Professional Documents
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CH32~34,40~44
CH32
CH33
CH34
CH40
CH41
CH42
CH43
CH44
Content
Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity1
Ch 33 An Introduction to Invertebrates8
Ch 34 The Origin and Evolution of Vertebrates14
Ch 40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function24
Ch 41 Animal Nutrition34
Ch 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange39
ch 43 The Immune System48
Ch 44 Osmoregulation and Excretion54
Cleavage
2 An eight-cell embryo
is formed by three
rounds of cell division.
Eight-cell stage
Cleavage
Blastocoel
3 In most animals,
cleavage produces
a multicellular
stage called a
blastula. The blastula is typically a
hollow ball of cells
that surround a
cavity called
the blastocoel.
Blastula
Cross section
of blastula
Gastrulation
5 The pouch formed
by gastrulation, called the
archenteron, opens to the
outside via the blastopore.
Blastocoel
Endoderm
Ectoderm
archenteron develops
into the tissue
lining the animals
digestive tract.
Archenteron
Cross section
of gastrula
Blastopore
(e) For most animals, life cycle include at least one larva stage, and larva eventually
undergo metamorphosis.
<Note1> larva: a sexually immature form of an animal that is morphologically
distinct from the adult
1. eats different food
(2)may even have a different habitat
<Note2> metamorphosis: a developmental transformation that turns the animals
into a juvenile that resembles an adult but is not yet sexually mature
(b) Despite the wide variety of animals morphology, developmental genes (control the
expression of other genes) contain a set of DNA sequences called homeoboxes.
Most animals share a unique homeobox containing family of genes known as Hox
gene. In vertebrates, insects, and most other animals, Hox genes regulate the
formation if the anterior-posterior axis, as well as other aspect of development.
32.2The history of animals spans and more than half a billion years
- Tissues
While sponges and a few other groups lack true tissues, in all animals, the embryo
becomes layered through the process of gastrulation
<Note> true tissues: collections of specialized cells isolated from other tissues by
membranous layers
1. germ layers
(a) ectoderm: the germ layer covering the surface of the embryo, give rise to the
outer covering of the animal and, in some phyla, to the central nervous system
(b) endoderm: the innermost germ layer, give rise to the lining of the digestive tract
(or cavity) and organs such as the liver and lungs of vertebrates
(c) mesoderm: fills much of the space between the ectoderm and endoderm, forms
the muscles and most other organs between the digestive tract and the outer
covering of the animals
1. cleavage
(a) Protostome development undergo spiral cleavage, which is determined cleavage.
Cells from early cleavage division states cannot develop into a complete embryo
(b) Deuterostome development is predominantly characterized by radial cleavage,
which is undetermined cleavage, meaning each cell produced by early cleave
division retain the capacity to develop into a complete embryo
2. coelom formation(see the figure above)
3. fate of blastopore(see the figure above)
32.4 New views of animal phylogeny are emerging from molecular data
- Points of Agreements
1. all animals share a common ancestor
2. sponge are basal animals
3. Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues
4. most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria
Ch 33 An Introduction to Invertebrates
33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack true tissues. Porifera
-Animals in this phylum are known as sponges.
-Monophyletic
-Suspension feeders: They capture food particles suspended in the water passing
through their body.
-Basal group for the phylogenic tree of animal
-Hermaphrodites: They are sequential hermaphroditism, functioning first as one sex
and then as the other.
-Sponge gametes arise from choanocytes or amoebocytes. Eggs reside in the
mesophyl; sperm are carried out by the water current. Fertilization occurs in the
mesophyl.
-Sponges produce various antibiotics and other defensive compound.
-Figure33.4
33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans. Cnidaria
-All animals except sponges and a few other groups belong to Eumetazoa, animals
with true tissues.
-Gastrovascular cavity: central digestive compartment with a single opening
functioning as both mouth and anus
1. Two stages: polyps and medusae
2. Some exist only as polyps or medusae; some have both stages in their life cycle.
-Carnivore
-Figure33.5
-Cnidocytes:
1. function in defense and prey capture
2. contain cnidae, capsule-like organelles capable of exploding outward.
(Specialised cnidae called nematocysts contain a stinging thread that penetrates the
body of prey; others entangle or stick prey.)
-In cnidarians contractile tissues and nerves occur in their simplest forms.
(Sensory structures distributed around the body detect stimuli from all directions.)
-Four major clades:
1. Hydrozoans
(a)Most alternate between the polyp and medusa forms.
(b)Hydras, among the few cnidarians found in fresh water, are usual hydrozoans.
(c)In favorable conditions, they reproduce asexually by budding, otherwise sexually.
2. Scyphozoans
(a)Medusa is predominant in most scyphozoans.
lilies live attached to the substrate by a stalk; feather stars crawl about.
(e)Holothuroidea, sea cucumbers, lack spines, and their endoskeleton is much
reduced. However, they have five rows of tube feet. Some of the tube feet around
the mouth are developed as feeding tentacles.
-Chordates(See Chapter34)
Many species possess some of these traits only during embryonic development
1. Notochord
(1)located between the digestive tube and the nerve cord
(2)provides skeletal support
(3)reduced in humans and becoming a part of the gelatinous disks
Animals
Nonchordate
invertebrates
Cordate
invertebrates
Vertebrates
- Amphibians
1. rely heavily on their moist skin for gas exchange
2. fertilization is external in most amphibians
3. three lineages
(1) salamander(Urodela ): adults retain the tail; larvae and adults are alike
(2) frogs(Anura ):
i. more specialized for moving on land
ii.During metamorphosis, the tadpole develops legs, lungs, a pair of external eardrums, and
a digestive system adapted to carnivorous, while the gills and the lateral line system(in
some species) disappear.
(3) caevilians(Apodina ): larvae and adults are alike
(2)snakes:
i. descended from lizards
ii. no eardrums
iii.heat-detecting organs
iv. flicking tongue helps fan odors
v. loosely articulated jawbones and elastic skinswallow large prey
- Turtles
1. the boxlike shell is fused to the vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs
2. side-necked or vertical-necked
- Alligators and Crocodiles
- Birds
Derived characters of birds
i. lacking a urinary bladder
ii. only one ovary
iii. the size of gonads change with the season
iv. toothless
v. wings and feathers flight, retain body heat
vi. efficient respiratory system
vii. having color vision and excellent eyesight
viii. eggs with shells
ix. internal fertilization
x. brooding
34.7
34.8 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion.
- Derived Characters of Humans
1. bipedal
2. much larger brain
3. the use of complex tools
4. reduced jawbones and jaw muscles
5. a shorter digestive tract
- The Earliest Hominins
1. paleoanthropology: the study of human origins
2. homonins: extinct species that are more closely related to humans than to
Chimpanzees
3.
(1)Australoipiths
i. many of the hominins from 4 to 2 million years ago
ii. bipedal and had human-like hands and teeth
iii. small brain
iv. two lineages:
Traits
Robust australopiths
Gracile australopiths
Sturdy skulls
Powerful jaws
Large teeth
Food
Softer foods
A.afarensis (Lucy)
A.africanus
(2)Early Homo
i. a shorter jaw and a larger brain
ii. using sharp stone tools
iii. Example
Homo habilis: 2.4 to 1.6 million years ago,
Homo ergaster: 1.9 to 1.5 million years ago
Relatively short and straight fingersdidnt climb trees
Reduced sexual dimorphismmore pair-bonding
Homo erectus: the first homonin to migrate out of Africa
(3)Neanderthals(Homo neanderthalensis)
i. found in Germany
ii. lived in Europe, the Near East, central Asia and southern Siberia
iii. whether they are the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens or not is still debated
(4)Homo sapiens: originated in Africa (supported by analysis of mitochondrial DNA and Y
chromosomes)
Cells----tissues----organs----organ systems----organisms
(1) Epithelial Tissue : Cover the outside of the body and line organs and cavities
within the body. Serve as a protection, support, and even secretion.
(Cubodial/Simple Columnar/Simple Squamous/Pseudostratified Columnar/
Stratified Squamous Epithelium)
-The Polarity of epithelia
(3) Muscle Tissue : Responsible for nearly all of the body movements (in
multicellular organisms). Muscle cells consist of filaments containing actin and
myosin.
cell shape
Number of nucleus/cell
Position of
nucleus
others
Skeletal
muscle
long strain
multiple
side of cell
Smooth
spindle-shaped one
middle
cannot be controlled by
Muscle
Cardiac
mind
long strain
one
middle
muscle
skeletal muscle
smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
(4) Nervous Tissue : Contains neurons that transmit impulses, and glial cells that
give support. (The various types of glia help nourish, insulate, and replenish
neurons, or even modulate neuron function)
(2) Negative feedback : The buildup of the product shuts down the system.
Positive feedback : Amplifies the process and does not work as homeostasis.
Acclimatization : The process to adjust to the external environment.
Circadian rhythm : A set of physiological changes that correspond to the
regulated changes (usually 24 hours)
-Other details :
-Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases
-Hibernation is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food
scarcity
-Essential nutrients
Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the animal.
Adults humans require 8 types of essential amino acids, infants requires a ninth.(histidine)
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the animal.
They are unsaturated fatty acids, which can be from vegetables, seeds oil.
Vitamins are organic molecules that have diverse functions and are required in the diet in very small amounts.
Classified as water-soluble (Vitamin B, C) and fat-soluble (Vitamin A, D, E, K)
Minerals are inorganic nutrients that are usually required in small amounts.
Some are cofactors built into the structure of enzymes; magnesium in enzymes that split ATP.
Vertebrates use iodine specifically to make thyroid hormones, and large quantities of calcium and phosphorus
for building and maintaining bones.
Dietary Deficiencies
A diet that lacks one or more essential nutrients or consistently supplies less chemical energy than the body
requires results in malnutrition.
Grazing animals obtain missing nutrients by consuming concentrated sources of salt or other minerals.
Spiders adjust for dietary deficiencies by switching to prey that restores nutritional balance.
Golden rice, to overcome Vitamin A deficiencies.
Undernutrition
A diet that fails to provide adequate sources of chemical energy results in undernutrition.
The body uses up store carbohydrates and fat, begins to break down its own proteins for fuels.
Some damage may be irreversible
Might be result of eating disorder such as anorexie nervosa.
41.2 The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
Ingestion is the act of eating.
Digestion
Mechanical digestion breaks food into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for chemical processes.
Chemical digestion breaks down food into small molecules that can be absorb by the body.
Breaking bonds with the addition of water, enzymatic hydrolysis.
Absorption, absorb the small molecules into the cell.
Elimination passes out the undigested materials from the digestive system.
Digestive compartments
Digest food within a specialized compartment, to avoid digesting their own cells and tissues.
Intracellular digestion Hydrolysis of food inside vacuoles
Food vacuoles are the simplest digestive compartments, fused with lysosome allowing digestion to occur.
Example: sponges.
Extracellular digestion Breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animals
body. (Able to devour much larger pieces of food than phagocytosis)
Digestive compartment with a single opening gastrovascular cavity
-Functions in digestion and distribution of nutrients.
-undigested materials are eliminated through the same opening the food entered.
Digestive tube extending between two openings alimentary canal (complete digestive tract)
-can ingest food while earlier meals are still being digested.
Four main feeding mechanisms of animals
1. Suspension feeders, filter feeders mostly aquatic animals, filter like structure - baleen.
2. Substrate feeders animals that live in or on their food source. (caterpillar, maggots
3. Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host. (some might benefit the host, moving pollen
between flowers)
4. Bulk feeders eat large pieces of food
41.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system
Peristalsis alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles lining the alimentary canal.
Sphincters ringlike valves, regulate passage between compartments.
Oral cavity salivary glands, produce saliva that contains amylase, hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller
polysaccharides and maltose. Protective effect is provided by mucus, contains slippery glycoproteins
called mucins. Chewing and shaping the food into a ball called bolus.
Esophagus swallowing reflex, epiglottis covers the glottis, directing the bolus into the esophagus. Contains both
striated and smooth muscle; striated muscle is at the top of esophagus, active during swallowing;
smooth muscle governs peristalsis.
Stomach secrets gastric juice, mixture of food and gastric juice is called chyme. Gastric juice contains HCl and
pepsin. Low pH denatures proteins in food, exposing peptide bonds, more easily attacked by pepsin,
breaking into smaller polypeptide. Parietal cells expels H+ ions through ATP-driven pump, Cl- diffuse
through specific membrane channels. Chief cells release inactive form of pepsin called pepsinogen,
which is activated by HCl by clipping of a small portion of the molecule and exposing the active site.
Pepsin helps activate the remaining pepsinogen. (Positive feedback)
Pancreas alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate, trypsin and chymotrypsin. Secreted into duodenum in inactive
forms, activated only when in the duodenum lumen.
Liver
produces bile that contains bile salts that act as emulsifiers of lipid. Bile is stored in gallbladder.
Small intestine digestive enzymes are either secreted into the lumen of duodenum or bound to the surface of the
epithelial cells. Most digestion are completed in duodenum, jejunum and ileum function in the
absorption of nutrients and water.
Studded with finger-like projections called villi, each epithelial cells of the villi has micro villi. (Brush
border) increase rate of nutrient absorption. Capillaries and veins with nutrient-rich blood from the
villi converge into the hepatic portal vein that leads directly to the liver. This regulates the
distribution of nutrients to the rest of the body, and remove toxic substances before the blood
circulates broadly, by the liver.
triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides and diffuse into epithelial cells,
which then reformed into triglycerides. Triglycerides are incorporated into water-soluble globules
called chylomicrons which leave the cells by exocytosis into the lacteal.
Large intestine includes colon, cecum and rectum. Cecum is important for fermenting ingested materials,
especially herbivores. Appendix has negligible role in immunity. Colons function is to recover water
that has entered the alimentary canal, water is reabsorbed by osmosis when Na+ and other ions
are pumped out of the lumen of the colon. Symbiotic bacteria that produces vitamins such as
vitamin K, biotin and folic acid lives in the colon. Between rectum and anus are two sphincters,
inner one being involuntary and the outer one being voluntary.
Carnivores have large pointed incisors and canines, jagged premolars and molars.
Herbivores have premolars and molars with broad ridged surface, some herbivores dont have canines.
Adult humans have 32 teeth.
Stomach and intestinal adaptations
Carnivorous vertebrates have large, expandable stomachs as they may got for a long time between meals.
Herbivores and omnivores have longer alimentary canals, vegetation is more difficult to digest.
Mutualistic adaptations
Mutualistic bacteria and protists in fermentation chambers that digest cellulose to simple sugars and other
compounds that animal can absorb.
Tubeworms have no mouth or digestive system, they rely entirely on mutualistic bacteria to generate energy and
nutrients from the carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide and nitrate available at the deep-sea hydrothermal
vents.
Rabbits and rodents have mutualistic bacteria in large intestine and cecum. They are coprophagy (dung eating)
feeding on some of their feces and then passing the food through the alimentary canal a second time.
41.5 feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
Regulation of digestion arrival of food triggers the secretion of substances that promote the next stage of chemical
digestion, as well as muscular contractions that propel food farther along the canal. A part of nervous system called
the enteric division regulate these events and peristalsis in small and large intestine. Endocrine system like the
hormones released by the stomach and duodenum regulates digestion. They are transported in the bloodstream too.
42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells through the body.
-Its important for organisms to gain O2, nutrients, and shed CO2 and wastes by diffusion. However, its rapid
only over very short distances.
-Solution through natural selection:
1. Gastrovascular cavities function in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body.
2. Circulatory systems.
-A circulatory system has:
(1) A circulatory fluid.
(2) A set of interconnecting vessels.
(3)A muscular pump, the heart.
-Two basic types of circulatory systems:
(1)Open circulatory system
In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the
organs directly in an open circulatory system.
No distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this
general body fluid is called hemolymph.
(2)Closed circulatory system
-Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial
fluid.
-Closed systems are more efficient.
-Annelids, cephalopods, and vertebrates have closed circulatory
systems.
-Vertebrate circulatory systems:
1. Single circulation- bony fishes, rays, and sharks.
2. Double circulation- amphibian, reptiles, and
mammals, of which oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich
blood are pumped separately.
-Adaptations of Double Circulatory Systems
(1)An amphibians ventricle pumps blood into a
forked artery that splits the ventricles output into
the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic
circuit.
(2)Reptiles, except birds, have a three-chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle.
(In alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians a septum divides the ventricle.)
(3)Mammals and birds, which are endotherms, have a four-chambered heart with two atria and two
ventricles. Because endotherms require more O2 than ectotherms, oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood are
separated to increase respiratory efficiency.
-The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. One complete sequence is called a cardiac cycle.
-The contraction phase is called systole, and the relaxation phase is called diastole. The volume pumped
per minute is called cardiac output.
-Cardiac output is determined by heart rate and stroke volume.
(3) Platelets: cytoplasmic fragments of specialized marrow cells. They are responsible for blood clotting.
-Blood clotting
1. When the endothelium is damaged, platelets
adhere to collagen fibers and release a substance
that makes nearby platelets sticky.
2. Platelets form a plug to
protect against blood loss.
3. The plug is reinforced by
a fibrin clot when vessel
damage is severe.
-Cardiovascular diseases
-Cholesterol metabolism and inflammation play a crucial role in
cardiovascular diseases.
-Low density lipoprotein (LDL) v.s. High density lipoprotein (HDL): The
former delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production, while
the latter scavenges cholesterol for return to the liver.
-LDL is the main reason for cardiovascular diseases.
<Note>: Recent studies have shown that inactivating the gene of a liver
enzyme PCSK9 can lower plasma LDL level, hence reduce the risk of
getting atherosclerosis. (See the picture shown at the right side.)
-Common diseases:
1. Atherosclerosis is caused by the buildup of plaque deposits
within arteries.
2. A Heart attack, or myocardial infarction, is the death of
cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more
coronary arteries.
3. A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually
resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
4. Hypertension, or high blood pressure, promotes
atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and
stroke.
42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
-Respiratory pigments
1. Definition: proteins that transport oxygen, greatly
increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry.
2. Varieties:
(1) Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin
with copper as the oxygen-binding component
(2) Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use
hemoglobin which is often contained within
erythrocytes.
<Notes>
(a)The hemoglobin dissociation
curve shows that a small change
in the partial pressure of oxygen
can result in a large change in
delivery of O2.
(b)CO2 produced during
cellular respiration lowers blood
pH and decreases the affinity of
hemoglobin for O2; this is called
the Bohr shift.
G0Campbell ch 43
(All animals)
(vertebrate only)
Figure1.
Innate Immunity
Invertebrate: take insects as example
Barrier Defense:
1. Insects rely on their exoskeleton as a first line of defense against infection.
2. A chitin-based barrier is also present in the insect intestine, where it blocks infection by many
pathogens with food.
3. lysozyme in digestive system
Internal Defense:
1. Some hemocytes carry out the defense called phagocytosis, others trigger the production of
chemicals that kill pathogens and help entrap large parasites.
2. The activation of Toll protein on the hemocytes can trigger the synthesis of certain kind of
antimicrobial peptides.
Figure2.
Vertebrate
Barrier Defense:
1. Epithelium tissue
2. Mucus & lysozyme
Internal Defense:
1. Mammalian hemocytes have Toll-like receptor(TLR) binding to fragments of molecules characteristic
of a set of pathogens.
2. Phagocytosis and others
phagocytic cells
1. neutraphils
2. macrophages
3. dentritic cells: mainly populate tissues, such as skin. They
stimulate adaptive(acquired) immunity by presenting
antigens on their cell membrane.
4. eosinophils: have low phagocytic activity but are
Important in defending against muticelluler invaders, such
as parasitic worms.
3. Interferon: Virus-infected body cells secrete interferons, which induce nearby uninfected cells to
produce substances that inhibit viral reproduction.
4. Complement system: consists of roughly 30 proteins in blood plasma. These proteins circulate in an
inactive state and are activated by substances on the surface of any microbes.
5. Inflammatory response:
Histamine, which is stored in the vesicles of mast cells is an important inflammatory signaling
molecule. It triggers nearby blood vessel to dilate and become more permeable.
Activated macrophages and neutrophils discharge cytokines, signaling molecule that promote blood
flow to the site of injury or infection.
Adapted(acquired) Immunity
The adapted response relies on lymphocytes-T cells and B cells.
Any substances that elicits a response from a B cell or T cell is called an antigen. The small and accessible
portion of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor is called an epitope or antigenic determinant.
B cell and T cell development
1. Each people makes more than 1 million different B cell antigen receptors and 10 million different T cell
receptors. Yet there are only about 20,000 protein-coding genes. Then, How can this happen?
Figure3. 40*5=200
2. Because antigen receptor genes are randomly rearranged, some immune lymphocytes produce
receptors specific for epitopes on the bodys own cells. Therefore, as lymphocytes mature in the bone
marrow or thymus, their antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity.
Antibody or immunoglobulin(Ig)
Figure4.
The antigen receptors on B cells and T cells:
Figure5.
T cells bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed or presented on the surface of host cells.
The host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface is called an MHC(major
histocompatibility complex) molecule.
Class I MHC and class II MHC:
Figure6.
Class I MHC are found on every nucleated cells in the body; Class II MHC can only be found on
antigen-presenting cells. Professional antigen-presenting cells can be dendritic cells and macrophages.
An overview of the adaptive immunity
Figure7.
The role of the helper T cells
Figure8.
Figure9.
The colonal selection and the effector cells
Colonal selection: An encounter with an antigen selects which lymphocyte will divide to produce a clonal
population of thousands of cells specific for a particular epitope.
Effector cells: short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen
The effector cells forms of B cell are plasma cells
The effector cells forms of T cell are TH and TC cells
Immunological memory-primary response and secondary response
Figure10.
The antibody-mediated mechanisms of antigen disposal
Figure11.
Application
Active immunization
Vaccination
Passive immunization
Antivenin
Autoimmune Diseases
1. lupus: the immune system generates antibodies against histones and DNA released by normal
breakdown of body cells.
2. type I diabetes: the insulin-producingcells of the pancreas are the target of Tc.
3. multiple sclerosis: T cell infiltrate the central nervous system, causing the destruction of myelin sheath
of neurons.
Immunodeficiency
1. SCID(severe combined immunodeficiency): innate disease
2. AIDS(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)& HIV
latency: After infecting a host, some viruses enter a largely inactive state.
The HIV both escapes and attacks the adaptive immune response. They can infect T cells by binding
specifically to the CD4 accessory protein. HIV also infects cell types that have low CD4 level. They can
infect: helper T cells, dendritic cells, macrophages and brain cells.
-osmotic challenges
-osmoconformer: to be isoosmotic with its surroundings (all osmoconformers are
marine animals, and many of them live in water that has a stable composition)
-osmoregulator: to control internal osmolarity independent of that of its
environment
-stenohaline: cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity
-euryhaline: can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity (include many
barnacles and mussels, examples of euryhaline osmoregulators are the striped bass
and the various species of salmon)
-marine animals
-most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers; however, since these animals
differ considerably from seawater in the specific solutes, they most actively transport
these solutes to maintain homeostasis
-many marine vertebrates and some marine invertebrates are osmoregulators, in
ridding themselves of salts, the make use of their gills and kidneys
-gills: specialized chloride cells actively transport Cl- out and allow Na+ to follow
passively
-kidneys: excess Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42- are excreted with little water
-chondrichthyans (such as sharks): like bony fishes, they have an internal salt
concentration lower than that of seawater, while they are not hypoosmotic to
seawater. The explanation is that shark tissue contains high concentrations of urea. A
sharks body fluids also contain trimethylamine oxide(TMAO), an organic molecular
that protects proteins from damage by urea. Sharks are often considered
osmoconformers.
-freshwater animals
-freshwater animals solve the problem of water balance by drinking almost no
water and excreting large amounts of very dilute urine. Chloride cells in their gills
actively transport Cl- into the body, and Na+ follows
-when the salmons migrate to the ocean, they produce more of the steroid
hormone cortisol, which increases the number and size of salt-secreting chloride
cells
-land animals
-the body coverings of most
terrestrial animals help dehydration
-the waxy layers of insect
exoskeletons
-the shells of land snails
-the layers of dead, keratinized skin
cells covering most terrestrial
vertebrates
-many desert-dwellers are nocturnal,
which reduces evaporative water loss
because of the lower temperature and
higher humidity of night air
-energetics of osmoregulation
-osmoregulation accounts for 5% or more of the resting metabolic rate of many
freshwater and marine bony fishes
-minimizing the osmotic difference between body fluids and the surrounding
environment decreases the energy the animal expends for osmoregulation
-transport epithelia in osmoregulation
-transport epithelia: one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving
particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions
-the salt solution of marine birds body fluid was produced by nasal glands while
salt glands eliminate the excess salt from the bodies
-protonephridia are also found in rotifers, some annelids, mollusc larvae, and
lancelets; the function of them varies as well
-metanephridia(most annelids, such
as earthworms)
-each segment of a worm has a
pair of metanephridia
-as the cilia beat, fluid is drawn
into a collecting tubule, which
includes a storage bladder that
opens to the outside
-earthworms metanephridia
balance the water influx by
producing urine that is dilute
-malpighian tubules
-extend from dead-end tips immersed in
hemolymph
-some terrestrial insects have an
additional adaption for water balance: their
rectal end of their gut enables water uptake
from the air
-kidneys
-vertebrate kidneys are
typically nonsegmented, but
hagfishes, which are
invertebrate chordates, have
kidneys with segmentally
arranged excretory tubules.
This suggests that the
excretory structures of
vertebrate ancestors also may
have been segmented
-collecting duct
-under normal conditions, 1600L of blood flows through a pair of human kidneys
each day, about 300 times the total volume in the body; the nephrons and collecting
ducts process about 180L of initial filtrate, leaving only about 1.5L of urine to be
transported to the bladder
-hormonal control of permeability and transport determines the extent to which
the urine becomes concentrated
-some urea diffuses out of the duct and into the interstitial fluid. Alone with NaCl,
this urea contributes to the high osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in the medulla
-in producing dilute urine, the epithelium lacks water channels, and NaCl is actively
transported out of filtrate-solute gradients and water conservation
-diabetes insipidus: mutations that prevent ADH production or that inactivate the
ADH receptor gene block the increase in channel number and thus the ADH response
-the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system
-JGA: juxtaglomerular apparatus
-ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme,
many drugs used to treat
hypertension are specific inhibitors of
it, which catalyzes the second step in
the production of angiotensin II
-renin released from the JGA acts on
angiotensinogen, forming angiotensin
I; ACE in vascular endothelium,
particularly in the lungs, then splits off
two amino acids from angiotensin I,
forming active angiotensin II