11Apr16

Kimia Air- PENGOTOR DALAM AIR

Kimia Air- PENGOTOR DALAM AIR

The amount of adsorbent required for effective removal cannot be universally determined for all waters from a
single equation. However, for any given system, experimental data are easily plotted on a semilogarithmic graph,
producing a straight line. This graph is known as the Freundlich isotherm in Fig. below. An equation unique to a
given system can be determined from the graph and then used for dosage adjustment

Complexing Agents
A complex is a species formed by the association of two or more simpler species, each capable of independent
existence. When one of these species is a metal ion, the resulting entity is known as a metal complex. Complexing
agents are called ligands (or sequestrants or chelants) that act as an electron donor in a complex reaction. The
ligand must have at least one pair of electrons to donate to the metal ion, forming a shared electron pair bond
(coordinate covalent bond).
A characteristic feature of such a complex is that the metal ion occupies a central position in the matrix.
A ligand with one electron pair donor site is an undentate ligand. An example is ammonia (NH3) as shown in Fig.
below. The water molecule (H2O) is shown as a ligand. A bidentate ligand has two electron pair donor sites, such
as ethylenediamine (NH2CH2CH2NH2).

Freundlich isotherm showing effectiveness of SiO2 adsorption

by Mg(OH)2. The formula for the isotherm is Q = kC1/N

Freundlich isotherm showing effectiveness of Organic adsorption

by activated carbon. The formula for the isotherm is Q = kC1/N.

Kimia Air- PENGOTOR DALAM AIR

Complexing Agents
The donor sites are the nitrogen atoms, when complexed with copper (Cu+2). The ethylenediamine forms a fivemember ring with copper. This is a chelate ring. When this ring system forms, it adds stability to the complex. A
multidentate ligand has two or more electron pair donor sites.
Examples of common chelates used in water treatment are nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) and ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA). Both form multiple chelation rings with metal ions. A chelating agent is usually an organic molecule, which
is soluble in water and undergoes reactions with metal ions that maintain the complexed ions in solution.
A common chelate is the sodium salt of EDTA. Added to water, this chelant first reacts with a coordination
site on the calcium cation, which forms a coordinate covalent bond, pulling the rest of the molecule into the
coordination sphere.
These interactions prevent the formation of CaCO3 scale in water as follows:

Kimia Air- PENGOTOR DALAM AIR

Although at room temperature, polyacrylates form weaker complexes than EDTA and NTA, based on
experimental and field boiler results, it has been found that they form stronger complexes at elevated
temperatures. The synthetic polyacrylate polymers are significantly less corrosive to boiler internals than
chelates.
Low molecular weight polymers are excellent dispersants, which may operate by complexation. When
compounds precipitate, they are usually deficient in one of the counter ions. This causes an imbalance of charge
for a hydrophilic particle or colloid. Iron hydroxides are an excellent example. In industrial applications, iron
corrodes to form ferrous hydroxide and ferric hydroxide. When this occurs, the system is usually deficient in
hydroxide ions, resulting in an ineffectively shielded central metal ion, creating a positive surface attraction.
Negatively charged polymers are attracted and adsorbed, shielding the central metal ion and increasing the
surface partial negative charge. Like charge particles repulse each other, leading to dispersion.
On the other hand, very high molecular weight polymers (molecular weight in the millions) are used to
neutralize surface charge on suspended material in water, leading to coagulation and settling of particles. This
process is used in pretreatment for both industrial and municipal applications, as well as waste treatment
operations.

Kimia Air- PENGOTOR DALAM AIR

Figure left shows the coordination complex formed with calcium.
The bonding is through the nitrogen atoms of the ethylenediamine
backbone of the chelant and through the oxygen atoms of the
four acetic acid functional groups.
Low molecular weight polyacrylate-based polymers can complex
hardness ions in water by the same mechanism as chelates. The
molecular weight of these polymers is typically in the range of 1000
to 10 000 g/mol, although other size polymers can be used. Example
reactions are:

Kimia Air- PENGOTOR DALAM AIR

A number of natural organic materials in water such as humic acid, tannins, and lignin
have complexing ability. Because of their complexing abilities, some organic materials
interfere with certain water softening processes.
Somewhat related to complex formation is the process of threshold treatment. A
variety of phosphate compounds called polyphosphates is used in this process to
prevent formation of deposits. CaCO3 scale can be prevented in scale-forming water
treated with only 0.5 mg/L of polyphosphate. The amount of polyphosphate required
for effective scale control is far less than that required for complex formation on a
stoichiometric basis, hence the name threshold treatment. Polyphosphates can hold iron
(Fe) and manganese (Mn) ions in solution in an environment where they would
otherwise precipitate, for example, in the presence of oxygen or chlorine at pH over
8.
Polyphosphates are produced by dehydration of one or more orthophosphate (PO43)
compounds. Using different mixtures of orthophosphates can vary the kinds of
condensed phosphates formed. Condensed phosphates form chains containing the P
OP group, as shown in Fig. left for tripolyphosphate.

11Apr16

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan untuk kualitas air : kation-kation yang ada di dalam air; hubungan
antara pH dan alkalinitas; kelarutan mineral dan konsep oksidasi dan reduksi.

Komposisi beberapa air limbah tergantung pada jenis dari operasional pabrik dari air yang digunakan.

Hardness dan analisis air

Hardness merupakan salah satu masalah dalam kualitas air yang menyebabkan sabun tidak menghasilkan
busa dan pakaian menjadi tidak bersih.
Untuk itu, banyak rumah-rumah punya penampungan air hujan yang digunakan sebagai pencuci.
Hubungan antara hardness dengan ketergantungan terhadap sabun menjadi dasar untuk menentukan tingkat
kesadahan air. Secara tradisional, kesadahan adalah kemampuan menyerap sabun dari air.
Sederhananya, kesadahan adalah jumlah kandungan kalsium dan magnesium dalam air (meskipun logamlogam berat seperti besi dan mangan juga menyerap sabun). Maka, kesadahan adalah jumlah kation kalsium
dan magnesium di dalam air, yang tidak memandang sifat-sifat dari anionnya yang ada di dalam air.

Logam berat Zn dan Cu ada dalam limbah pabrik plating; senyawa-senyawa organik ada dalam buangan
pengolahan limbah; dan fluorida sebagai anion atau kompleks anion dalam limbah pabrik gelas/kaca.
pH dan alkalinitas
Hubungan antara bentuk alkalinitas sebagai fungsi pH dapat ditentukan dengan persamaan sederhana.
Informasi ini dapat membantu mendiagnosa peralatan pengukuran pH dan sebagai alat cek apakah
pengukuran pH nya sesuai berdasarkan alkalinitasnya.
pH air
pH merupakan simbol dasar untuk pengolahan air sehingga pemahaman tentang pengaruh pH pada sistem
air yang akan diolah adalah penting.

Satuan kesadahan adalah mg/L CaCO3 atau mg/L atau ppm saja.

Parameter seperti CO2 terlarut, ion karbonat dan bikarbonat dapat mempengaruhi keasaman atau
alkalinitas air.

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Tabel Mineral Acidity Shown as the Concentration of H+
Ions versus pH

DAMPAK ADANYA CO2 DALAM AIR

Terlarutnya garam-garam karbonat dalam badan perairan, akibat adanya karbon dioksida dalam air.
Pada keadaan normal, dari 0,04% CO2 di atmosfir, < 1mg/L CO2 terlarut di dalam air hujan.
Akan tetapi, sekali air hujan merembes ke tanah, jumlah gas CO2 akan lebih besar dari yang ada di
atmosfir karena ada tambahan dari proses respirasi organisme yang ada di dalam tanah (perubahan
makanan organik menjadi energi dan CO2).
Ketika CO2 terlarut di dalam air, akan membentuk asam karbonat yang terurai menjadi ion H+ dan
bikarbonat.
Dalam air tanah, adanya keasaman air tanah akan bereaksi dengan logam dari limestone (dolomite) yang
menghasilkan kesadahan dan alkalinitas seperti reaksi di bawah ini:

Concentration of hydroxide (in CaCO3 equivalents) as a

function of pH. Note that the hydroxide concentration is an
insignifi cant part of alkalinity below pH 9.3

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

DAMPAK ADANYA CO2 DALAM AIR

DAMPAK ADANYA CO2 DALAM AIR

Ada kesetimbangan antara pH dan alkalinitas seperti gambar di bawah, karena selalu ada CO2 ekses
terlarut di dalam air.
Jumlah CO2 terlarut di dalam air tergantung nilai pH dan
alkalinitas. Dala grafik menunjukkan bahwa rasio
karbondioksida terhadap alkalinitas total (M) sebagai fungsi
pH.

Ex. at pH 6.9, the ratio of CO2 to total (M) alkalinity is 0.3. If the total alkalinity is 150 mg/L as CaCO3, then
the CO2 concentration is 45 mg/L as CaCO3. Dengan menggunakan faktor konversi 1,14; kita dapat
menentukan konsentrasi CO2 sebagai CO2.

Air dengan 1 mg/L CO2 dan 10 mg/L alkalinitas mempunyai

pH yang sama dengan 10 mg/L CO2 dan 100 mg/L
alkalinitas. Kedua air ini memang punya pH sama. Tetapi, air
dengan konsentrasi 100 mg/L alkalinitas mempunyai
kemampuan buffering lebih besar.
Hubungan antara CO2, alkalinitas dan pH di dalam air; di
mana CO2 dan alkalinitas dinyatakan dalam ekivalen
CaCO3.

Bila ke dalam masing2 air di atas ditambahkan 1 mg/L

CO2,efek pH akan lebih besar pada air yang rendah
konsentrasi CO2 dan alkalinitasnya. Pada air dg alkalinitas
yang tinggi akan moderat atau buffer setiap perubahan pH.

Jadi, 45 mg/L CO2 as CaCO3 = 39,5 mg/L sebagai CO2.

Ingat!!!
Grafik ini terbatas untuk pH dan nilai alkalinitas di mana
CO2 di atas konsentrasi yang diabaikan.
Hubungan antara CO2, alkalinitas dan pH di dalam air; di
mana CO2 dan alkalinitas dinyatakan dalam ekivalen
CaCO3.

11Apr16

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

DAMPAK ADANYA CO2 DALAM AIR

Distribusi spesies alkaline di Air

Kesetimbangan antara pH, alkalinitas dan CO2 tergantung suhu, tekanan parsial CO2 dan total alkalinitas.

Hubungan antara pH, CO2 dan alkalinitas menggambarkan kondsi umum dari air. Selain itu, perlu
mengetahui jumlah individu spesies alkalinitas di dalam air.

Banyak air sumur memiliki konsentrasi CO2 terlarut yang tinggi. Dalam hal ini, meskipun air memiliki
alkalinitas yang tinggi, tapi pH nya rendah. Grafik di bawah menggambarkan bahwa rasio CO2 terhadap
total alkalinitas naik, pH air akan turun.

Reaksi :

Penting untuk dipahami bahwa kesetimbangan ini

dipengaruhi oleh perubahan antara CO2 dengan air dan
udara.
Dalam tekanan normal, CO2 berkesetimbangan di air,
didasarkan pH dan alkalinitas air.
Fraksi spesies karbon anorganik sebagai fungsi pH

Hubungan antara CO2, alkalinitas dan pH di dalam air; di

mana CO2 dan alkalinitas dinyatakan dalam ekivalen
CaCO3.

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Distribusi spesies alkaline di Air

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Gambar menunjukkan bahwa spesies karbon anorganik
antara pH 4,3 sd. 12,3.

Distribusi spesies alkaline di Air

Pada pH < 4,3, hanya CO2 yang signifikan, sementara

pH>12,3 hanya ion karbonat yang signifikan.
Pada pH 8,3; hanya HCO3- dan CO2 terlarut di dalam
air. Di atas pH ini, HCO3- dan CO adalah spesies yang
predominan.

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Total atau M alkalinity pada end point mo (pH4,3)

2.

P alkalinity pada end point pp (pH8,3)

Hydrate atau caustic alkalinity, yg dihitung dari point
1 dan 2

Representasi spesies ionik oleh masing-masing jenis

alkalinitas dapat digambarkan sbb:

Konsentrasi OH- harus diketahui untuk menggambarkan

alkalinitas air secara komplet.
Konsentrasi OH- tidak berefek pada alkalinitas sampai pH
di atas 9,3 di mana konsentrasi OH- > 1 mg/L sebagai
CaCO3.

1.

3.

Tentu saja, pH > 7 konsentrasi OH- bertambah dan

berkontribusi terhadap alkalinitas.

Fraksi spesies karbon anorganik sebagai fungsi pH

Dengan hubungan ini, selama titrasi ada tiga jenis

alkalinitas yang dapat difefinisikan:

Fraksi spesies karbon anorganik sebagai fungsi pH

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Kapasitas bufer
Titik transisi yang jelas pada pH 8,3 di mana ion karbonat
mendekati nol; dan pada pH 4,3 semua alkalinitas
mendekati nol.
Akan tetapi, pada pH 10 tidak begitu jelas penentuannya.
Pada Gambar di samping, meski kecil (sedikit), ion
bikarbonat eksis di pH>10 dan OH- ada pada
9,2<pH<10.

Netralisasi NaOH dan Na2CO3.

Pada pH 7, tidak mungkin menetralisasi NaOH, krn ada
garis lurus dalam grafik antara pH 9 dengan pH 4,3.
Sangat sedikit asam yg dibutuhkan untuk merubah pH 9 ke
pH 4,3 di dalam air yang hanya mengandung NaOH.
Mengontrol penambahan sedikit asam dan merespon
perubahan pH yang sangat cepat adalah sangat sulit.
Air yang telah memiliki sifat buffer dengan alkalinitas
(kurva karbonat pada gambar di samping) mempunyai
perubahan pH yang gradual karena adanya banyak asam
yg ditambahkan.

OKI, OH- pada pH<10 dan ion bikarbonat pada pH>10

konsentrasinya diabaikan.

Hubungan sederhana antara pH dan spesies alkalinitas

Hubungan sederhana antara pH dan spesies alkalinitas

Ini membuat kontrol pH dalam perairan lebih mudah

dibandingkan dengan air yang tanpa perlakuan bufer.
Akibatnya, lebih mudah untuk mengontrol pH dari limbah
asam dengan Na2CO3 daripada NaOH.

11Apr16

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

LSI dan RSI
Historically, a variety of empirical and theoretical
scaling index calculations have been used to
predict the probability of mineral scale formation.
Early methods of predicting the scale-forming
tendency of water range from simple equilibrium
saturation indexes to empirical indexes based on
experimental or field data. The two key examples
of these are the Langelier saturation index (LSI)
and the Ryznar stability index (RSI).
These first indexes were an attempt to simplify the
evaluation of the effect of water chemistry on
scaling and corrosion in municipal drinking water
systems.

Kimia Air- APLIKASI

Both are based on calculations of the solubility of calcium
carbonate, with minor corrections for temperature and ionic
strength. These scaling indexes have many inherent
limitations because of their simplified nature and do not
consider all the complex factors in natural water that affect
mineral solubility.
LSI was the first index calculation to come into wide usage
(1920s). It is based on the saturation pH (pHs), at which
point a given water is saturated with calcium carbonate. LSI
is determined by the difference between the actual pH and
pHs to define a saturation index:
Positive LSI indicates the water solution is oversaturated
with respect to calcium carbonate, while negative LSI
indicates the water is undersaturated.

Kimia Air- Impuritis dalam air

Contaminants in water sources are related to rainfall, the
geologic nature of the watershed or underground aquifer,
biological activity in the ground or in the water, and the
activities of human population.
The electrical polarity of the water molecule aids dissolution
of many ionic and covalent compounds.
Substances like salts, sugars, acids, and alkalis are very
soluble in water.
Many gases, including oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2), are
soluble in water. Other gases that dissolve in water, like
carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH3), react with the
water molecule to form weak acids or bases.

A water solution is considered to be corrosive

when the RSI exceeds approximately 6.0 and
to be scale forming when the index is less than
6.0.
The limitations of indexes are due to a variety
of assumptions made in the calculations,
including

The effects of temperature and ionic strength were

either ignored or severely limited.
The solubility of other scaling species (besides CaCO3)
was ignored.
The effects of soluble complexes (ion pairing) were not
calculated.
A limited set of conditions was examined.

Simplifying assumptions were made about the

carbonate equilibria.
Oxidation and reduction reactions,
also known as redox reactions, are important in water
chemistry. A few examples of redox reactions include water
disinfection, corrosion, precipitation of iron and manganese
from water, and oxidation of sulfide for odor removal from
water.

Kimia Air- Impuritis dalam air

The presence of polar organics in water can act as

a cosolvent to dissolve small amounts of nonpolar
organic compounds.

Water supports all life forms known on earth. The solvent

properties allow fluids like blood to carry nutrients to the
cells in a body.

One of the key factors that affect the quality of

water is the geological nature of the area where
the groundwater or surface water exists.

The action of biological processes in water can

increase or decrease the solubility of inorganic
and organic materials in water.

Water participates in many metabolic processes necessary

for life. An example is photosynthesis, where energy from
the sun is used by plants to convert CO2 and water into
sugar.

Surface water composition is affected by contact

with the soil or rock of the watershed that supplies
either a river or lake.

The density and viscosity properties of water,

combined with the power of flowing water, can
keep in suspension, a wide variety of materials.
These suspended particles can be inorganic solids,
insoluble organic substances, or biological
organisms.

Polar organic materials, like alcohols and sugars, dissolve in

water to a high extent, depending on the properties of the
molecule.

Kimia Air- Sumber air yang umum digunakan

(Groundwater dan Surfacewater)
Karakteristik Groundwater
1.
Temperatur relatif tetap.
2.
Konsentrasi TDS lebih besar pada lokasi yang hampir
sama. Umumnya hardness dan alkalinity lebih tinggi.
3.
Gas-gas terlarut spt H2S dan CO2 dalam air sumur
ada di atas jenuhnya. Kedua gas ini dapat
menyebabkan korosi. Bila air sumur ini dipompa ke
udara, maka gas-gas ini akan hilang. Ketika CO2
released, pH akan naik shg menyebabkan
terbentuknya kerak. Kalau H2S yang released ??
4.
Alkalinity dan pH relatif konstan. Tergantung mineral
yg dikandung.
5.
Ion-ion besi dan mangan sering ada dalam
groundwater. Ketika kontak dg udara membentuk
senyawa yang sukar larut.

Based on studies of reported conditions of scaling

and corrosion in a variety of municipal systems,
Ryznar created an empirical index to predict
scale-forming or corrosion tendency, based on pH
and pHs:

The result is that water can contain many substances, both

living and nonliving. The materials in water may be either
inert or reactive.
The specific type of contaminant and its concentration
depends upon the type and source of water. Understanding
the various contaminants that can be found is the first step
in water treatment for any use, from potable water to
industrial applications.

Groundwaters are dependent on the type of rock

through which rainwater permeates when entering
the aquifer.
In addition, CO2 created by the action of bacteria
in soil, and absorbed from air by rainwater, can
make water slightly acidic. If subsurface rock
contains limestone, groundwater in that area can
be high in hardness (calcium and magnesium) and
alkalinity.

Kimia Air- Types and Characteristics of Water Sources

Karakteristik Surfacewater
1.
Temperatur sering berubah.
2.
Konsentrasi TDS lebih rendah pada lokasi
yang hampir sama.
3.
Gas-gas terlarut selalu ada karena airnya
selalu kontak dengan udara, tetapi tidak
sampai berlebihan.
4.
Alkalinity dan pH tergantung musim,
endapannya dan runoff.
5.
Ion-ion logam dalam bentuk oksida logam
dari limbah industri sering ada dalam
surfacewater.
6.
TSS dan turbidity lebih tinggi.

11Apr16

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

Kimia Air- Types and Characteristics of Water Sources (Continued)

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

Senyawa yang dapat larut.

Senyawa yang tidak dapat larut (senyawa
tersuspensi).
Kontaminan organik.
Kontaminan biologi.
Gas-gas terlarut.
Senyawa-senyawa radioaktif.

Senyawa yang dapat larut.

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

TDS adalah jumlah
semua material terlarut
di dalam air.
Kons. 25-5000 mg/L.
Potable water 500 mg/L
Konsentrasi tinggi
menyebabkan
pembentukan kerak, rasa
dan masalah lain.
TDS tinggi mempercepat
korosi.
Konduktivitas air dapat
digunakan sebagai
indikator TDS
Theoretical solubility of carbonate compounds in a water
system closed to an external CO2 environment

Contohnya, natrium dan klorida di air laut (kons. tinggi);

selenium dan titanium (trace).
Di dalam sumber airnya, senyawa ini terlarut
(dissolved) dan larut (soluble); tapi ketika digunakan
dalam proses industri, menjadi tidak larut (insoluble) yg
disebabkan oleh suhu dan perubahan konsentrasinya.
Kelarutan beberapa ion utamanya dipengaruhi oleh
Ksp.
Contoh kelarutan karbonat dengan beberapa ion
positif lainnya (lihat Gambarnya).
Contoh yang kelarutan beberapa hidroksida dan
senyawa oksida (lihat Gambar).

BICARBONATE ION (Alkalinitas)

adalah parameter alkalin utama dari air untuk
konsumsi.
Konsentrasi 5-500 mg/L sebagai CaCO3.
Kontrol alkalinitas adalah penting dalam aplikasi
industri karena dapat membentuk kalsium
karbonat.
Kontrol alkalinitas pada boiler water dan cooling
water dalam evaporative cooling systems.
Makeup water dari sistem tersebut harus diolah
dulu untuk mereduksi alkalinitasnya dg
penambahan asam.
Total alkalinitas (M-alkalinity) adalah ukuran dari
semua spesies basa yang dinetralisasi asam.

Bila hubungan antara pH dan alkalinitas diluar

normal, maka M-alkalinity (selain bikarbonat dan
karbonat) akan meliputi fosfat, silikat atau
ammonia.
PELAJARI SIFAT-SIFAT
KALSIUM, KLORIDA, MAGNESIUM, SILIKA,
NATRIUM, SULFAT, ALUMINUM, ARSEN, BARIUM,
BORAT, BROMIDA, TEMBAGA, FLUORIDA, BESI,
TIMBAL, LITIUM, MANGAN, NITRAT, FOSFAT,
KALIUM, STRONSIUM, ZINC

Theoretical solubility of oxides and hydroxides in water at

25C

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

MAGNESIUM
Kesadahan magnesium, hanya sepertiga dari
kesadahan total, sisanya kesadahan kalsium.
Konsentrasi 40-200 mg/L sebagai CaCO3 atau
10-50 mg/L sebagai Mg.
Pada air laut, konsentrasi Mg sekitar 5 kali dari
kalsium.
Karena MgCO3 lebih larut daripada CaCO3; Mg
jarang merupakan komponen utama dalam
kerak, kecuali kalau ada silika dlm air tersebut.
Namun, Mg harus dihilangkan dengan Ca pada
air lunak (soft water) untuk air boiler.

SILIKA
Silika ada dalam hampir semua mineral dalam
konsentrasi 1 100 mg/L sebagai SiO2.
Silika bisa larut. Tapi sering dalam bentuk koloid.
Ada kesetimbangan antara silika dalam bentuk
koloidal dan anion bisilikat (HSiO3-).
Karena kompleksitasnya ini, sulit untuk
memprediksi kelarutan silika pada konsentrasi air
yang tinggi (pekat).
Istilah silika koloid (colloidal silica) sering dipakai,
tapi dapat membingungkan. Karena, rantai
polimer silika kecil dapat terbentuk dalam
larutan. Gugus polimer yang paling besar
mungkin tidak dapat terukur bila analisis silika
terlarut dengan metode molybdate-reactive.

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

Lanjutan Silika
Silika yang tidak terdeteksi diistilahkan sebagai
colloidal silica.
Pernyataan lebih akurat, ada silika yang inert
(non reactive), karena kebanyakan silika adalah
koloidal, meski dengan ukuran yang berbeda.
Pada konsentrasi yang pekat dalam air untuk
cooling tower, silika akan menjadi lebih berat
dikarenakan ketidakpastian tentang
keterbatasan kelarutannya. Dengan keberadaan
silika yang menjadi lebih berat dalam air untuk
air boiler, akan membentuk kerak dalam boiler
akibat menguap pada suhu tinggi dan akan
terendapkan kembali pada turbine blades.

Proses treatment yang dapat menghilangkan

silika, diantaranya adsorpsi pada magnesium
yang terendapkan dalam air lunak kapur;
adsorpsi pada ferri hidroksida di dalam proses
koagulasi menggunakan garam-garam besi;
pertukaran anion di dalam proses demineralisasi
dan osmose balik.

11Apr16

Kimia Air- Parameter Kimia yang mempengaruhi kualitas air

Parameter

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

Dampak pada sistem operasi

Kalsium

Membentuk kerak.

Magnesium

Garam-garamnya lebih larut daripada kalsium, tapi dapat

menjadi masalah dalam penguapan air laut. Magnesium silikat
dapat terjadi pada pH alkalin bila air mengandung silika.

Bikarbonat
(alkalinitas)

Memberikan kemampuan bufer. Potensi membentuk kerak

kalsium karbonat.

Klorida

Anion terlarut yang sangat agresif terhadap logam dan

penyebab korosi.

Silika

Dapat membentuk kerak yang keras. Dalam pH tinggi lebih

larut, kecuali magnesium silika yg mengendap di pH>8.

Sulfat

Anion yang larut dan dapat menimbulkan korosi. Dapat

membentuk kalsium sulfat.

ALUMINUM
Meskipun Al3+ persentasenya tinggi dalam kerak
bumi, sebagai penyusun utama berbagai mineral
dan clay, kelarutannya di dalam air sangat
lambat sehingga tidak begitu diperhatikan.
Akan tetapi, di dalam industri, sisa-sisa
pengendapan aluminum dari clarifier
menyebabkan deposit, khususnya dalam cooling
system yang menggunakan fosfat sebagai
pengontrol korosi.
Keberadaan alumina disebabkan adanya residu
koloidal dari alumina (Al2O3) dari koagulasi air,
bila alum atau natrium aluminat digunakan
sebagai koagulan. Bila residunya mengeras, dpt
dihilangkan dg memperbaiki filtrasinya

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

lanjutan ALUMINUM
Aluminum bersifat amfoter, yaitu larut dalam pH rendah
maupun tinggi.
Dalam air, aluminum larut sebagai Al3+ atau hidroksi valensi
rendah pada pH rendah dan anion aluminat [Al(OH)4-] pada
pH tinggi.
Dari sifat amfotirnya, pada pH rendah, Al bermuatan positif
dan pada pH tinggi bermuatan negatif.
The effectiveness of alum in precipitating negatively charged
colloids, such as clay particles from water, is more likely
related to the charge on the precipitated alumina than the
charge on the aluminum ion itself, since the aluminum ion is not
soluble in the typical coagulation pH of 5 to 7. Its strong
negative charge at pH 10.0 to 10.5 helps explain the
effectiveness of sodium aluminate in precipitating magnesium
hardness, which is positively charged at this pH.

Theoretical solubility of aluminum and zinc in water 25C,

ada sifat amfotir pada kedua atom tersebut

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

FOSFAT
Phosphorus is found in many common minerals such as apatite,
in the form of orthophosphate (PO43-).
Since phosphate compounds are widely used in fertilizers and
detergents, it is common to find phosphate in silt from
agricultural runoff, with high concentrations being found in
municipal wastewater, generally in the range of 5 to 15
mg/L as PO4, but it can be as high as 15 to 30 mg/L as PO4.
Since phosphate is a primary cause of excessive algal
growths, which lead to eutrophication of lakes and streams,
legislated reduction of phosphate from all sources continues in
many parts of the world.
Phosphate may be present in water as HPO42 and H2PO4
as well as the higher pH form PO43.

Variation of particle charge with particle type and

solution pH.

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

Effect of pH on the distribution of phosphate ions in

solution

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

FOSFAT
The distribution as affected by pH is shown in Fig.
Phosphate can be reduced to very low levels by treatment
with alum, sodium aluminate, or ferric chloride, which causes
formation of insoluble aluminum phosphate or iron phosphate.
It can also be precipitated with lime at pH greater than 10 to
produce residuals less than 2 to 3 mg/L in the form of
hydroxyapatite in a hot process system, the residuals would
be less than 0.5 mg/L.
These phosphate precipitates are often colloidal, and
filtration is required to achieve low residuals.

PHOSPHATE SPECIES
The following species in the system involving Mg2+, PO43-, NH4+
aqueous solutions can be formed, when the pH is varied,: H3PO4,
H2PO4- , HPO42- , MgOH+ , MgNH4PO4 , MgPO4- , MgH2PO4+ and
MgHPO4. Polynuclear species can also be formed when the total
concentration of phosphate is increased, although the kinetics of
their formation is slow at 25C. Fig. Shows the main magnesium
and phosphate species as a function of their total concentration in
the system MgNH3H3PO4 (1 mol/L) at 60C, plotted against the
pH.

Effect of pH on the distribution of phosphate ions in

solution

F. Mijangos, M. Kamel, G. Lesmes, D.N. Muraviev, 2004, Synthesis of struvite by ion

exchange isothermal supersaturation technique, Reactive & Functional Polymers 60, 151161.
D. Rai, B.M. Sass, D.A. Moore, 1987, Inorg. Chem. 26, 345.

Magnesium speciation versus pH at 20C. Total concentration

of magnesium, CT: (a) CT = 0.015 M, (b) CT = 0.100 M and
(c) CT = 0.15M

11Apr16

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

PHOSPHATE SPECIES
The speciation of phosphate species in the aqueous solution follows
the sequence H3PO4, H2PO4- , HPO42- and PO43- following an
increase of pH in the system.
At pH<2 the phosphate is present as the neutral species H3PO4.
As seen in Fig. , in the presence of magnesium at increasing pH
values magnesium species change from MgHPO4 in acidic media to
Mg3(PO4)2 and MgNH4PO4 in a slightly alkaline media. Under
certain conditions (certain pH and concentration), other magnesium
phosphates such as, e.g., newberyite (MgHPO4.3H2O) and
Mg3(PO4)2.2H2O can also be formed in the system, but their
formation can be prevented by proper selection of conditions for
the struvite synthesis.
F. Mijangos, M. Kamel, G. Lesmes, D.N. Muraviev, 2004, Synthesis of struvite by ion
exchange isothermal supersaturation technique, Reactive & Functional Polymers 60, 151-161.

Magnesium speciation versus pH at 20C. Total concentration

of magnesium, CT: (a) CT = 0.015 M, (b) CT = 0.100 M and
(c) CT = 0.15M

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

SENYAWA TERSUSPENSI (SUSPENDED MATTER)
A young lake in a mountainous region, with a rocky bottom,
may be very clear and have less than 1 mg/L suspended
matter.
An older lake, which has significant bottom sediment, can
have higher suspended solids content, partly consisting of
biological organisms.
Seasonal turnover in lakes can temporarily increase the
suspended solids concentration.
While suspended particles in water are not true colloids (like
milk), colloidal properties help to keep the particles
suspended in the water.
Electrostatic forces between particles can determine whether
particles repel each other or are attracted to each other.
In most cases, particles in water have a natural, negative
charge on the surface.

This electrical charge serves to repel other like

particles when two or more particles interact. Another
force that affects particle interaction is the van der
Waals force, which is a weak, short-range, attractive
force.
The fluctuating negative charge on a particle surface
can create a temporary dipole moment in a particle.
This dipole can induce another opposite dipole in a
nearby particle. In this case, the particles are
attracted to each other. These surface charges are the
basis for the functioning of both dispersant and
coagulation technology. Anything that increases or
reinforces the surface charge helps keep the particles
suspended, while anything that neutralizes the surface
charge causes the particles to agglomerate and settle
out of solution.

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

SENYAWA ORGANIK
AOX is a measure of halogenated organics dissolved in
water.
Some AOX may be natural, but many AOX compounds result
from chlorination or bromination of water, including drinking
water, wastewater before discharge, and process
applications that require bleaching, such as in the paper
industry.
AOX compounds may be volatile or nonvolatile, and some
may be toxic.
Because some of the functional groups in humic compounds
have ion exchange properties, they tend to form soluble
complexes with heavy metals.
In spite of this, there is no correlation whatever between the
color of water and its total heavy metal concentration.

Some organic materials are truly soluble, but many,

like humic matter, are colloidal and can generally be
removed by coagulation.
Alum coagulation at pH 5.5 to 6.0 typically reduces
color to less than 5 APHA units.
Organic matter found in domestic sewage often
inhibits calcium carbonate precipitation.
If natural color exceeds about 50 APHA units, it must
be partially removed for lime softening to occur.
Organic matter may be removed by activated carbon
treatment, which is widely practiced in municipal
treatment plants when organic matter causes
objectionable tastes or odors in the finished
water.

SENYAWA TERSUSPENSI (SUSPENDED MATTER)

A variety of matter can be suspended in water,
particularly flowing water.
Silt, sand, and soil are perhaps the first things that
one thinks of as suspended matter in water.
While most of the suspended matter in rivers is
probably soil removed from the drainage basin,
other suspended matter can be organics and metal
ions.
Decaying organic material, bacteria, algae,
protozoa, and the like can all contribute to
suspended matter in natural waters.
In the open oceans, plankton is the major
component of suspended material.

SENYAWA TERSUSPENSI (SUSPENDED MATTER)

Metal ions such as iron and manganese in their
oxidized states can contribute to suspended matter
in water.
While these metal ions are soluble in many
groundwater sources, iron and manganese are
insoluble metal oxides present in particulate form in
oxygenated waters.
Lake water can contain suspended material,
depending on the characteristics of the body of
water. Generally, lake water has much lower
suspended solids than river waters.

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

SENYAWA ORGANIK
There are literally hundreds of thousands of known organic
compounds, many of which might find their way into the
hydrologic cycle.
Methods of analysis exist for organic materials of interest,
especially those considered toxic or carcinogenic, such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and absorbable organic
halogen (AOX).
In general, indirect measures of organics in water are used
instead. Examples include biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total organic
carbon (TOC).

Many waters have a yellowish or tea color due to

decayed vegetation leached from the watershed by
runoff. These organic materials are broadly classified
as humic substances, further categorized as humic acid
(a water-soluble compound), fulvic acid (alkali-soluble
material), and humin (high molecular weight, water
insoluble matter).
These organic compounds are molecules having many
functional groups containing oxygen and hydrogen
atoms in various proportions, so that when organic
matter is reported as carbon, as in TOC determination,
it is probable that the molecular weight of these humic
organic molecules is 2.0 to 2.5 times greater than the
value reported as carbon.

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

WATER REUSE AND RECYCLE
Whether it is called reuse, cascading, or recycle, the use of
water that has already been used in another application
brings added challenges along with potential savings in
water and cost.
Many factors must be evaluated when planning to reuse or
recycle water in an institutional or industrial application.
The first step is to determine the environmental and economic
goals. Various water sources and the quality and variability
of those sources must be evaluated to match the sources
to water quantity and quality requirements of systems.
Options for recycle should be optimized for both system
performance and cost savings.
One of the major challenges is the use of low-quality water
sources for recycle

Often, water that has been discharged from domestic

or industrial applications contains higher contaminant
concentrations or additional contaminants that increase
the potential for the typical problems in water
treatment applications:

Corrosion due to increased chloride, sulfate,

ammonia, or sulfide

Scale due to increased calcium, magnesium,

alkalinity, sulfate, phosphate, or silica

Fouling from increased suspended solids, iron,

manganese, aluminum, or organics

Microbial growth from increased phosphate,

ammonia, and organics

UNTUK PARAMETER BIOLOGI BELAJAR SENDIRI

11Apr16

Kimia Air- Pengelompokan pengotor

WATER REUSE AND RECYCLE
These problems can be made more severe by variability of
the concentrations of various contaminants in the water
stream to be reused.
The result is that some type of pretreatment or intermediate
treatment must be used to clean the water before it is
reused or recycled.
In other cases, additional treatment chemicals or methods
may be required to minimize corrosion, scale, fouling, or
microbial growth in the system that is using the recycled
water.
Pretreatment methods may be as simple as filtration or as
extensive as membrane separation like reverse osmosis.
Finally, to achieve the desired goal, a strategy for reuse
and recycle should be developed.

The simplest options should be considered first, before

progressing to successively more complex reuse and
recycle methods.
Water conservation should be one of the first options
considered. Cascading water from one process in a
plant to another, that has less critical water
requirements, is the next option. This maybe possible
without intermediate treatment in some cases.
Reuse of another wastewater source from outside the
plant or recycle of a wastewater stream within the
plant is generally the last consideration.
These sources generally require some type of
pretreatment before they can be used in industrial
applications. Evaluating all the options gives the best
opportunity to achieve the desired goal at the lowest
cost.