Group / Individual

Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 1 - VISCOSITY
General:
One of the properties of homogeneous liquids is their resistance to motion. A measure of
this resistance is known as viscosity. It can be measured in different standardized
methods or tests. In this experiment, viscosity will be measured using an LVDV-II+ Pro
viscometer.
Theory:
The absolute viscosity is a material property that plays a fundamental role in most fluid
flows. In this experiment, the value of for a fluid is determined by measuring the torque
T required to rotate a cylinder of length L and radius R in a well containing the fluid. See
Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Spindle Diagram

By definition, the absolute viscosity is the coefficient that relates the shear stress to
the velocity gradient dV/dy:

V
(1.1)
y
The rotary viscometer used has a narrow gap s between the outer radius R of the cylinder
and the inside of the well wall (Fig. 1.1). The velocity gradient (strain rate) can be
calculated using the small gap assumption. The shear stress can be calculated using the
cylinder surface area and the measured torque. On the Brookfield viscometer, the torque

T is not displayed directly, but rather the fraction of the maximum torque Tmax
measurable by the instrument:
T

where Tmax 0.0673mN.m (milliNewton meter)

Tmax
Experimental Procedure:
In this lab we will be using a viscometer to measure viscosities of different fluids
at different temperatures. For each reading of viscosity that the LVDV-II+ Pro
viscometer takes, a corresponding reading of temperature, percent torque, and RPM
speed will be given. A total of 3 different fluids will be tested. One of the fluids will be
tested at 3 different temperatures in order to show how viscosity changes with
temperature. The remaining 2 fluids will be tested to show how viscosities change
between different types of fluids. Therefore a total of 5 samples will be tested.
For each trial the spindle from the viscometer will first be inserted into the fluid
along with the temperature probe, and then a temperature reading taken. Before
beginning the experiment the fluid, spindle number, and temperature will be recorded.
Next, at least 5 different RPM values will be used and recorded with their
corresponding torque percentages and viscosity measurements (according to the
viscometer).

See Appendix 1 for instructions on the viscometer. Do not use

viscometer without instructions from (and supervision of) a TA!!
The purpose of the experiment is to calculate viscosities using the torque
percentages and RPM values given by the viscometer, and then compare your calculated
viscosities with the viscosities given by the viscometer.
Table 1.1 - Data for experimental calculations

Spindle #1

Spindle #4

Radius (cm)
0.9421

Radius (cm)
0.1588

Effective length (cm)

9.16

Effective length (cm)

3.396

Spacing (cm)
0.448

Spacing (cm)
0.080

*** See Appendix 1 for Viscometer and Warming Bath instructions.

2

Data Collection:

Cold Molasses
Spindle #

Temp.(F)
eff

Room Temp.
Molasses
Spindle #

Temp.(F)

RPM

%T

eff

RPM

Hot Molasses
Spindle #

Temp. (F)
%T

eff

RPM

Corn Syrup
Spindle #

Temp. (F)
%T

eff

RPM

Ketchup
Spindle #

Temp. (F)
%T

eff

RPM

%T

Some Specific Questions to Address: Viscosity

Plot shear stress vs. strain rate data for each fluid. Find the best fit equation for
the data and determine the viscosity. Explain the errors.

Compare the viscosities calculated using the torque percentages and RPM values
given by the viscometer with the experimental viscosity readings from the
instrument. Calculate the error percentages. Comment on the results.

Plot shear stress vs. strain rate data of all molasses data on the same chart.
Explain the impact of temperature on the viscosity of molasses. Compare results
with the curves for other fluids in the textbook and/or online sources. Be sure to
cite these sources.

Identify the 3 fluids tested as Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluids. Explain your

answer.

APPENDIX 1: SPECIFIC INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTIONS

How to use the LVDV-II + Pro Viscometer

1. After the viscometer is set up and leveled (bubble on top of viscometer), install
the spindle guard. Next, install the temperature probe. Before you install the
spindle, the viscometer needs to be turned on. Use the electric cord to
connect to the rear of the viscometer and an electric outlet. Then, using the
on/off switch on the rear of the viscometer, turn it on. The viscometer will
display auto-zeroing for a few seconds, then will tell you to install the spindle
and press any key.
2. Before installing spindle, remember that the viscometer uses
reverse threads. Therefore, it tightens and loosens in the opposite direction
than the more often used right-handed thread. Also it is important to both lift the
upper half of the drive and keep it from rotating with the thumb and forefinger of
one hand while screwing or unscrewing the spindle with the other hand.
3. Once the spindle is installed, follow the instructions and press any key. After a
few seconds, the torque, RPM, viscosity, and temperature categories should
appear on the display. The temperature should be in Fahrenheit, the viscosity
should be in mPa-s, the torque will be in percentage, and the RPM value will
simply be a number.
4. The next step is to ensure that the viscometer knows what spindle you are using.
The number 1 spindle is input as number 61 into the viscometer and the number
4 spindle is input as number 64 in the viscometer. The 1 and 4 numbers are
located at the top of each spindle. Press the Select Spindle button on the
viscometer face. In the top right corner of the display, a number will appear and
start blinking. If the number is the correct number that corresponds to the spindle
you are using, do not touch anything else until it stops blinking. If the number
needs to be changed, push the up and down arrow keys until you reach the
correct number. Next, push the Select Spindle button again to lock in the
change. If you do not push the Select Spindle key a second time to confirm the
spindle selection, the number will not be recognized in the viscometer.
5. Once the spindle is properly installed and the viscometer has the correct spindle
number input, you can insert the spindle into the fluid that is being tested. On
both spindles, there is an indentation on the shaft. The fluid that you are testing
should cover the spindle up to the middle of the indentation to the point where
there is a raised groove. In order to receive accurate data, the fluid
cannot go over or below this point. The 600 ml flasks can be filled to
accomplish this, along with moving the viscometer up and down its track. It is
important to keep the spindle close to the center of the flask. If the spindle is
4

closer to the edge of the beaker than it is to the guard, the calibrated spacing
value that we need will be thrown off.
6. Finally, its time to start taking measurements. To begin, press the motor
on/off button on the viscometer face. The spindle should begin to rotate at the
designated RPM speed. In order to change the RPM speed, press the Set Speed
button. Then, press the Up or Down arrows according to which value of RPM
you are trying to reach. The value of RPMs will appear just to the right of the
currently running RPM value. Once you find an RPM that you wish to reach,
press the Set Speed button again and that RPM value will become the
currently running speed. There will be a different torque percentage for each
RPM value. In order for the values to be valid, the torque percentage must be
above 10% and below 100%. If the torque reaches 100% or above, the screen
will display EEEE. If this occurs, simply reduce the RPM speed.
7. About RPM speeds. There are two sets of RPM speeds. To test and
understand what this means, scroll through the RPM speeds and when you reach
the maximum, continue upward and another set of speeds will begin. Any speed
can be used that keeps the torque within its allowable range. A good idea is to
start at the lower RPMs and work up to faster velocities. The viscometer reaches
equilibrium faster that way.
8. To finish and shut off, press the motor on/off button and the spindle will stop
rotating. Remove the spindle and viscometer from inside the fluid. At this time
the viscometer can be shut off. The spindle can then be removed. Remember
that the spindle is a reverse thread. Also remember to press upwards on
the upper drive and hold while unscrewing the spindle.
9. Next, clean the spindle and the viscometer and return it to its case. Warm water
and paper towels will be sufficient for cleaning. Be sure to remove all of the
material from the spindle to avoid contamination.

IMPORTANT!!!!
This Viscometer costs over $1200. The most tedious part
of using the viscometer is installing and removing the spindle.
The spindle has reverse threads and can easily be ruined. The
shaft of the motor is also sensitive to pushing and pulling and
can be bent out of alignment easily if one does not take care
removing the spindle.
SO BE CAREFUL!!!
5

How to use the TC-102 Water Bath

1. Unless Water Bath is already filled, fill with water to within 1 inch of the surface
of the device. This is the maximum level for the water. Since a 600 ml flask will
be inserted to warm fluids, the level of water should be a little less to allow for
displacement.

2. Attach electric wire and plug into outlet. Using on/off switch on the back of the
device, turn the device on. 3 dots will then appear on the display screen.

3. In order to reach the desired temperature, press and release the turn-knob once.
The current temperature will appear (Fahrenheit should be displayed as the
temperature). Then, turn the knob either left or right until the desired temperature
displays on the screen. Once the desired temperature is displayed on the screen,
do not touch the turn-knob again. In a few seconds the display will return to the
current temperature. The circulation pump will turn on at this point and the
temperature will begin to change. To see the temperature that you are trying to
reach, simply press and release the turn-knob, and it will be displayed again.

4. Allow sufficient time for the water bath, and fluid that you are testing, to reach
the desired temperature.

5. IMPORTANT!!!! Remember that the fluid and flask is going to be hot after
heating and to take proper precautions not to injure yourself or damage the
equipment.

6. After testing is complete, and you are finished with the water bath, simply turn the
device off using the on/off switch on the back of the display panel.

7. If the bath is not going to be used for a significant period, empty the water.

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 2 PRESSURE AND FORCE
General:
The objective of this lab is to observe the relationship between pressure and force.
Pressure gauges and weights will be used to observe pressure. These readings will be
compared to predicted pressure values. This lab will briefly discuss trend line selection.
Theory:
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Since this is a general relationship, the unit
system (U.S. or SI) must be consistent within the equation. See Equation 2.1.
P

F
A

(2.1)

Experimental Procedure:
This experiment will use multiple weights applied to a water-filled cylinder of known
geometry. The cylinder is connected to a Bourdon-tube pressure gauge which will
provide the recorded pressure readings. See Figure 2.1 below.

Figure 2.1: Experimental Apparatus

The weights are applied on the cylinder side. The diameter of the cylinder of each
apparatus is listed on the instrument ID tag. At least 5 weight combinations must be
tried, and each combination must be applied three times. The trials should be performed
7

in a random order (i.e., do not add the weight and then read the gauge three times without
doing anything). The intermediate fluid is water. Water is selected because it is nearly
incompressible and does not dissipate pressure within the fluid.
Experimental errors should be listed and accounted for. Human error is not an error.
Using that phrase means that an unknown mistake was made and no effort was made to
identify it, remove it, or quantify it. This is unacceptable. An idea of the magnitude of
the errors should also be mentioned (one error may change the values by 0.1% while a
different one may change the values by 10%).
Data Collection:

Weight (kg)
Weight combination

Pressure (kN/m2 or
Trial #1
Trial #2

lbf/in2)
Trial #3

Some Specific Questions to Address:

*All plots should include an appropriate trend line with equation and coefficient of
determination unless otherwise stated. This applies to all labs.
** All plots are given as Y versus X notation.

A data table should compare the recorded pressure with the calculated pressure.
Percent Error should be used.

Include a plot of Experimental pressure versus Theoretical pressure.

experiment consistent? Does it over-predict or under-predict values?

Make a plot of force versus Experimental pressure. Does it behave as is

expected? Does the slope of the line match the expected value?

Plot percent error against applied force. Discuss any trends.

Is the

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 3 MANOMETRY
General:
Manometry utilizes the change in pressure with elevation to evaluate pressure. There are several
instruments available to measure pressure depending on the magnitude of the pressure and the
characteristics of the fluid to be studied.
Theory:
By measuring the height of liquid in a simple manometer, it is possible to compute the gage
pressure at the center of the vessel to which the manometer is connected. A manometer uses a
different fluid than the one in the main vessel (i.e. water). By measuring the deflection of the
manometer fluid (e.g. mercury) in a U-tube, the pressure in the main vessel can be calculated if
the specific weights of the two fluids are known. In this lab we will use a U-tube manometer
(Figure 3.1).

oil
1

h1

B
h3

h2

water
Figure 3.1: The Manometer
The hydrostatic pressure equation states that there is no horizontal variation in pressure in a static
fluid. Therefore,

PA PB
(3.1)
The change in pressure with height in a fluid is given by
(3.2)
P h
where is the increase in pressure due to moving down a distance in a fluid of specific
weight . Note that the pressure at points 1 and 2 in Figure 3.1 is P=0.

Experimental Procedure:
In this lab we will calculate the specific weight of vegetable oil and a salt water solution.
First, you will use the vegetable oil and water in the manometer. Fill the tube mostly with water,
then some oil and measure the heights h1, h2, h3 as shown in Figure 3.1. Add a little more oil and
repeat three times. Be sure not to have the oil-water interface near the bottom of the tube. If it
is, then oil could possibly come out the other side of the tube, causing two unknowns.
After cleaning the tube out, use the salt water solution and oil. The tube should be mostly full of
salt water now, with some vegetable oil on one side like before. Take your measurements of
heights and add increments of oil just like the previous step. This time, the known specific
weight will be the newly calculated value of vegetable oil. You will use this value to calculate
the specific weight of the salt water.
Data Collection:

h1 (cm)
Clear Water

Salt Water

h2 (cm)

h3 (cm)

1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.

Some Specific Questions to Address: - Manometry

Determine the specific weight of the cooking oil and the salt water. Compare the specific
gravity calculated for the cooking oil with values that you look up from an outside source
(textbook or internet, cited appropriately).
Are these results as expected? Do they correspond to our knowledge of certain fluids
being less dense/more dense than other fluids?
Describe in your own words how the principles of manometry are applied in this
experiment.
What problems would have to be overcome if we were to measure the unit weight of salt
water only using the equipment specified, without the cooking oil? What are some
possible
solutions?

10

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:

CHAPTER 4- THE CENTER OF PRESSURE

General:
In this lab you will verify the location of the "center of pressure" due to the force of a
liquid on a submerged plane surface.
Theory:
At any point below its free surface, the liquid exerts a pressure onto any surface in
contact with the liquid, given by

p h

(4.1)

Where p = pressure at any point;= specific weight of the liquid; and h is the vertical
distance from the surface to the point where pressure is measured. Any surface in contact
with a liquid, therefore, experiences a force that can be calculated from:

Fw

area

pdA w

area

zdA w hc Aw

(4.2)

Where Fw = the total force exerted by the fluid on the area, dAw = the elemental area on
which the pressure p is applied, hc = the depth to the centroid of the surface; and Aw = the
area of interest. If the total force of the fluid could be represented by a force acting at one
point on the surface, this point would be known as the "center of pressure." Knowing the
specific weight of the fluid, the shape of the plate, the location of the plate under the fluid
surface, and the orientation of the plate, the magnitude and location of the force of the
fluid on the submerged area can be determined using Equation 4.2.
Table 4.1 - Dimensions of the Test Apparatus
Radius of inner cylinder

10.0 cm

Radius of outer cylinder

20.0 cm

Width of the plate (w)

7.5 cm

Length of the plate

10.0 cm

11

Figure 4.1: Definition sketch of force of fluid on a plate. Note that all the forces
acting on the curved surface of the Plexiglas act along lines passing through the
pivot point (A). Therefore, only the hydrostatic force acting on the flat surface
creates a moment about (A).
Experimental Apparatus:
Figure 4.2 shows the test apparatus (a) and the measurable for the tank (b). Table 4.1
gives its required dimensions. The apparatus consists of counterbalancing weights to
zero the instrument, a scaled lever arm to measure the distance to the added moment, a
quadrant tank to contain the water, and a gradation plate to read elevations for the tank.

Figure 4.2(a) Schematic of the Test Apparatus, (b) explanation of measured

variables

12

Force of Water
The force of the water on the plate (Fw ) is a function of hc and can be calculated using
Equation 4.2. If the water level is below the top of the plate, S is less than Sh and the case
is un-submerged. For our rectangular plate, the value of hc is given by Equation 4.3.
S St
(4.3)
hc
2
If the water level is above the top of the plate, S is greater than Sh and the case is
submerged. The value of hc is then given by Equation 4.4.
hc S Sh

S h St
2

(4.4)

Experimental Determination of the Center of Pressure (yp-exp)

In order to measure the location of the center of pressure of a plane surface, we will
determine the moment that the force of water causes about an axis of rotation (A). The
lab apparatus consists of a rectangular plate bound by two cylindrical segments. The
center of the cylindrical segments coincides with the pivot axis of the dish. When the
dish is filled with water, the vector of the force of water on the cylinder parts passes
through the pivot axis and produces no moment. The force of water on the rectangular
plate, however, produces a moment about the pivot axis which tends to rotate the dish
and lift the balance arm. By placing weights on a hanger, an equal but opposite moment
can be created and the apparatus is kept in balance using Equation 4.5.

W Larm Fw I d M

(4.5)

where Fw is the force of the water, M (given in Equation 4.6) is the moment about (A)
due to the hydrostatic pressure distribution, and W is the total amount of weight added to
the balance arm to bring the apparatus back to equilibrium. Figure 4.3 shows calculation
of moment of force of water about (A).
L2

M dM PLwdl

(4.6)

L1

The lever arm for the weights (Larm) can be read from the instrument. Id is the lever arm
for the water force. This is the distance from the center of pressure to the pivot on the
instrument, not the water surface. To convert this to yp we use Equations 4.7a and 4.7b.
200 S
(4.7a)
if S 200mm: y p exp I d
cos
13

if S 200mm:

y p exp I d

200 S
cos

(4.7b)

Figure 4.3 Schematic of the momentum calculation of force of water about (A) (for
submerged case)
Experimental procedure:
1. Set the lever arm distance and use the rotating slider to level the apparatus at the
desired .
2. Record St, Sh, and
3. Add weights, ensuring that the hanger has not moved from its set distance.
4. Pour water into the quadrant tank until balance is restored.
5. Measure and record S for the specified angle and weight W.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for 6 different weights. Use a total of at least two weight
combinations below 3 N and at least four combinations above 3 N.
7. Empty the quadrant tank.
8. Repeat steps from 1 to 7 for =20o, and 40 o.
Be sure to use the same combination of weights for each angle.

14

Data Collection:
Angle o
Lever Arm [mm]

Lowest Gate Level St [mm]

Highest Gate Level Sh [mm]

------------------------Weight [N]

---------------------------------------------Water level reading S [mm]

Angle o
Lever Arm [mm]

Lowest Gate Level St [mm]

------------------------Weight [N]

---------------------------------------------Water level reading S [mm]

15

Highest Gate Level Sh [mm]

Angle o
Lever Arm [mm]

Lowest Gate Level St [mm]

Highest Gate Level Sh [mm]

------------------------Weight [N]

---------------------------------------------Water level reading S [mm]

Some Specific Questions to Address Center of Pressure

Calculate the moment about point A due to the hydrostatic pressure on the plate
using (4.6) and plot this moment vs the moment due to the weight.

Plot the distance between the center of area and the center of pressure (
y p exp hc ) vs. (S-St) for all three angles on the same graph. Explain the
falling limb of the graph using equations as necessary. What number(s) should
approach?

16

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:

CHAPTER 5 - VENTURI METER ANALYSIS

General:
In this lab, Bernoulli's equation will be applied in steady state condition to the study of venturi
flow meter. We will also calibrate the venturi meter as a flow measurement device.
Theory:
The conversion of energy for an inviscid, incompressible fluid in a stream-tube is given by
Bernoullis equation as:
P V

z
(5.1)
g
2

where P = pressure (F/L ); = specific weight of fluid (F/L ); V = mean velocity of fluid (L/t);
z = elevation of fluid above datum (L); and H = total head (ft-lb/lb or N-m/N).
If we assume no energy is lost between two points, the total head along a streamline is the same
(H1 = H2). Substituting Bernoullis equation in for total head, we get Equation 5.2.

P1

V12
P V
z z
g
g

(5.2)

Figure 5.1 shows a closed conduit system with an inviscid, incompressible fluid flowing through
it. Sections 1 and 3 have the same diameter, and section 2 has a smaller diameter.

Figure 5.1: Inviscid, incompressible flow through a contraction

17

The continuity equation also applies, giving

Q1 Q2 V1 A1 V2 A2

(5.3)

where A1 and A2 are the areas of sections 1 and 2. For a given geometry (A1, A2), one can solve
for up to two unknown using Equations. 5.2 and 5.3 (V1, V2) and hence the flow rate.

Figure 5.2: Actual fluid flow through a contraction

Experimental Procedure:
We will measure pressure from all of the pressure taps at three flow rates to get profiles of the
pressure along the venturi. Non-dimensional parameter will be used to normalize these
values. Normalizing values means that various dissimilar values that follow the same trend are
modified by a constant parameter within each dataset. This allows the data points to plot on top
of each other, showing that the trend is common between them.

hn h1
v22
2g

(5.4)

For the remaining runs we will only measure the pressure difference between the entrance
section and the throat.
18

Some Specific Questions to Address Venturi Meter

For a given Q, calculate the dimensionless parameter in expression (5.4). Plot () vs.
distance along the Venturi for all 3 profile runs on the same chart. No trend line is
necessary, just connect the points.

Plot the velocity head and pressure head along the Venturi Meter for your profile data on
the same plot (one plot per profile for each of the three full profiles). Be sure to plot the
velocity head on top of the pressure head like it was shown in lab and in Figure 5.1.
Identify the Energy Grade Line. The best fit lines should reflect the behavior of the fluid,
but it is not necessary to show the equations.

For all the seven readings,

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Calculate h1-h2 using the measured flow rate and Bernoullis Equation
Plot (h1-h2)calc vs. (h1-h2)measured
Plot Qcalc from (h1-h2)measured vs Qmeasured
Plot (h1-h2)measured - (h1-h2)calc (= head loss) vs. Q and fit both a straight line and a
quadratic curve
Comment on which it the most appropriate fit and why.

19

Venturi Meter Data Sheet

Flow
a (1)
b
Manometer
Reading
(gpm)
(mm)
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
No measurements will be taken in the grey areas.
You do not need to calculate the values either.

c
(mm)

d (2)
(mm)

e
(mm)

Figure 5.3: Venturi Meter Dimensions

20

f
(mm)

g
(mm)

h
(mm)

j
(mm)

k
(mm)

l
(mm)

APPENDIX 2: HOW TO USE THE SELF-CONTAINED LAB BENCHES

The lab benches in the Fluids lab are fiberglass basins with an internal sump pump to provide
flow. The top of the bench has openings which all return water should be directed through.
Figure A2.1 shows the operations side of the bench.

Figure A2.1: Lab Bench Diagram

The bench has one red knob in the center of the bench. This is the on/off control. Towards the
right side of the bench is the red flow control valve.
To turn the bench on, first open the flow control knob at least three turns. This prevents the
pump from running without flowing water. It is a standard globe valve, so turning CCW opens
the valve and turning CW closes the valve. Most pumps are self-cooling, so running a pump in a
closed system (valves closed, pump isolated) will cause the pump to overheat and burn out. This
applies to almost every pump you will work with. To turn the pump on, twist the red knob CCW
and it should pop out. To turn the pump off, push the red knob in no twisting is necessary.
Adjusting the flow rate is done with the globe valve. Just like any valve, it has sensitive control
over certain ranges of % open and less sensitive control elsewhere. This means that when you
first begin opening the valve, you may turn it multiple complete turns to achieve a rise of 1 gpm.
As you continue opening the valve, you will find that opening the valve a quarter of a turn will
increase the flow by 2 gpm. All valves behave similarly, so be aware of this behavior.
All equipment and test sections should be connected to the system using standard hose clamps.

21

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 6 DETERMINING COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE
General:
The objective of this lab is to determine the coefficient of discharge of a tanks outlet considering
the outlet as an orifice.
Theory:
The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement or control of flow from a reservoir. It can
also be used to make a pressure differential (drop). When there is no inflow, conservation of
volume is given by
dh
(6.1)
AT
Qout ,
dt
where AT=Area of tank and Qout=outlet flow rate given by
Qout CD Ao 2 gh

(6.2)

where CD is the discharge coefficient and Ao is the orifice area.

Experimental Procedure:
A bucket, stop watch, and yard stick will be supplied in the lab.
1. Measure the diameter of the smallest outlet and make sure all the holes are plugged.
2. Fill the square bucket with water from the table sump.
3. Once the tank is full, turn off the water supply and remove the smallest plug at the bottom
of the tank and let it drain.
4. Record the depth (measured from the center of the outlet) as a function of time at one
minute intervals.
5. Repeat steps 2-3 two more times so that you have 3 sets of time depth data for the
smallest orifice. Do not remove any of the larger plugs as you will likely cause a flood.

22

Figure 6.1: Experimental Setup

Data Collection:
Cross sectional area of tank (cm2) =

Diameter of outlet (cm) =

Time
(min)

Head, h (cm)
1st run

Time
(min)

Head, h (cm)
2nd run

23

Time
(min)

Head, h (cm)
3rd run

Some Specific Questions to Address:

Assuming that the outlet can be treated as an orifice with discharge coefficient CD,
calculate the theoretical height as a function of time by solving equations (1) and (2).
Note that substituting (2) into (1) gives you a first order ordinary differential equation.
Use the analytical equation from the previous step to fit it an appropriate curve through
your measured height vs time data and estimate CD
Comment on any possible sources of error.

24

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 7 FLOW OVER A V-NOTCH WEIR
General:
A weir is an overflow control structure built across an open channel for the purpose of
measuring the flow discharge. V-notch weirs are sharp crested weirs.
Theory:
Consider the V-notch shown in the figure 7.1. Let H be the height of water surface and
be the angle of notch. Then, W is width of the notch at the water surface
W 2 H tan

(7.1)

Figure 7.1: Flow over V-notch

Consider a horizontal strip of the notch of thickness dh under a head h. Then, width of the
strip,

(7.2)
W 2( H h) tan
2
Bernoullis equation can be used to show that the theoretical discharge through the strip
is

dQt = area of the strip x velocity = 2( H h) tan dh 2 gh

(7.3)
2
Integrating between the limits 0 and H and simplifying, the total theoretical discharge
over the notch is given by
5
8
52
(7.4)
Qt
2 g tan H KH 2
15
2

25

where,
8

K
2 g tan
15
2

(7.5)

Let Qa be the actual discharge. Then the coefficient of discharge, Cd, is given by
Q
Cd a
(7.6)
Qt
5

Qa KCd H 2

(7.7)

The co-efficient of discharge depends on relative head (H/P), relative height (P/W) and
angle of the notch ().
Experimental Procedure:

Figure 7.2: Experimental Setup

1. Position the weir plate at the end of the approach channel, in a vertical plane, with the
sharp edge on the upstream side.
2. Admit water to the channel until the water discharges over the weir plate.
3. Close the flow control valve and allow water to stop flowing over weir.
6. Admit water to the channel and adjust flow control valve to obtain heads, H, increasing
in steps of 0.5 cm.
7. Use the flume orifice equation ( Q 0.2041* h
) to calculate the flow rate for
each measured head.
8. For each flow rate, stabilize conditions, measure and record H.
0.4648

26

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
Data Collection:
Angle of the notch, =
Head from datum to vertex, P =
Observation

Distance from Head,

H
bottom,
Y=P+H

Theoretical Discharge Flume orifice

plate head
8
5
Qt
2 g tan H 2
drop(h)
15
2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Some Specific Questions to Address:

Find Cd for the V-notch.

Plot Qt vs. H in a plain graph paper.

Plot Qa vs. H in a log-log paper and to find

o the power-law relationship between your measured H and Qa
o Cd for the V-notch weir
Discuss the sources of error.

27

Actual

Discharge

Qa 0.2041* h

0.4648

CD

Qa
Qt

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 8 FORCE ON A SLUICE GATE
General:
A sluice gate is a vertical gate installed in open channels to control the discharge. It
allows water to pass underneath the gate. This device may be used as a flow measuring
device. We will also use it to illustrate the momentum theorem.
Theory:
In hydrostatics, the force on a submerged gate was easily calculated from the linear
increase of pressure with depth. We now know from Bernoullis equation that as velocity
increases, pressure decreases. The water just upstream of a sluice gate may be moving,
so typical hydrostatic equations do not apply anymore and we must go to the Momentum
equation. The momentum theorem comes from Newtons Second Law of Motion
(Equation 8.1)

F the rate of

change of momentum

(8.1)

The force of water on the sluice gate may be computed from the momentum theorem
assuming one-dimensional flow and neglecting shear stresses along the channel bed and
the side walls. See Figure 7.1 for a diagram shoving forces and velocities.

Fg
V1
y1

ys

Figure 8.1 Definition sketch of a sluice gate in operation

28

y2

V2

The downstream depth will be hard to measure due to the highly unstable flow. In the lab
you will measure the downstream depth and observe the difficulties. You will check
your measured depth using a contraction coefficient Cc, such that

y2theo Cc ys

(8.2)

Values of Cc have been calculated by von Mises by assuming flow through a sluice gate
to be inviscid flow through the upper half of a two dimensional slot, as shown in Table
6a.1.
Table 8.1: von Mises Contraction coefficients for Equation 6a.2
ys/y1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

Cc = y2/ys
0.611
0.612
0.616
0.622
0.631
0.644

Experimental Procedure: Sluice Gate as Verifier of Momentum Equation

The sluice gate that will be used has a number of piezometer holes along the center of the
upstream face. These are located at various z elevations above the bottom edge of the
sluice gate. The height of water in each manometer tube (h + z) may be read on the scale
attached to the sluice gate. See Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Measurement of head at different locations on the sluice gate

29

With a conceptual knowledge of physics and fluid mechanics, the gate force is simply the
integral of the pressure over the gate area. See Equation 6a.3. In our case, pressure
varies over the height of the gate.
Fg

zmax

PdA

(8.3)

Here dA bdz . Since piezometers measure pressure head instead of actual pressure, the
values muse be converted by multiplying h by the specific weight of water (remember
P h ). This leads to Equation 7.4.

Fg

zmax

hdA

(8.4)

Here, the actual pressure head, h, can be found with the equation:

h reading correction tap elevation

(8.5)

Knowledge of integrals allows the user to recognize that the integral of the pressure head
variation per unit width with depth is equal to the area under the curve of a plot of
pressure head (h) against depth (z). Thus, Equation 8.4 becomes Equation 8.6. See
Figure 8.3 for an example plot. The dots represent pressure head readings from
piezometers located at various elevations. Correct locations for the y-axis intercepts are
critical.
Fg Area under the curve * width

Elevation,
z (ft)

Pressure=h
Figure 8.3 Plot of pressure variation on the gate in the vertical direction

30

(8.6)

Experimental Procedure: Sluice Gate as a Flow Measurement Device

Flow through a sluice gate can be calculated by simultaneously solving the energy
equation with conservation of volume. It can also be expressed empirically as:
Q Kbys 2 gy1

(8.7)

Here K is a flow coefficient which is a function of ys y1 . That is,

Q bys *
area

2 gy1 * K
velocity

(sluice equation)

(8.8)

coefficient

Note that this is similar to the empirical equation for the flumes orifice plate:
0.4648
(orifice equation)
Q 0.2041* h

(8.9)

Values of K are given by Rouse and provided in Table 7.2. Using this information and
the relatively simple measurements of sluice gate opening size and upstream depth, the
flow rate can be calculated.
Table 8.2: Values of flow coefficients for use in Equation 8.8
K
0.611
0.599
0.588
0.578
0.568

ys/y1
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20

Note: In the case of the specific apparatus that we use in this lab, there is a variation in
the scale attached to the sluice gate. The piezometer tubes for the taps near the bottom of
the gate take up some space, so the scale was attached 0.4 inches (0.0333 ft) above the
bottom of the gate. The tap locations listed (z) are the correct actual distances from the
bottom of the gate but the values read from the gradation behind the piezometers will be
less than their true values. For example, a water level reading of 0.1 ft on the scale is
actually 0.133 ft from the bottom of the gate. Thus, the correction needs to be applied to
the
piezometer
readings
as
shown
in
Figure
8.4.

31

Figure 8.4: Measurements and scale of the sluice gate

Some Specific Questions to Address Sluice Gate

Compare the measured value of downstream depth (y2) with the value derived
from Equation 8.2.

Determine the flow rate using the energy equation, the calibrated Orifice equation
8.9 and the Sluice gate equation 8.8.

Calculate the theoretical value of the net force of water acting on the sluice gate
from the momentum equation. Determine velocities V1 and V2 using all three Q
estimates calculated previously. Hence, you will determine three theoretical
values of force. (Note: Use the theoretical value of y2 from Equation 8.2 in your
calculations of theoretical force.)

Make a plot of z vs. pressure on the gate similar to that shown in Figure 8.3. Pass
a smooth curve through the data points. Dont forget to extend the line to
intersect with the appropriate points on the axis. On the same graph plot the
hydrostatic pressure equation P zmax z

Calculate the experimental value of the force on the gate by integrating the
pressure distribution numerically.

Calculate the percent difference between the values of force on the gate
determined by experiment and the three theoretical forces.

Analyze your results and draw your conclusions regarding the validity of the experiment
results. Refer to each of the items you have been asked to determine
32

Data collection:
Units:
Upstream depth, Y1:

____

Gate opening, Ys:

____

Downstream depth, Y2:

____

Channel Width, b:

____

Orifice Manometer reading:

____

Tap Number

Piezometer
Piezometer
Tap Location (z) Reading
(ft)
(ft)

1 (near bottom of gate)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 (near top of gate)

0.008
0.017
0.025
0.042
0.083
0.125
0.167
0.208
0.25
0.333
0.417
0.5
0.625
0.75
0.875

33

APPENDIX 3: AREA UNDER THE CURVE

Approximate Integration
Integration is often referred to as the area under the curve. Mathcentre is a UK-based
organization that provides support for subjects, and they have a good reference on
integration by summation that is reproduced below.
(http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources.php/80 - reproduction is acceptable for student
distribution and educational purposes only)

To integrate, we take the limit of the summation. This requires knowledge of the
functions behavior at every x-value. In an experiment, we only have data at specific
points and do not know the actual function (were trying to determine/prove it). If we
cannot integrate we must revert to the summation process.

34

Adding up the area of our known rectangles will provide the area under the curve. The
final value may not be as accurate, but it is incredibly easy to perform in a spreadsheet.
The distance between two recordings is calculable from the cells, and this will give the
dx value. f(x) is the value of the function the reading that we have taken and will
be plotting as y. This is another cells value in the spreadsheet. Each row will then
have an associated dx and y so a differential area can be found. The summation of
all of those differential areas will be the area under the curve! Obviously, if more
recordings are made then the accuracy will increase because the distance between
recordings (dx) will decrease.

Figure A3.1: Max Value

Figure A3.2: Trapezoids

There are various sub-methods for the area of the differential element. Figure A3.1
shows the area of the element calculated from the highest of the two functional values of
the element. This consistently over-estimates the area. A similar method is to always
take the first value (functional value on the left side of the element). This method can
have varying error, as the behavior may lead to a mix of over- and under-estimations,
making the accuracy uncertain. Another method is to make a trapezoidal shaped element,
which assumes linear behavior within the element see Figure A3.2. This method is
very accurate is the preferred method for approximate numerical integration. A third,
more complex method involves looking at the adjacent elements and finding a more
general trend (think of a decaying function). For the purposes of this lab, the extra
accuracy of this method is not worth the extra computation.
Alternate methods of area determination
There are other methods of finding the area under the curve that require more work by
hand. One method is to plot a line through each of the data points and use a planimeter to
traverse a scaled plot. This provides good results but is limited to the accuracy of the
data points. Another method is to again plot the data with connecting lines onto graph
paper or plotted with gridlines. The area of each square is known, so adding up the area
of all of the squares under the curve will also yield the total area. This method is very
tedious and the squares must be small to avoid large errors in area estimation, but it has
been
around
much
longer
than
computers
and
planimeters.
35

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 9 VELOCITY PROFILES IN PIPES
General:
In this laboratory session, we will compare theoretical and experimental velocity profiles
in pipes for turbulent flow situations.
Theory:
Flow in pipes can occur under laminar and turbulent conditions. The transition from
laminar to turbulent flow is a function of the Reynolds number ( Re UD where
U Q A ). Under normal engineering conditions, transition occurs in pipes at Reynolds
numbers of 2000 to 3000. Below 2000, the flow is completely stable and will always be
laminar.
Turbulent flow occurs at Reynolds number greater than 3000. For turbulent flow, theory
and empirical results give us:
m

1/ n

y
y
V Vmax Vmax
R
R

(9.1)

Where Vmax is the velocity at the centerline of the pipe and y and R being defined by
Figure 9.1. Some engineers approximate m as 1/7. Others vary m with the Reynolds
number according to Table 9.1. This lab will use the table.
Table 9.1: Reynolds number versus velocity exponent
Re
4.0 x 103
2.3 x 104
1.1 x 105
1.1 x 106
3.2 x 106

m = 1/n
1/6
1/6.6
1/7
1/8.8
1/10

Remember that the Reynolds number includes a velocity term. This velocity is the
average velocity over the cross section, not the point velocities that are to be compared.

Figure 9.1: Definition sketch of velocity distribution in pipes

36

Experimental Procedures:
This lab will use a manometer connected to a stagnation tube to measure pressure
differences at various points through a pipe cross section as shown in Figure 5a.2.
Assuming no energy loss due to the stagnation tube (H1 = H2), Bernoulli's equation can
be inserted to get Equation 9.2.

P1

V P
V
z
g
g

(9.2)

It was previously learned how to evaluate pressure differences from manometer readings,
so the velocity at point 2 can easily be computed for the horizontal pipe system. By
moving the stagnation tube across the pipe, the velocity at various locations across the
pipe can be measured. In this lab, the setup uses a standard water differential manometer.

1 2

Air
h

Figure 9.2: The stagnation tube arrangement for velocity determination

The discharge will be measured using the orifice plate and manometer in the main supply
pipe. To calculate the discharge with orifice plate manometer reading, use Equation 9.3:

Q CD A0

2 g h
1 d 4

(9.3)

Here CD 0.82 for this orifice plate, A0 is the orifice plate cross sectional area, h is
the orifice plate manometer reading, and d D0 D is the ratio of orifice plate diameter to
pipe line diameter.

37

The theoretical velocity profile requires a maximum velocity to base its calculations
around. Use the maximum experimental velocity in the theoretical equation. This will
ensure that the two profiles overlay correctly and the shapes of the profiles can be
compared.
To calculate the flow rate using experimental manometer readings along the cross section
shown in Figure 8.3, use Equation 8.4
Q Qi Vavei dAi

Figure 9.3 Schematic for flow rate calculation using manometer readings

38

(9.4)

Data Collection:

Brass Pipe Diameter:

Mainline Diameter:
Orifice Diameter:
Orifice Plate h:

Tube position
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

2.00
2.00
1.40

Units
in
in
in
in

Vernier reading
(in.)
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0

y
(in)
0.05
0.15
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.65
0.75
0.85
0.95
0.95
0.85
0.75
0.65
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.05

39

Manometer reading
(in.)

Some Specific Questions to Address Velocity Profile

Calculate the flow rate from the orifice plates differential manometer reading.

Record manometer readings for all Vernier scale positions.

experimental and theoretical velocity for each Vernier position.

Plot experimental and theoretical velocity profiles on the same graph. Remember
to use data points only with no line to indicate the experimental data, and a line
with no point markers for the theoretical.

Fit a power law curve through the experimental data and comment on exponents.

Calculate the flow rate from the experimental readings. Compare this to the flow
rate calculated using the orifice plate.

Calculate the average velocity from the experimental readings using an

appropriate method. Compare this to the average velocity calculated from the
flow rate using the orifice plate.

Draw your conclusions from the results.

40

Calculate

APPENDIX 4: INTEGRATION OVER AN AREA (3 DIMENSIONS)

Integration by summation yields a 2 dimensional area with the units of whatever the axes
were. Some things require integration of a 3 dimensional quantity, so it must be handled
carefully to preserve the meaning of the integration.
The first instance this will be used where 3 dimensional areas are required in Chapter 9
(Velocity Profiles) for finding the flow rate within a pipe. A velocity profile provides the
velocity for a certain portion of the flow but the actual calculation procedure may be
difficult to visualize. The first step in doing this calculation is to simply use half of the
velocity profile. We use only half the profile because the area under the curve must be
rotated around the centerline axis of the pipe, and this simplifies the calculation.
Secondly, it is incredibly easier to work this problem in cylindrical coordinates.
Another situation this will be used if to find the Force on a Sluice Gate in Chapter 6A.
This chapter requires the calculation of force on a submerged plate. Pressure is force
over area, so if we can find the pressure acting on the plate, we can find the force.
Piezometers are used to find the pressure, numerical integration is performed, and the
area under the curve is found. This area is for a unit width, so the area must be multiplied
by the width of the plate to get the total pressure volume in units of ft^3. Specific
weight provides the relationship between force and volume, so the force can be easily
found. This procedure is described in detail in Chapter 6A.
In cylindrical coordinates, the flow rate can be calculated according to the integral
R

Q 2 r V (r ) dr
0

For our data, the location of the reading (y) is the independent variable and the calculated
velocity (V) is the dependent variable. Thinking back to Appendix 3s f ( x) * x , this
essentially makes the f(x) value the velocity and the delta value the distance between
recordings. When rotating this area through 2*pi, you make the simple but incredibly
bad mistake of rotating the area around the radius line (x-axis) instead of the pipe
centerline (y-axis). This error is shown in Figure A4.1.

41

Figure A4.1: Incorrect Rotation

To revolve the area correctly, the incremental areas must be calculated a different way.
See Figure A4.2.

Figure A4.2: Correct Method of Revolution

The problem with this method is that the differential areas are not easily calculated. The
y distance can be calculated easily, but the delta value for the summation is now a
delta velocity and is not as intuitive to define.

42

An easier method is the Shell or Cylinder method of volumes. This allows our original
differential areas to be used. Again, think about the cylindrical coordinate system. See
Figures A4.3 and A4.4.

Figure A4.3: Shell Method (picture from online source)

** the a value in the figure is the radius of the pipe **

Figure A4.4: Calculation of Area for Shell

From the flow rate integral, V (r ) dr is equal to the incremental area and the radius of
rotation, r, of each segment is calculated by: r ( R y) . So, writing the Shell Rotation
integral as a summation yields:
Q Incremental Area Under Curve 2 ( R y )

43

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 10FLOW R ESISTANCE
General:
The resistance caused by a fluid as it flows along a pipe results in a continuous loss of
energy of the fluid. This laboratory session will determine the energy losses due to flow
resistance for turbulent flow.
Theory:
The energy equation for the flow of viscous fluids between two points in a pipeline is
given by:

V12
P V2
P
z1 1 2 z hL
2g
g

(10.1)

The term hL represents the energy (head) lost (converted to heat) per pound of flowing
fluid due to the viscous nature of the fluid. The energy loss is a function of the pipe size,
velocity of the fluid, length between the two points and viscosity of the fluid. The most
widely used expression relating head loss to the physical properties of the pipeline and
fluid (attributed to Darcy-Weisbach) is

hL f

L V2
D 2g

(10.2)

where L = length; V = mean velocity; D = diameter; g = acceleration of gravity; and f =

resistance coefficient. The resistance coefficient varies with Reynolds number and
relative roughness of pipe, where Reynolds number is defined as
Re

UD
v

(10.3)

where U = mean velocity; D = diameter; and = kinematic viscosity. The roughness of

the pipe is also of importance. The roughness height, ks or , is known for certain types
of pipes and is tabulated many places. The relative roughness of the pipe is noted as ks/D
or /D. This relationship between resistance coefficient and Reynolds number is
represented graphically by the Moody diagram. This diagram is found in more places
than you can shake a stick at.
The first thing to note about Moodys diagram is that although turbulent flow starts at
Reynolds numbers greater than 3000, the lines representing a particular relative
roughness tend to curve downwards until becoming horizontal. When the given relative
roughness line flattens out, the friction factor for a given relative roughness does not
44

change with Reynolds number. The flow is then said to be fully turbulent. This is where
most civil engineering applications operate, and these friction factors are often used as a
first estimate in iterative solutions.
In 1939, Colebrook developed an implicit equation that can be used to solve for the
friction factor of a pipe. His equation covers hydraulically smooth, hydraulically rough,
and the in-between areas of turbulent flow. Implicit equations require iterative solutions
for the variable of concern because it is on both sides of the equation. See Appendix 5
for a description of the solution of implicit equations. Colebrooks equation is as follows

1
2.51
2.0*log D
3.7 Re* f
f

(10.4)

Experimental Procedure:
This lab will experimentally determine resistance coefficients (f) for the test pipe for
several different flow rates (and therefore several Reynolds numbers) in a setup shown in
Figure 10.1. The head loss can be determined by simplifying Equation. 10.1.
First, turn on the pipe and wait 3 minutes to get steady. Read the pressure difference for
first length of pipe (12). This will give head loss for that flow rate. The procedure
should be repeated for four flow rates. Also, this lab will determine head loss as a
function of length. Set the flow rate to maximum, and record the manometer reading for
different pipe lengths provided in experimental data sheet.

Figure 10.1: Schematic drawing of pipe head loss setup

45

Data Collection:
Brass Pipe Diameter:
Mainline Diameter:
Orifice Diameter:

2.00
2.00
1.40

Units
in
in
in

Pipe is made of brass and the corresponding roughness height is

0.00005 ft 0.015mm
Run No.

Manometer Reading
(Orifice plate)
(in)

Pipe Length
(ft)
12
12
12
12

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Manometer
Reading (head loss)
(in)

4
8
12
14
16
18

See run 5
See run 5
See run 5
See run 5
See run 5

Some Specific Questions to Address Flow Resistance

Determine the experimental friction factor for each of the runs using DarcyWeisbach friction loss equation.

Determine the theoretical friction coefficient for each of the flows using the
Moody diagram from textbook.

Determine the theoretical friction coefficient for each of the flows using the
Colebrook equation.

Compare the experimentally determined f value with the two theoretical f values.
Comment on your results. If the experimental f value varies from the theoretical f
values, explain why this might be so.

Make a plot of head loss as a function of flow rate, fit an appropriate curve and
comment on the type of function.

Make a plot of head loss ( hL ) as a function of distance along the pipe using the
5th discharge only, ft a curve and comment on the function.

Do the changes in distance along the pipe and discharge produce expected
resultant head losses? Give your reasons.
46

APPENDIX 5: IMPLICIT EQUATION SOLUTION PROCEDURE

An Implicit equation is one that has the variable of interest in two locations and cannot be
simplified to one. For example, Colebrooks equation for friction factor (used in Chapter
5b) is:

1
2.51
2.0*log D
3.7 Re* f
f

The friction factor, f, is unknown while the other parameters have been calculated. A
standard solution procedure is as follows:
1) Guess a value for the variable of interest. (f = something)
2) Using the guessed value of f and the known values, solve one side of the equation.
(f = something, e/D = something, Re = something right hand side of the
equation = something)
3) Solve for the variable of interest. (f on the left hand side of the equation =
something)
4) Compare the guessed value of the variable of interest to the one you just
calculated. (fguess ?=? fsomething)
5) If the values are the same within some tolerance margin, the value of the variable
of interest is the one just calculated. If the two values are not close enough, repeat
these steps. The recently calculated variable of interest now becomes your
guessed value. (fsomething fguess; insert this value on right hand side of equation)

47

Group / Individual
Summary / Comprehensive
Due date:
CHAPTER 11 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS CURVE
General:
The objective of this lab is to calculate the pump performance curve for the pump, Ep(Q),
and to compare it to the curve provided with this lab manual.
Theory:
The performance of a pump can be represented graphically by characteristic curve. A
typical characteristic curve shows the total head rise over the pump as a function of pump
discharge.
Experimental Procedure:
A bucket, a submersible aquarium pump, some tubing, stop watch, tape measure and a
measuring cup will supplied in the lab. Measure the flow rate produced by the pump for a
range of heights (at least 9) above the water surface, including the height for which there
is no flow rate

Figure 11.1: Experimental Setup

48

Data Collection:
Diameter of Pipe =
Observation Head,
H(cm)

Length of pipe =
Volume Time
of
(sec)
water in
the cup,
(ml)

Q (ml/s)

Outlet
velocity
(cm/s)

Head loss
(cm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Some Specific Questions to Address:

Calculate outlet velocity for each measurement case.

Calculate friction factor f for each flow rate assuming the tube is a smooth pipe.
Calculate head loss for each discharge using Darcy-Weisbach formula.
Apply the work energy equation from point 1 to point 2, and calculate pump
performance curve that is, Ep(Q).
Plot your calculated points on the supplied pump performance curve (plot by
hand).
Discuss briefly any sources of error.

Note that the bucket supplied has a flow rate meter attached. This is for a different lab
and should not be connected during this experiment or used to measure the flow rate.

49

Ep (cm)
50

Group / Individual
In-class calculations will be submitted after lab session
CHAPTER 12 HYDRAULIC JUMP
General:
The hydraulic jump is an open channel phenomenon whereby water (or any liquid)
flowing at a small depth y1 abruptly jumps to a larger depth y2 and continues to flow at
the new depth. The phenomenon is a chaotic, turbulent one and is associated with loss of
energy.
Theory:
Water flowing in open channels will occur in one of two velocity states, subcritical or
supercritical. Supercritical flow is characterized by a high velocity and is relatively
unstable. Subcritical flow has a lower velocity and is stable. A dimensionless ratio
which allows the definition of these conditions is the Froude number, given by:
Fr

V
A
g*
T

V
gym

(12.1)

where V = velocity; g = acceleration of gravity; A = cross-sectional flow area; T = top

width of flow; ym =A/T= hydraulic mean depth (ym=y for a rectangular channel).
Supercritical conditions occur when Fr > 1 and subcritical conditions occur when Fr < 1.
When supercritical flow encounters insufficient energy gradient, which causes it to
become subcritical, it undergoes an abrupt change in depth, known as the hydraulic jump.
In this transition, considerable loss of energy occurs. The simplest analysis of this
situation involves a control volume approach in which the momentum equation is
applied.
This lab will use a rectangular open channel. A side-view of the water surface is shown
in Figure 12.1. If the body of water between sections 1 and 2 is considered as a control
volume, the only horizontal forces acting on it are the hydrostatic forces from the
adjacent masses of water and a small shearing force along the perimeter. Neglecting the
bed shear stress, since the length between the sections is small, the momentum equation
is

F1 F2 QV2 QV1

(12.2)

Here F1 and F2 are hydrostatic forces as shown in Figure 6b.1. The conservation of
volume equation of the system gives:

Q V1 A1 V2 A2

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(12.3)

EGL

hL
V22
2g

V21
2g

y2
F1

y1

F2

Figure 12.1: Schematic drawing of a hydraulic jump

Solving the equations 12.2 and 12.3 simultaneously the depth at section 2 can be
calculated:

y1
8q 2

2
gy13

y2

(12.4)

Equation 12.4 can be used to give either jump depth (the conjugate depth) if the other
depth is known. Subscripts can be interchanged if y1 is desired and y2 is known.
Equation 12.4 can also be expressed in terms of the Froude number:
y2

y1
1 1 8Fr12

(12.5)

y1

y2
1 1 8Fr2 2

(12.6)

or

The energy lost in the jump can be determined having solved for the depths by writing
the energy equation between sections 1 and 2

y1

V12
V2
y2 2 hL
2g
2g

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(12.7)

Theoretical discharge can be calculated using orifice manometer reading

Q 0.2041* h

0.4648

(orifice equation)

(12.8)

Experimental Procedure:
This lab will use a rectangular flume provided with a flow measuring device. By
allowing water under a sluice gate and raising an obstruction at the downstream end of
the flume, we will cause a hydraulic jump to occur at one flow rate. We can then
measure y1, y2, and discharge for the jump Q. So, by using any two of these parameters
(y1, y2, and Q), we can find the third from one using 12.2 and 12.3 and compare the
theoretical value to the measured value.
The selected values for y1 and y2 should be away from the jump where the depth is not
changing. Theoretically, these two depths are the normal channel depths before and after
the jump happens, so they should be taken where they are near constant values on either
side of the jump.
Data Collection:
Units
Orifice Manometer Reading*
Channel width
Upstream depth
Downstream Depth
Required In-Class Calculation Set
This should be done like an extended set of sample calculations with a narrative. Dont
forget to list the equations used before numbers are substituted into it.
1) State known parameters and measured parameters.
2) Calculate Q using both:

the flumes orifice plate, equation 12.8 (theoretical)

using equations 12.2 and 12.3 (experimental)

Using the estimate of discharge calculated from orifice plate equation and measured y1
and y2 values
3) Calculate the Velocity and Froude Number at each section (Upstream and
Downstream).
4) Calculate the head loss across the jump.
5) State any observations about the results.
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6) Calculate y1 from the conjugate depth equation 12.6.

difference from the measured value?

What is the percentage

If the percent difference was less than 2%, finish the calculations with a y1 value 2%
higher than the measured value. If the error was greater than 2%, use the calculated y1
value for the final steps. This will show the sensitivity of the final numbers to errors.
7) Re-calculate velocity and Froude Number at point 1.
8) Re-calculate the head loss across the jump.
9) Comment on your observations and calculations.

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