efficiency
(%)

40

30

1731

130

400

90

370

2.7468

1580

0.15082255

24.954678

23.2217143

160

500

120

470

3.4335

1520

0.18852818

30.00879

27.9248463

240

800

200

770

5.5917

1392

0.30703161

44.7559668

41.6479136

360

1300

320

1270

9.3195

1171

0.51171935

62.7505234

58.3928481

500

1800

460

1770

12.8511

897.7

0.70563405

66.3344867

61.7279251

600

2100

560

2070

14.8131

600

0.81336444

51.105195

47.5562231

770

2400

730

2370

16.0884

320

0.88338919

29.602656

27.546916

4
5

0.0010746

107.462687

40

30

1890

10

70

100

30

70

0.3924

1865

0.02154608

4.2079995

3.53588847

11

110

300

70

270

1.962

1758

0.10773039

19.832877

16.6651258

190

600

150

570

4.1202

1615

0.22623382

38.2612073

32.1500422

325

1100

285

1070

7.70085

1385

0.42284178

61.3276442

51.5322566

14

430

1500

390

1470

10.5948

1175

0.5817441

71.5811175

60.1480223

15

530

1900

490

1870

13.5378

908

0.74333969

70.6808538

59.3915508

16

710

2500

670

2470

17.658

380

0.9695735

38.58273

32.4202106

17

40

30

2063

18

85

200

45

170

1.22625

1990

0.06733149

14.0313656

10.2896681

19

175

600

135

570

4.26735

1790

0.2343136

43.9216999

32.2092466

250

900

210

870

6.4746

1640

0.35551029

61.055478

44.7740172

330

1200

290

1170

8.6328

1490

0.47401371

73.961514

54.2384436

22

430

1600

390

1570

11.5758

1258

0.6356093

83.7335493

61.4046028

23

620

2200

580

2170

15.5979

730

0.8564566

65.4721853

48.0129359

24

720

2600

680

2570

18.5409

345

1.01805218

36.7805104

26.9723743

12
13

20
21

1.2

1.5

0.0009917

0.0009091

119.008264

136.363636

20

Discussion of Results
Figure 7 shows the evolution of torque produced by the turbine with regards to turbine rotational speed for the three
nozzle pressures that were maintained during measurement.
1.2
Torque (N.m)
1

0.8
1.0 bar
1.2 bar

0.6

1.5 bar
0.4

0.2

0
0
-0.2

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Speed (rpm)

Figure 7 Variations of Torque with Rotational Speed

From the analysis done in the theory section, the torque is expected to vary linearly with the rotational speed.
Indeed, if it is recalled that the force applied on the turbine by the jet is = (1 )( cos 1), an
expression for the torque applied to the wheel at the pitch radius can easily be determined as follows:

= (1 )( cos 1) = 2 (

1
) ( cos 1)

However, the evolution of the measured torque at the turbine output follows no such trend. This discrepancy
between the torque measured at the output, and the theoretical driving torque of the wheel may perhaps be
explained by frictional forces at the bearings. Evidently, these frictional forces increase significantly and nonlinearly with the rotational speed of the turbine, and cause a non linear drop in torque as the wheel rotates more
rapidly. The variations of volumetric flow rate with nozzle pressure are shown in figure 8.

21

0.0011

Flow Rate (m3/s)

0.00108
0.00106
0.00104
0.00102
0.001
0.00098
0.00096
0.00094
0.00092
Nozzle Pressure (bar)

0.0009
0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Figure 8 Variations of Volumetric Flow Rate with Nozzle Gauge Pressure

As expected, flow rate decreases with increases in nozzle gauge pressure. However, the variations of output power
and efficiency do not occur as predicted in the theoretical analysis. Indeed, it is expected that both efficiency and
power output vary similarly with regards to rotational speed, attaining maximum and minimum levels for the same
values of rotational speed. It is also expected that, regardless of nozzle pressure (and flow rate), these notable
rotational speeds (which correspond to maxima and minima of efficiency and power output) remain constant. One
final expectation may be drawn from the expression of turbine driving power:

= (1 )(1 cos )
.
From the above expression, it may be concluded that, should the jet and rotational speeds of the wheel remain
constant, the driving power of the turbine is maximal when the mass flow rate (and thus the volumetric flow rate) is
maximal. As illustrated by figures 9 and 10, although for a given nozzle pressure the existence of an optimal
rotational speed which correlates turbine maximum power output and maximum efficiency is evident, this optimal
speed is dependent on nozzle pressure, which goes against the expectation resulting from the theoretical analysis.
Furthermore, for the same rotational speed, the power output of the turbine increases if the nozzle pressure
increases, which once again does not correlate with expectations. The maximum output power obtained is
approximately 83.7 , for a nozzle pressure of 1.5 and a rotational speed of 1258 .

22

90

Output Power (W)

80

1.0 bar

y = -8E-05x2 + 0.1522x

1.2 bar

70

1.5 bar
60
y = -8E-05x2 + 0.1436x

50
40

y = -7E-05x2 + 0.1567x

30
20
10
0
0

500

1000 Speed (rpm) 1500

2000

2500

Figure 9 - Power Output Variations with Speed

70

Efficiency (%)

1.0 bar
1.2 bar

60
y = -5E-05x2 + 0.1149x

1.5 bar

50
40
y = -8E-05x2 + 0.1336x
30
20
10
y = -7E-05x2 + 0.1279x

0
0

500

1000 Speed (rpm) 1500

2000

2500

Figure 10 Turbine Efficiency Variations with Speed

The change in optimal rotational speed between different nozzle pressures may be due to the fact that the head
available at the nozzle is provided by a pump. Indeed, the head provided by a pump is highly dependent on the
flow rate at which the pump operates. Since the spear valve is used to control the flow rate, it likely also induces a
change in the head provided by the pump, which in turn modifies the jet velocity. In general, a pump provides
higher heads as the flow rate at which it operates decreases, which is the case in this experiment since the
pressure at the nozzle increases. In the present case, such a head increase induces an increase in jet speed,
which is conducive to higher power output, and requires a proportionally higher rotational speed in order to satisfy

23

the optimal speed ratio. However, as previously stated and demonstrated in the theoretical analysis, the jet velocity
is dependent on head available on the nozzle, which is itself usually fixed by the topography of the area or the
layout of the power plant. Therefore, the only practical means of increasing turbine power input is by increasing the
maximum possible flow rate. This may be done by increasing the maximum area of the jet allowed by the spear
valve, which must be met with a corresponding increase in bucket size and wheel diameter. Another alternative,
which is generally preferred, is the inclusion of multiple nozzles, which multiplies the flow rate by the number of jets
produced without requiring an increase in jet diameter. As always, working to reduce frictional losses also plays a
significant part in increasing power output.

Conclusions
The analysis of the obtained results confirms the existence of an optimal wheel rotational speed for a given jet
velocity, which correlates maximum power output with maximum efficiency. Furthermore, the results seem to
indicate that higher jet velocities are conducive to higher maximum output power, which is expected considering
the theoretical analysis of the turbine. It may also be concluded that, in order to ensure a stable jet velocity and
consequently a stable optimal wheel rotational velocity, the head available at the nozzle should not be dependent
on the flow rate, since the latter is the vector by which the spear valve exerts control over the input power. These
results may be taken into account when selecting an appropriate location for the installation of a hydro-power plant,
the type of turbine used in the aforementioned power plant, and the turbine dimensions, in order to ensure that
available resources are exploited to their full potential and at a maximum efficiency.

24

Appendix A Dynamometer Theory

Figure A1 shows a schematic of the loaded dynamometer.

Figure A1 Dynamometer Schematic

The spinning dynamometer generates friction forces on a portion of the connecting strap, which result in a total
force . Since the strap is incapable of sustaining any load other than a tensile load, any force applied to it
manifests itself in the form of tension along the strap. Since the strap is stationary, the net force acting on it is null
and the following expression may be established:

2 1 = 0

= 2 1

Where 1 and 2 are the tensions on the strap due to spring balances 1 and 2 respectively. The total friction force
on the strap is also the opposite of the braking force on the dynamometer, by application of Newtons third law.
Therefore, the magnitude of the braking force is equal to that of the friction force . The value of the
torque applied to the dynamometer (and therefore that of the torque produced by the dynamometer) is thus:

= = (2 1 )
The work done by the dynamometer on the mechanical brake over an infinitely small displacement is:

=
Since the dynamometer is circular, the displacement is an arc, and by definition of an angle, = .
The power produced by the dynamometer (and therefore the power put out by the turbine) is thus:

=
=
=

Where is the rotational speed of the dynamometer (and of the turbine) /.

25

Appendix B Sample Calculations

For test number 2, the measuring tank volume increased by = 36 in a duration = 33.5 . The measured

36
33.5

/ 1.075 103 3 /. Both spring balances need to be calibrated, since they

display a load even when the dynamometer is unloaded. Spring balance 1 displays a load of 40 while the
flow rate is thus =

dynamometer is unloaded, which must be subtracted to any subsequent measurement. Similarly, spring balance 2
displays a load of 30 when the dynamometer is unloaded. Therefore, after calibration, the load on spring
balance 1 has a value of 1 = 130 40 = 90 , and likewise, the load on spring balance 2 is 2 = 400 30 =
370 . The net force on the dynamometer is thus = 370 90 = 280 2.75 . This equates to a
torque being applied on the dynamometer of = . The radius of the dynamometer
can be determined from the measured circumference of the dynamometer = 34.5 . Indeed,

= 2
5.49 0.0549 . Therefore, the torque applied on the dynamometer is 0.0549

2.75 0.15 . . The input power has already been shown to be = (, , ). Since the jet is
at atmospheric pressure, the pressure differential at the nozzle is equal to the nozzle gauge pressure , =
1.0 = 105 . The input power is then 105 1.075 103 107.5 . The output power is
= 0.15

24.8
107.5

21580
60

24.8 . Finally, the efficiency can be calculated as follows: =

0.23.

26

References
Massey B., Mechanics of Fluids, 8th Edition, 2006, Taylor & Francis
The Pelton Wheel, Laboratory Experiment Handout, Heriot-Watt University Dubai Campus

27