Introduction to Robotics

CHAPTER 3
STATICS AND DYNAMICS OF ROBOTS ARM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter is divided into two parts; the first deals with the analysis of statics
of manipulator considering the action of forces and moments on the system at
rest whilst the second is concerned with the dynamics of the manipulator
when the system is in motion due to the forces and moments that are caused
by the acceleration of the manipulator. Both aspects are equally important as
they are often considered indispensable particularly when designing the
mechanical structure of the manipulator since the size and power of the
actuator to be used by the robot arm can be easily computed through such
analyses. It should be reminded that the terms robot, robot arm, arm and
manipulator are synonymously used throughout the chapter.

3.2 STATICS OF MANIPULATOR

Each and every joint of the manipulator is normally driven by an actuator. The
input forces or moments (or torques) at the joints are transmitted via
mechanical links to the end-effector that often interacts with constraint or
unconstraint environment. The contact between the manipulator and the
environment creates forces and torques at the interface between them within
the robotic system. This condition can be visualised by assuming the endeffector of the manipulator performing a specific task such as grasping of the
work object or executing a manufacturing process (welding, spray painting,
grinding, polishing, profile cutting of specimen, contour tracking, etc) by the
end-effector. Both tasks produce interacting forces between the end-effector
and the environment in contact. Figures 3.1 (a) and (b) show examples of the
interacting forces in robotic systems. Note that these forces clearly exhibit
constraint characteristic and may be regarded as the external disturbances of
the robot system that may considerably affect the system performance. We
shall see in later chapter the suitable control method that can be applied
effectively and robustly to reject these disturbances.

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work
specimen
grind
wheel

L : length of link
m : mass of link

L2

: joint angle

link 2
m2

Fn
Ft

L1

joint 2

link 1
m1

grind
wheel

joint 1

(a) Robot arm performing a grinding process

L2

Joint 2

Spring

L1
Joint 1

(b) Spring attached to the end of second link of the manipulator

Figure 3.1 Interacting forces between end of arm and the surrounding

It is desirable that the analysis of the forces/torques on the robot system

during equilibrium condition be carried out to ascertain the appropriate
torques or forces at the joints that are needed to counter the applied
forces/torques. Static forces are also due to the gravitational element
particularly for the robot arm working in a vertical or semi-vertical plane. In
addition to that, it is also common to include the effect of friction and other
forms of disturbances at joints. As an illustration, a serial with rotary
configuration robot arm is considered in both the static and dynamic analyses
of the manipulator that is given in the relevant sections.

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3.2.1 Static torque between the end-effector and environment
We use the basic principle based on Newtonian mechanics in the static
analysis of manipulator at rest. It is shown that the summation of all the
forces, F and moments M acting on a rigid body is equal to zero, i.e.:

F=0

(3.1)

M=0

(3.2)

and

Consider a force vector F acting at the tip of the end-effector of a two-link arm
as shown in the free body diagram of Figure 3.2. The equilibrium of forces for
each arm is given by:

F1 - F2 = 0

(3.3)

F2 - F = 0

(3.4)

F1 = F2 = F

(3.5)

and

or

Figure 3.2 Free body diagram of a two-link planar manipulator

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The torque vector at joint, is generally the cross-product of the F and r

vectors with r as the perpendicular distance, i.e.:
1 = 2 + r1 F

(3.6)

2 = r2 F

(3.7)

1 = (r1 + r2) F

(3.8)

and
Thus,

If
F = (Fx, Fy)
where Fx and Fy are the resolved forces in x and y axes respectively, then
equation (3.8) becomes:
1 = [L1 cos 1 + L2 cos (1 + 2)],[L1 sin 1 + L2 sin (1 + 2)](Fx, Fy)

(3.9)

The cross product vector can be shown as (a,b) (c,d) = ad - bc, then:
1 = [L1 cos 1 + L2 cos (1 + 2)]Fy - [L1 sin 1 + L2 sin (1 + 2)]Fx

(3.10)

and
2 = L2 cos (1 + 2)Fy - L2 sin (1 + 2)Fx

(3.11)

Equation (3.10) shows the computation of the static torque at joint 1 while
equation (3.11) illustrates the static torque at joint 2. It is evident that the total
torque at joint 1 is always bigger than that at joint 2, i.e. 1 > 2. This is due to
the fact that the two links are coupled and that the load at the end-effector is
accumulated and transmitted to joint 1 taking into account the force/torque at
joint 2 as well. As an analogy, we can directly relate this condition to the
actual human arm in which the size of the upper arm near the shoulder is
always larger than the forearm. Thus, as a general rule of the thumb, the size
of the actuator should be made bigger at joint 1 than at joint 2.
To obtain the force exerted at the end-effector, the resolved forces Fx and Fy
should be obtained first. This can be accomplished by rearranging equations
(3.10) and (3.11) as follows:

Fx =

1 L2 cos (1 + 2 ) 2 ( L1 cos 1 + L2 cos (1 + 2 ))

L1 L2 sin 2

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(3.12)

Introduction to Robotics
Fy =

1 L2 sin ( 1 + 2 ) 2 ( L1 sin 1 + L2 sin ( 1 + 2 )

L1 L2 sin 2

(3.13)

It is thus clear that, the knowledge and understanding of the forces/torques at

joints due to other forces acting on the robot particularly at the end-effector is
vital in designing the control mechanism for the arm that interacts with its
surrounding.

3.2.2 Static forces due to gravity

Previous analysis ignores the effect of gravity that may be associated with the
planar robot arm operates horizontally and that the only external force is
assumed to act on the end-effector in the plane of operation. In the case of
robot configured to move only in a vertical plane, then the effect of gravity
must be taken into consideration. Figure 3.3 shows the gravitational force
vectors Fg1 and Fg2, both acting at the centre of gravity of the links. The mass
of the links are m1 and m2 respectively for link 1 and link 2 and the mass of
the end-effector is ignored.
Considering only the gravitational forces, we have:
Fg2 = m2g

(3.14)

Fg1 = Fg2 + m1g

(3.15)

Figure 3.3 Gravitational forces exerted on a two-link arm

Similar to the steps executed in section 3.2.1, the resulting equations for the
computation of the gravitational torques at the joints are:

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g2 =

m 2 r2 g g[m 2 L2 cos (1 + 2 )]
=
2
2

(3.16)

and

m1
m L cos(1 + 2 )

+ m 2 L1 cos 1 + 2 2

g1 = g

(3.17)

It is often that the gravitational torques represented by equations (3.16) and

(3.17) have large magnitudes due to weight of the arm. One way to
compensate these forces is to attach a counter balance system at suitable
location on the robot arm. The other technique is to preload the robot arm
with suitable braking torques at the joints.
If the gravitational effect is taken into consideration, then the total torques (t)
at the joints are the summation of torques that will include the torques due to
interaction of the end-effector with the environment in contact plus any other
external disturbances (if any). This can be expressed as:

t1 = 1 + g1

(3.18)

t2 = 2 + g2

(3.19)

Thus, it is possible to compute the torque which is required by the actuator to

drive the robot arm effectively. In other words, the size of the right actuator or
motor can be suitably selected based on the calculated torque multiply with a
safety factor. It is also clear that if the arm can be designed with minimal
mass, the actuator torque can be used to manipulate the interacting forces at
the end-effector with good effect and not merely to support the weight of the
arm. In addition, we can avoid the unsystematic or random means of
choosing the actuator which may be either too small or too large.

3.3 DYNAMICS OF MANIPULATOR

The behavioural dynamics of the manipulator is often stated in terms of the
rate of change of the arms configuration (its motion) against the joint torques
produced by the actuator. Manipulator dynamics is concerned with the
analysis of forces and/or torques that result in the manipulators movements
caused by the acceleration or deceleration of the manipulator.
The computation involving the acceleration of manipulator is rather complex
mainly due to the effect of inertia of the arm that often changes significantly
with the corresponding changes of the displacements at joints. It also
depends on the manipulators configuration. Besides, the payload and its
position with respect to the joint also contribute to the changes in the arms
inertia. The higher the degree-of-freedom of the manipulator, the more
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complex will be the analysis of the dynamics due to factors related to the
presence non-linearities and coupling effect between links.
The dynamic equation of a robot involves mathematical expression
representing the movement of robot arm. The dynamic equation of motion
characterises the dynamic behaviour of the robot that is related to the
relationship between the input and output torques that cause the robots
motion. The knowledge and understanding of the equations of motion of the
robot are vital and useful to designing appropriate robot control system
through computer simulation that normally contains suitable control algorithm
for the execution of specific robots task. The simulation work often requires
appropriate robots models related to its kinematics, statics and dynamics.
The dynamic model is also used in designing the robots kinematics and
configuration.

3.3.1 Direct and inverse dynamics

Similar to manipulator kinematics, the dynamics of the manipulator can also
be described in terms of direct (or forward) dynamic or inverse dynamic.
Direct dynamic relates to condition in which the input torques are known
(given) and the trajectory motion of the manipulator needs to be computed.
Inverse dynamic involves the problem of determining the required input
torques at joints to perform the known trajectory motion. Figure 3.4 shows the
relationship between direct and inverse dynamics.

Forward
dynamic
Applied
torque

q=f(, , )

Joint space
trajectory

Inverse
dynamic

Figure 3.4 Direct and inverse dynamics

Mathematically, the direct dynamic is expressed as:

= f(q)

(3.20)

where is the torque at joint and q is the general coordinate of position.

To solve the direct dynamic problem, we need to obtain the joint trajectory
(position) when the applied forces/torques are given. When the trajectory is
computed, the joint velocity and acceleration can be easily determined by
applying the first and second derivatives respectively of the joint position.

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Direct dynamic is commonly used in the simulation of robot system using
microcomputer.
For inverse dynamics, we have:
q=f

-1

()

(3.21)

From equation (3.21), we have to compute the joint torques based on the
available trajectory. The common solution is to substitute the coordinate of
position q into the robots dynamic equations.

3.3.2 Methods to derive the robots dynamic equation

There are a number of techniques that can be used to derive the robots
dynamic equation. The two most popular methods are:

Newton-Euler (N-E) method

Lagrange-Euler (L-E) method

Both the methods can produce a set of equations that characterise the robots
motion in three dimension. Each of the method will be duly described in the
following sections.

3.3.2.1 Newton-Euler method

The technique is based on the Newton second law of motion involving all the
forces and moments (torques) that exert on every arm including the coupled
forces and moments between the links. When the velocity and acceleration
parameters are known, the forces or moments can be computed. However, all
the vector quantities must be converted to an inertial reference frame which
often requires complex calculation. Also, the constraint forces between the
links must be taken into account. The resulting equation of motion should also
include the constraint forces that should be eliminated so that the equation in
closed-form can be achieved. The equation is normally expressed in terms of
the independent variables and does not include the explicit computation of
the input torques. Computationally efficient recursive Newton-Euler method
has been developed but the equation of motion is not easy to acquire through
this method. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss the related topic.
For a translational system, the dynamic equation can be represented as:

F = ma

(3.22)

Equation (3.22) states that the summation of all the forces, F exerted on the
system is simply the product of the mass of body, m and the linear
acceleration, a. F is deemed positive in the direction of the acceleration.
For a rotational system, the following equation is used:

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=I

(3.23)

where is the total torque at joint, I is the mass moment of inertia of the body
(arm) with respect to the axis of rotation and is the angular (or joint)
acceleration of the arm.
For a system that involves both translational and rotational motions, the
combination of both equations (3.22) and (3.23) should be considered.

Dynamics of a single link manipulator using N-E method

Consider a single link manipulator comprising a homogenous and uniform
slender rod that can be rotated about the axis as shown in Figure 3.5.
Assume the manipulator operates in a horizontal plane and thus the effect of
gravity can be neglected.

Figure 3.5 A single link arm rotating about O

The torque can be obtained as:

= Io

(3.24)

From mechanics of materials, for a slender rod, the mass moment of inertia
about O is computed as:
1

I o = mL2

(3.25)

Thus, we have:

1
3

mL2

(3.26)

or
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1
3

mL2 &&

(3.27)

where && is the second derivative of the joint angle, i.e. angular acceleration
of the arm.
It should be emphasized that the computation of the mass moment of inertia
of the manipulator depends on the physical structure of the arm itself. In the
given example, the expression for the mass moment of inertia is intended for
a uniform slender rod only. Other structures having for example, a hollowed
cross section or non-uniform configuration have their own mass moment of
inertias which can be easily calculated using the concepts studied in
mechanics of materials. For manipulators that have more than one degree-offreedom (DOF) configuration, the dynamic analysis tends to be very complex
and highly mathematical. The following technique provides a systematic and
compact means of determining the dynamic equations of manipulator, also in
closed-form solution and in terms of the torques and positions at the joints.

3.3.2.2 Lagrange-Euler method

The L-E method is based on energy consideration, in which it involves the
total kinetic and potential energies of the manipulator plus the work stored in
the system and it also uses the general coordinate. However, the resulting
equation is not computationally efficient.
The Lagrangian function, L can be defined as:
L=K-P

(3.28)

Where K is the total kinetic energy of manipulator and P is the total potential
energy of manipulator.
We have:

L L

=F
t q& q

where

is

the

generalized

coordinate

(3.29)

(translational

or

rotational

displacement), q& is the first derivative of q (i.e. velocity) and F is the

generalized force (force or torque).
For a rotational manipulator, we have:

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Introduction to Robotics
L L

=
t &

(3.30)

where is the joint angle and & is the joint velocity.

Dynamics of a single-link manipulator using L-E method

The same example is presented based on a single-link arm of Figure 3.4.
The total kinetic energy is given by:
K=

1 2 1
mv + I c 2
2
2

(3.31)

with
Ic =

mL2

12

v = r and r =

L
2

Thus, we have:
2

m L 1 mL2 2

K = +
2 2 2 12

1
6

mL2 2

1
6

mL2 & 2

The potential energy for the example is zero, P = 0 because the manipulator
is assumed to move in a horizontal plane (thus there is no gravitational effect
in the direction of the operational task). Thus, the Lagrangian function is
reduced to:
L=K-P=K
From:
L L

=
t &

L
&

K
&

1
= mL2 &
3

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Introduction to Robotics
L K
=
=0

Substituting into the main equation, we obtain:

1 2 & 1 2 &&
mL = mL
t 3
3

(3.33)

The torque at joint is computed as:

1
3

mL2 &&

(3.34)

It is clear that equation (3.34) shows exactly the same result as that in
equation (3.27) using the N-E method.

Dynamics of a two-link planar manipulator

The derivation of the dynamic equations of a two-link planar manipulator
having a rotary configuration and using the L-E approach is described.
Consider the manipulator of Figure 3.6 and take into account the gravitational
forces.

Figure 3.6 A two-link planar manipulator configuration

In Figure 3.6, subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the parameters of the first and
second links respectively.
The other parameters are described as follows:

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L

link length

Lc

length of link from joint to centre of gravity of link

joint input torque

mass of link

joint angle

mass moment of inertia of link

The total kinetic energy:

K = K1 + K2
K1 and K2 are the kinetic energies for the first and second link respectively.
For the first link, we have:
K1 =

1
2

m1 vc12 +

1
2

I1 12

2
2
K1 = 12 m1 Lc1 & 2 + 12 I1 &1

(3.35)

where
2
vc12 = Lc12 &1

1 = &1
For the second link, the kinetic energy is:
K2 =

1
2

m2 vc22 +

1
2

I2 22

(3.36)

The position and velocity coordinate components at the centre of gravity of

the second link need to be obtained as follows:
x2c= L1 cos1 + Lc2 cos(1 + 2)

(3.37)

y2c= L1 sin1 + Lc2 sin(1 + 2)

(3.38)

x& 2c = L1 &1 sin 1 Lc 2 (&1 + & 2 ) sin(1 + 2 )

(3.39)

y& 2c = L1 &1 cos 1 + Lc 2 (&1 + & 2 ) cos(1 + 2 )

(3.40)

From equations (3.39) and (3.40), the square of the linear velocity component
in equation (3.36) is given by:

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vc 2 = x& 2 c + y& 2 c
2

(3.41)

Thus, we have:
2
2
2
2
2
2
K 2 = 12 m2 L1 &1 + 12 m2 Lc 2 (&1 + 2 &1 & 2 + & 2 ) + m2 L1 Lc 2 (&1 + &1 & 2 ) cos 2
2
2
+ 12 I 2 (&1 + 2 &1 & 2 + & 2 )

(3.42)

with
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
vc2 = L1 &1 + 2L1Lc2( &1 + &1 & 2 ) cos 2 + Lc2 ( &1 + 2 &1 & 2 + & 2 )

2 = ( &1 + & 2 )
The total kinetic energy is thus:
2
2
2
K = 12 m1 Lc1 &1 + 12 I1 &1

2
2
2
2
2
+ 12 m2 L1 &1 + 12 m2 Lc 2 (&1 + 2 &1 & 2 + & 2 )
2
+ m2 L1 Lc 2 (&1 + &1 & 2 ) cos 2
.

2
2
+ 12 I 2 (&1 + 2 &1 & 2 + 2 )

(3.43)

The total potential energy:

P = P1 + P2
P1 = m1 g Lc1 sin 1
P2 = m2 g L1 sin 1 + m2 g Lc2 sin (1 + 2)
P = m1 g Lc1 sin 1 + m2 g L1 sin 1 + m2 g Lc2 sin (1 + 2)
(3.44)

The relevant above equations are then substituted into the following main
equations:
L=K-P
L L

=
t &

resulting in closed-form equations as follows:

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1 = [m2Lc12 + I1 + m2 (Lc12 + Lc22 + 2 L1Lc2 cos 2 ) + I2] &&1

2
+ (m2L1Lc2 cos 2 + m2Lc22 + I2) &&2 - (m2L1Lc2 sin 2) & 2

- 2(m2L1Lc2 cos 2 + m2Lc22 + I2) &1 & 2

+ m1L1Lc2 g cos 1 + m2 g [Lc2 cos (1 + 2) + L1 cos 1]

(3.45)

2 = [m2Lc22 + I2] &&2 + (m2L1Lc2 cos 2 + m2Lc22 + I2) &&1

2
+ (m2L1Lc2 sin 2) &1 + m2 g Lc2 cos (1 + 2)

(3.46)

Consequently, the above equations can be simplified into:

1 = H11 &&1 + H12 &&2 - h & 2 2 - 2h &1 & 2 + G1

(3.47)

2 = H22 &&2 + H21 &&1 + h &12 + G2

(3.48)

where
H11 = m2Lc1 + I1 + m2 (Lc1 + Lc2 + 2 L1Lc2 cos 2 ) + I2

(3.49)

H12 = H21 = m2L1Lc2 cos 2 + m2Lc22 + I2

(3.50)

H22 = m2Lc22 + I2

(3.51)

h = m2L1Lc2 sin 2

(3.52)

G1 = m1L1Lc2 g cos 1 + m2 g [Lc2 cos (1 + 2) + L1 cos 1]

(3.53)

G2 = m2 g Lc2 cos (1 + 2)

(3.54)

For a manipulator with serial and rotary configuration, the general equation of
motion is given by:
= H ( ) && + h ( , & ) + G ( ) + e
where

actuated torque vector

N N inertia matrix of actuator (plus drive) and

manipulator

Coriolis and centripetal torque vector

gravitational torque vector

external disturbance torque vector

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(3.55)

Introduction to Robotics

Note : Equations (3.47) and (3.48) can be modified to consider the

manipulator to operate in a horizontal plane with gravitational terms G1 and
G2 ignored. An example can be found in SCARA type robot.
Note also that the dynamic analysis becomes more complex by just adding
another DOF to the manipulator due to nonlinearity and coupling effect. It is
thus obvious that the derivation of dynamic equation is a laborious and
tedious process and prone to making errors.
In general, the dynamic equation in closed-form can be expressed as:
=

j=1

j=1

k=1

Hnj ( q&& )j + hnjk ( q& )j ( q& )k + Gn + e

(3.56)

where
q

q& and q&&

general coordinate

first derivative (velocity) and second derivative

(acceleration) of q respectively

3.3.3 Explanation of manipulator dynamic forces

Generally, the actuator has to take into consideration the torques from four
sources: dynamic torque form inertial element that results in the manipulators
motion; torque from the Coriolis and centripetal (or centrifugal); torque due to
gravity and torque from external disturbances acting on the system.
The inertial torque is considered the most significant and influential in the
manipulators dynamics. This torque is somewhat proportional to the joint
acceleration in line with the Newton second law of motion if the other dynamic
torques are assumed insignificant. Inertia is the property of matter that causes
resistance to changes in motion and the mass is the quantitative
measurement of inertia. This implies that an increase in mass of the
manipulator will result in corresponding increase in the manipulators inertia. It
should be noted that the mass or mass moment of inertia of the manipulator
must assume positive values (positive definite) to have an impact on the
dynamics. For n DOF manipulator, the inertia matrix is in fact a square N x N
matrix.
Centripetal torque occurs due to centripetal forces that enable a body to
rotate about a point. The direction of the force is towards the centre of
rotation and is proportional to the square of the angular velocity. Centrifugal
force has the same magnitude of the centripetal force but opposite in

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direction. The Coriolis torque is caused by the vortex forces due to
relationship between two rotating links that are coupled.
Gravitational torque exists resulted from the moments of the weight of the
manipulator at the centre of gravity with respect to each joint axis of motion.
The moment is fully dependent on the configuration of the manipulator itself.
When the manipulator is at its fully extended position, the gravitational torque
is maximum.
For the final term with reference to external disturbance torque, a variety of
disturbances can be considered acting on the manipulator system. Examples
are static torques due to interaction of the end-effector with the environment
in contact, friction in mechanisms or at joints, brake torque at joint, counter
balance torque, torques due to spring and vibratory forces and torque due to
uncertainties. In fact, the gravitational torque can also be regarded as the
disturbance torque, thereby further simplifying equation (3.56).
In brief, the dynamic equation that comprises the above elements is
characterised by inertia that is based on the manipulator configuration and
torque interaction due to acceleration at joints, gravitational torque due to
weight of manipulator, existence of centripetal and Coriolis torque and
exertion of disturbance torque (if any) in the manipulator system.

3.3.4 Implications of the dynamics on robot design

A number of issues related to the impact of the dynamics of the manipulator
on the design of the physical robot arm has to be addressed as follows:
i.

The farther the position of an object from the joint and also the increase in
mass, the larger will be the resultant inertial torque which consequently
causes the increase in the corresponding torque at joint. Thus, by
reducing the mass of link and at the same time, transfer the mass close to
the base (or locating the actuator as close as possible to the base) will
reduce the required torque to overcome the inertia. As an example, by
locating the motor close to the joint axis will reduce the inertial load at that
particular joint.
Study the following equation (3.55):
= H ( ) && + h ( , & ) + G ( ) + e
The first term on the right hand side of the equation, i.e. H ( ) && is the
inertial torque of the manipulator. If the h, G and e terms are ignored,
then it is obvious that the inertial torque fully depends on the inertia matrix
and acceleration of the manipulator. The inertia matrix of the manipulator
as defined by equations (3.49) to (3.51) directly involves the mass and
mass moment of inertia of the manipulator (plus actuator and drive). If the
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mass (assumed as a lumped parameter that acts at the centre of gravity of
the link) or the distance between the mass and joint increases, the inertial
torque correspondingly increases. Thus, the best way to reduce the effect
of this inertial torque is to either reduce the mass of the manipulator,
shorten the distance between the mass and the joint itself or perform both
procedure. Figure 3.7 illustrates this conditions considering a single link
robotic manipulator. The bigger outer circle represents the increase in
mass.
link

link

Increase mass
only
mass

Joint

mass

mass

increase distance
between mass and
joint

increase mass and

distance between mass
and joint

Joint

(a)

link

Joint

(b)

(c)

Figure 3.7 Effect of mass and distance between mass and joint on the
inertial torque

ii. The significance of the inertial torque is somewhat inversely proportional

to the friction in the gear box at the joint. For example, a harmonic drive
has a high degree of friction which has the effect of dampening the inertial
load except for high speed operation. On the other hand, robot with direct
drive actuator possesses a very low friction at joint resulting in higher
acceleration at the joint and thereby high inertial torque. Thus, more often
than not, the performance is badly affected with poor control and possibly
overshooting. In short, it is difficult to control the dynamics of a direct drive
robotic system and indeed it poses a challenge to robotic engineer to
design a system incorporating such drive.
As an illustration, we again refer to equation (3.55) and as in (ii), we ignore
the h, G and e terms. Our focus should now be on the acceleration
parameter. Observe that the inertial torque is also dependent on this
parameter. If the acceleration increases then the inertial torque also
increases. Obviously, the friction generated through various mechanisms
in the actuation and drive system could reduce the acceleration on the
manipulator and this in turn directly reduces the inertial torque of the
manipulator.
iii. Stiffness characteristic of the physical manipulator also plays a significant
role in the design of the system. If the link is flexible, it will cause large
error in the trajectory tracking performance that is totally undesirable. On
top of that, the dynamic analysis of flexible manipulator is much more

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complex than the rigid counterpart, largely due to the deformation of the
arm.
iv. Simple robot design leads to the acquisition of diagonal inertia matrix of
the robot system. By eliminating the off-diagonal terms, it would in turn
reduce the complexity of the dynamic equation. Thus, the use of simple
physical shape, structure and materials of the manipulator enables the
modelling task to become easier and produces more accurate results in
computing the inertia matrix. Acquiring the estimated inertial parameters of
the manipulator is indeed a tedious problem in tackling the robot control
behaviour.

3.4 CONCLUSION
The analyses of statics and dynamics of the robotic manipulator enable us to
visualise the effects of forces or moments acting on the system based on the
derived mathematical models. These effects are particularly significant when
the manipulator operates with high velocity and acceleration. The inertial
torque is the most influential dynamic torque and needs to be seriously
addressed and emphasized during the course of the analysis. The knowledge
and understanding of the above subject matters will enable robot engineer or
designer to predict the performance of the system through appropriate design
of the control system which often involves modelling and simulation tool with
the aid of a microcomputer. This has a direct consequence of reducing the
time, labour and costs.

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SOALAN LATIHAN BAB 3

Soalan 3.1
a) Terangkan kepentingan analisis statik dan dinamik pengolah.
b) Bezakan antara dinamik terus dan songsang bagi suatu pengolah.
c) Huraikan dua kaedah yang lazim dipakai bagi mendapatkan model matematik
pengolah. Apakah perbezaan ketara di antara dua kaedah ini?

Soalan 3.2
a) Huraikan daya atau daya kilas dinamik yang wujud di dalam suatu sistem robot.
Seterusnya, tuliskan persamaan matematik yang mewakili dinamik pengolah
secara umum.
b) Terbitkan persamaan dinamik bagi sebuah pengolah robot seperti ditunjukkan
dalam Rajah S3.2. Lengan pengolah adalah diperbuat daripada bahan berkeratan
rentas segiempat tepat. Butir-butir lain adalah diberikan di dalam rajah.
Anggapkan bagi sepanjang lengan, bahan adalah homogen dan ambil kesan
graviti.

Rajah S3.2

c) Seterusnya, jika jisim lengan m = 0.4 kg, panjang lengan l = 250 mm, a = 25 mm
dan b = 20 mm, dapatkan dayakilas di sendi jika pecutan lelurus a di penghujung
lengan adalah 2.5 m/s2.

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Soalan 3.3
a) Terbitkan persamaan dinamik bagi satu pengolah lengan berputar menggunakan
kaedah Lagrange-Euler. Anggapkan lengan sebagai satu rod slender dan
terdapatnya kesan graviti.
b) Tuliskan rumusan am bagi menyatakan model matematik bagi sebuah pengolah
robot yang mempunyai penyambung bersiri dan berputar serta huraikan secara
ringkas setiap parameter berkenaan. Ambil kira kesan daripada gangguan luaran
dan juga graviti.
c) Huraikan dua implikasi dinamik terhadap rekabentuk pengolah.

Soalan 3.4
a) Nyatakan dua kaedah yang boleh digunakan di dalam menyelesaikan masalah
dinamik pengolah serta tunjukkan secara teratur prinsip dan rumusan yang terlibat
bagi setiap satunya.
b) Tuliskan rumusan am bagi menyatakan model matematik bagi sebuah pengolah
robot yang mempunyai penyambung bersiri serta huraikan secara ringkas setiap
parameter yang berkenaan. Ambil kira kesan dari gangguan luaran dan juga
graviti.
c) Huraikan kepentingan melakukan analisis dinamik ke atas pengolah robot. Apa
akan berlaku sekiranya analisis ini tidak diambilkira?

Soalan 3.5
a) Terangkan dengan jelas tentang peri pentingnya analisis dinamik dilakukan ke atas
pengolah robot.
b) Terbitkan persamaan dinamik bagi sebuah pengolah robot seperti ditunjukkan
dalam Rajah S3.5. Lengan pengolah adalah diperbuat dari silinder berdinding
nipis. Dimensa lengan beserta data-data lain adalah diberikan di dalam rajah.
Anggapkan bahan bagi sepanjang lengan adalah homogen dan abaikan kesan
graviti.

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Rajah S3.5

c) Seterusnya, jika jisim lengan m = 1 kg, panjang lengan l = 50 mm dan r = 10 mm

dapatkan dayakilas di sendi jika pecutan lelurus a di penghujung lengan adalah 5
m/s2.

Soalan 3.6
a) Terbitkan persamaan dinamik bagi satu pengolah lengan berputar menggunakan
kaedah Lagrange-Euler. Anggapkan lengan sebagai satu rod slender dan
terdapatnya kesan graviti.
b) Tuliskan rumusan am bagi menyatakan model matematik bagi sebuah pengolah
robot yang mempunyai penyambung bersiri dan berputar serta huraikan secara
ringkas setiap parameter berkenaan. Ambil kira kesan daripada gangguan luaran
dan juga graviti.
c) Huraikan dua (2) implikasi dinamik terhadap reka bentuk pengolah.

Soalan 3.7
a) Huraikan kepentingan analisis dinamik pengolah dan implikasinya terhadap reka
bentuk pengolah.
b) Terangkan dengan ringkas langkah-langkah yang boleh diambil untuk mereka
bentuk sistem kawalan robot yang berkesan menggunakan pengetahuan statik dan
dinamik pengolah.
c) Nyatakan dan kemudian huraikan dua kaedah yang biasa digunakan untuk
menyelesaikan masalah dinamik pengolah.

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Soalan 3.8
a) Huraikan daya atau daya kilas dinamik yang wujud di dalam suatu pengolah.
b) Terbitkan persamaan dinamik bagi sebuah pengolah robot satu sendi berputar
menggunakan kaedah Lagrange-Euler. Lengan pengolah diperbuat daripada bahan
tegar dan padu yang mempunyai keratan rentas segiempat sama. Panjang lengan
adalah L, ukuran rentas a a, jisim lengan m dan sudut sendi . Anggapkan bagi
sepanjang lengan, bahan adalah homogen dan ambil kira kesan graviti. Gunakan
momen inersia jisim lengan di sendi sebagai 121 ma 2 + 13 mL2 . Seterusnya, jika jisim
lengan adalah 0.4 kg, panjang lengan 250 mm dan ukuran rentas lengan 2525
mm, dapatkan dayakilas di sendi jika pecutan lelurus di penghujung lengan adalah
2.5 m/s2 ketika lengan bergerak sebanyak 4 rad.

Soalan 3.9
a) Bincangkan kepentingan menganalisis daya/daya kilas statik pada sebuah
pengolah robot. Berikan contoh praktikal dengan gambarajahnya sekali.
b) Dapatkan suatu ungkapan untuk menentukan daya kilas pada sendi sebuah
pengolah planar yang mempunyai tatarajah RR dengan menganggapkan bahawa
pengolah bergerak secara menegak dan tidak ada daya lain yang bertindak
terhadap sistem. Ambil m, l dan masing-masing sebagai vektor jisim, panjang
dan sudut putaran sendi pengolah. Lakarkan sistem ini.
Soalan 3.10
a) Takrifkan statik dan dinamik pengolah.
b) Satu robot ditugaskan untuk membuat kerja mencanai di sepanjang permukaan
rata satu spesimen seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah S3.10(a). Roda canai
dipasang pada pergelangan robot dan Rajah S3.10(b) menunjukkan daya yang
bertindak terhadap roda canai oleh spesimen. Jika Fn adalah daya normal dan Ft
ialah daya memotong, dapatkan ungkapan bagi menyatakan daya kilas statik pada
setiap sendi dalam sebutan pembolehubah yang berkaitan. Anggapkan bahawa
robot beroperasi pada satah menegak dan panjang efektif lengan L2 ialah di antara
paksi putaran di sendi 2 dan titik sentuhan di antara roda canai dan permukaan
spesimen. Jisim roda canai boleh diabaikan.

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spesimen
roda
canai

L: panjang lengan
m: jisim lengan
: sudut putaran lengan

L2

lengan 2
m2

Fn
Ft

L1

lengan 1

m1

motor 2
roda
canai

motor 1

(a)

(b)

Rajah S3.10

c) Bincangkan daya kilas dinamik yang perlu diambil kira bagi tujuan mendapatkan
daya kilas penggerak pengolah.

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