Africa.

About Africa

Libyan Desert, desert, northeastern Africa, northeastern section of the Sahara, in eastern
Libya, western Egypt, and northwestern Sudan. In Egypt, it is also known as the Western
Desert. The arid region of sand dunes and stony plateaus rises to 1907 m (6256 ft) at the point
where the borders of Libya, Egypt, and Sudan meet. Western Sahara, region in northwestern
Africa. Formerly known as Spanish Sahara, it was an overseas province of Spain from 1958 until
1976, when it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Since 1979, it has been
occupied entirely by Morocco. Western Sahara encompasses about 267,000 sq km (about
103,000 sq mi); it is bounded on the north by Morocco, on the northeast by Algeria, on the east
and south by Mauritania, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean.

With a hot, arid climate, and composed mostly of rocky and sandy soils, the region is not
suitable for sedentary agriculture, but some sheep, goats, and camels are raised by nomadic
herders. The territory has rich deposits of phosphates, notably at Bu Craa; exploitation of the
deposits began in the early 1970s. The population (1993 estimate) of the region is about
206,629, mostly Berbers and Arabs. The main towns are El Aain, or Laayoune, which was
formerly the capital of Spanish Sahara, and Ad Dakhla, which was formerly Villa Cisneros.

Portuguese navigators visited the area near modern El Aain in 1434 but did not establish
lasting settlements. Spain held the region from 1509 to 1524, when it was taken by Morocco,
which thereafter ruled it for more than three centuries. In 1884 Spain established a protectorate
over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cape Blanc; Franco-Spanish agreements in 1900, 1904, and
1920 extended the limits of the protectorate. Spain divided its possession into two separately
administered districts, Ro de Oro in the south and Saguia el Hamra in the north. The two were
amalgamated in 1958 when the overseas province of Spanish Sahara was established.

In the early 1970s nationalists in Spanish Sahara sought independence for the territory, while
Algeria, Mauritania, and Morocco laid claims to the area. In late 1975, as Morocco prepared to
launch a massive nonviolent invasion of Spanish Sahara, Spain agreed to relinquish the area to
Mauritania and Morocco. The Spaniards departed in February 1976; two-thirds of the territory
was then occupied by Morocco and the rest by Mauritania. Algeria protested the partition and
supported the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Ro de Oro (Polisario
Front), a nationalist group seeking to transform the former Spanish Sahara into an independent
country. The Polisario staged several guerrilla raids into Mauritania and Morocco during 19761978. When Mauritania surrendered its portion and made peace with the Polisario in 1979,
Morocco laid claim to all of Western Sahara and continued the war alone. The Polisario-backed
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic received the recognition of the Organization of African Unity
(OAU) in February 1982, when it was admitted as a member. Between 1980 and 1987, as the
war continued, Morocco constructed a wall of sand and rock 3 m (9 ft) high and almost 3200 km
(2000 mi) long around Western Sahara that successfully limited Polisario's capability of
attacking from Mauritania and southern Algeria.

Under a United Nations-sponsored peace plan, a truce took effect in Western Sahara in
September 1991, and a referendum on self-determination was planned to follow. However, this
referendum has been postponed repeatedly due to disagreements over the number of Western
Saharan eligible voters.

Oases in the desert include Al Kufrah and Al Jaghbb, in Libya, and Siwa and Baryah, in Egypt.
Major deposits of petroleum and natural gas underlie the northern edge of the desert, in Libya.

Nubian Desert, region in northeastern Sudan, bounded by the Nile River valley on the west and
the Red Sea Hills on the east. Primarily a rocky sandstone plateau, the Nubian Desert is a poor,
remote part of the Sahara. Although scattered towns and villages exist along the Nile, life in the
desert's interior is precarious and generally limited to areas close to the desert's seasonal
watercourses, or wadis. The climate is hot and dry with a brief rainy season during July and
August. Rainfall is scanty and averages less than 15 mm (less than 0.6 in) annually in the
northern town of Wdalf on Lake Sudan (called Lake Nasser in Egypt) and no more than 40
mm (1.6 in) per year in the south near the town of Abarah. The average daily temperature in
June, the hottest month, is about 45 C (about 110 F).

Economic activities in the Nubian Desert are restricted to subsistence agriculture and raising
produce for sale at local markets. Farmers grow date palm and fruit trees, grains, and

vegetables along the Nile and wherever else the desert's limited surface and groundwater
resources will allow. Livestock, particularly goats, are raised as well. The interior of the Nubian
Desert along the Wadi al llq, which drains the Red Sea Hills into the Nile between Aswn and
Wdalf, is a major route for herding camels to meat markets in Egypt. The region's low
rainfall, thin and poorly developed soils, and rocky plateau topography limit the width of the
Nile's floodplain, and thus the extent of fertile land. The agricultural zone along the Nile is
therefore unsuitable for large-scale irrigation projects. Instead, farmers are restricted to small,
intensively cultivated fields nourished by water raised from the Nile by diesel-powered pumps.
Although small deposits of gold, copper, diorite, emeralds, and semiprecious stones were
extracted from the Nubian Desert during ancient times, these minerals now occur in insufficient
quantities to make exploitation profitable.

Few formal transportation routes exist in the Nubian Desert. The Nile's great loop in northern
Sudan is broken by a series of cataracts, or waterfalls, that make navigation difficult. A railroad
line runs from Wdalf to Abamad, and from there a branch line extends to Kuraymah. The
region's one developed, but unpaved, road follows the railroad, while short segments of road
parallel the course of the Nile in the agricultural area. The majority of roads in the region are
unpaved and poorly maintained. Riverboats, which travel between the Nile's cataracts, are the
region's main form of transportation.

The Nubian Desert is part of the ancient region called Nubia, specifically Upper Nubia, which
was occupied successively by Egyptian and Kushite (sometimes called Ethiopian) kingdoms for
several thousand years. These kingdoms ruled along the corridor of the Nile and derived
importance from their strategic location, which linked sub-Saharan and northern Africa. The area
became an important cultural and trade center. Nubia was converted from paganism to
Christianity in the 6th century AD. In the 14th century the region was gradually converted to
Islam by Arab conquerors, who brought Arabic language and culture to Nubia. Nubian sites from
the pre-Christian era are of great interest to archaeologists and historians. Between Abr in the
north and the area of Kuraymah and Maraw in the south, on both banks of the Nile, there is a
series of modestly scaled but important and accessible temples, pyramids, and other
monuments that attest to the power and prosperity of the Nubian kingdoms. The ruins linked to
Napata, one of the ancient capitals of the Kushite kingdoms, which are located in the presentday area of Kuraymah and Maraw, are of particular significance.

Arabian Desert or Eastern Desert, arid region, eastern Egypt, lying between the Mediterranean
Sea on the north, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez on the east, the Nubian Desert (along

latitude 22 N) on the south, and the Nile River on the west. The western edge of the desert is
demarcated by cliffs that rise steeply from the Nile Valley. To the east the terrain, mostly a
rugged plateau, slopes upward to a range of jagged volcanic mountains bordering the Red Sea.
Elevations in the range, which descends abruptly to the sea, exceed 2135 m (7000 ft). Aridity
makes human habitation difficult, but a few small agricultural villages subsist in little basins in
the plateau and mountains. Deposits of turquoise, phosphate rock, nitrates, petroleum, salt, and
building stone are here, but are of limited economic significance.

The name Arabian Desert is also applied popularly to the Rubal Khali (Empty Quarter), also
called the Great Sandy Desert, of the Arabian Peninsula, one of the hottest and most sparsely
inhabited sand dune deserts of the world.

Qattara Depression, desert basin in the northeastern Sahara, northwestern Egypt. A largely
sandy region with salt lakes and marshes, it reaches a depth of 133 m (436 ft) below sea level.
Its total area is about 18,000 sq km (about 7000 sq mi). Because it is impassable to vehicles,
the Qattara Depression was important during World War II (1939-1945) as the southern end of
the British defense lines at Al Alamayn (El Alamein).

Ahaggar Mountains, also Hoggar Mountains, plateau region, southern Algeria, in the center of
the Sahara. It is an arid, rocky, upland region that rises to a maximum elevation in Mount Tahat
(3003 m/9852 ft). On its southwestern edge is the oasis town and Saharan crossroads of
Tamanrasset.

Emi Koussi, volcanic mountain in northern Chad. The highest peak in Chad and the Sahara, Emi
Koussi dominates the southern quarter of the Tibesti, a mountainous volcanic plateau. Standing
at 3415 m (11,204 ft), Emi Koussi towers over the nearby countryside. Although some
surrounding volcanoes continue to emit smoke, Emi Koussi has been dormant throughout
recorded history. Located in one of the hottest and most remote places on earth, the mountain's
sides display a spectacular scenery of sharp cliffs, narrow gorges and rugged foothills.

The surrounding plateau has significant subterranean water reserves and is dotted with hot
springs. To the north, rock paintings dating from 5000 to 2000 BC suggest that the climate and
natural life of the area were much more lush than they are today. Around AD 1230, the KanemBornu Empire, centered in the Lake Chad region, expanded into the area. Today several hundred
Teda people live on the mountain's slopes. Descended from the original Berber inhabitants of
the central Sahara, they are fiercely independent Muslim nomadic herders. The political

instability of Chad throughout the 20th century has prevented the mountain from being
thoroughly studied.

Tibesti, also Tibesti Mountains, mountainous region of the central Sahara, in northern Chad,
extending into northeastern Niger and southern Libya. The mountains are of volcanic formation
and rise abruptly above the surrounding plains. The highest peak, Emi Koussi, has an elevation
of 3415 m (11,204 ft). The presence here of deep-cut stream beds and ancient rock carvings
depicting hippopotamuses and elephants indicate the existence of a more humid climate in the
past.

Sahel, region in western Africa, serving as a transition zone between the arid Sahara on the
north and the wetter tropical areas to the south. A relatively sparse savanna vegetation of
grasses and shrubs predominates. Rainfall averages between 102 and 203 mm (4 and 8 in) and
falls mostly from June to September. Nomadic herding and limited cultivation of peanuts and
millet are possible in most areas. Desertification of the Sahel has been sped up by an extended
drought between the late 1960s and early 1980s, the worst in 150 years, and the stress of
increasing human and livestock populations. Desertification, whereby soil loses its ability to
retain moisture and allows deserts to encroach on arable land, is shrinking the size of the Sahel
and causing famine in much of the region.

Sudan (region), vast geographical region of northern Africa, extending east to west across the
continent. It forms a semiarid transition zone between the Sahara on the north and the wet
tropical regions on the south. Desert and scrublands predominate in the north, grading into
grasslands and savanna to the south. The name Sudan (Arabic, black) is a reference to the
black peoples who historically have inhabited the region.

Sirocco, hot, dry, dust-laden southerly winds, originating in the Sahara and blowing off
the North African coast during the spring and summer. While passing over the Mediterranean
Sea, these winds pick up moisture, and when they arrive on the north shore, blowing chiefly
across Italy, Sicily, and Malta, they produce humid, oppressive, and rainy conditions.

Tuareg, tribal people of the Sahara. They speak a Berber language, Tamarshak, and have their
own alphabet. In ancient times, the Tuareg controlled the trans-Sahara caravan routes, taxing
the goods they helped to convey and raiding neighboring tribes. In modern times, their raiding
was subdued by the French who ruled Algeria. The political division of Saharan Africa since the
1960s has made it increasingly difficult for the Tuareg to maintain their pastoral traditions.

Tuareg society distinguishes among nobles, vassals, and serfs. Slave-stealing expeditions have
been abolished, but the black descendants of former slaves still perform the menial tasks. Social
status is determined through matrilineal descent. Converted by the Arabs to Islam, the Tuareg
have retained some of their older rites. Among the Tuareg, for example, mennot women
wear a headdress with a veil.

Many Tuareg starved in droughts in the 1970s, and others have migrated to cities. Today more
than 300,000 Tuareg live in Algeria, Tunisia, Mali, Libya, Burkina Faso, and Niger.
Kabyles, Berbers of coastal Algeria, Tunisia, and some oases in the Sahara, organized into a
confederation of tribes. The vernacular of the Kabyles is Hamitic.

The Kabyles are monogamous and patriarchal. Although they generally follow an agricultural
economy, during the French occupation of Algeria they were introduced to such occupations as
trading, field labor, industrial work, and military service. The family group lives in a compound
composed of rectangular houses. Their pottery, which is made by the women without the use of
a potter's wheel, is decorated in geometric patterns; it has been closely studied by
archaeologists because of its resemblance to the pottery of ancient Greece. The Kabyles are
Muslims of the Sunni sect.

Bucharest

Bucharest is the capital and largest city of Romania, located in the southeastern part of the
country. The city is situated about 65 km north of the Danube River, near Ploiesti, on the banks
of the Dmbovia River. Bucharest lies on a generally level plain and, including suburban
districts, occupies an area of about 300 sq km.

The first written appearance of the name Bucuresti dates from 1459, when it was recorded in a
document of Vlad III the Impaler, the ruler of Walachia. Vlad III built the fortress of Bucharest-the first of many fortifications--with the aim of holding back the Turks who were threatening the
existence of the Walachian state. By the end of the 16th century, Bucharest was South-Eastern
Europe's largest Christian city. In 1640, a traveller remarked that the population of the city
exceed 100,000. Under the Ottoman suzerainty that was eventually established, Bucharest
developed rapidly as the main economic centre of Walachia, becoming the capital in 1659.

In 1859 Bucharest became the administrative center of the united principalities of Walachia
and Moldavia, under Ottoman suzerainty. By the decisions of the Congress of Berlin, which
provided for a general settlement of the Balkan situation after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877
and 1878, Romania was recognized as an independent country with Bucharest as its capital.
German troops occupied Bucharest from December 1916 until mid-1918 during World War I.
During World War II Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu admitted German troops into Romania in
October 1940, and the Germans occupied Bucharest until 1944. Weakened by Romanian
insurrection and Allied bombings, the Germans surrendered when Soviet forces entered the city
in August. Soviet military occupation lasted until 1958.

The city is divided into two sections by the Dmbovia River and is crossed by two wide
boulevards. Bucharest contains six administrative districts; the adjacent rural area forms a
seventh district. Most industrial areas are located in the suburbs, while the city is primarily
residential. Bucharest, known as the Paris of the Balkans in the early 20th century, was a

cosmopolitan city before 1944 when its architecture, city planning, and culture were Frenchinspired. After a Communist government came to power following World War II (1939-1945),
French cultural qualities were ended, although the architecture remains. During the 1980s,
under the orders of Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceauescu, a vast area on the banks of the
Dmbovia was razed, including houses and historical monuments. Buildings of North Korean
architectural style were then erected.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the city's streets were lit by electric bulbs and petrol
lamps. In 1904, the public transportation system saw the introduction of electric street cars.
After World War I, Bucharest strengthened its position as the most important city of a greatly
enlarged country.

In 1930 the population of Bucharest was 631,288. By the 1950s, as a result of

industrialization and urbanization policies, the population doubled, and it has continued to
increase steadily. The population was 2,037,000 in 1997.
Bucharest is a major industrial center and the main financial and trade center of Romania. The
city accounts for about 20 percent of the country's industrial production. Industries include
heavy machinery, aviation, precision machinery, agricultural tools, furniture, electronics,
chemicals, textiles, leather goods, wire, soap, cosmetics, and food processing.

Noteworthy secular structures include the Palace of Justice (1864), the Stirbey Palace
(1835), the National Bank (1885), the Presidential Palace (previously Cotroceni Palace; 17th
century with later additions), and the buildings of the Central Library of the University (1893). In
the 20th century, the Cantacuzino Palace (1900), the Central Post Palace (1900), the Central
Savings Bank (1900), the Royal Palace (1935), the Central Army House (1913), and the Arch of
Triumph (1920) were built. Among Bucharest's outstanding religious structures are the Antim
Monastery (1715) and the Patriarchate Church (1665). Bucharest has many parks and wooded
areas, including Herstru, a large park with lakes.

The city has a large number of churches, usually small, in Byzantine style. Apart from the
Curtea Veche (Old Court) church, the Antim Monastery (1715) and the churches of Stavropoleos
(1724) and Spiridon (1747) are of considerable architectural interest. The most important
centres for higher education are the Technical Institute of Bucharest (founded 1819) and the
University of Bucharest (founded 1694). In addition, there are several academies in both arts
and sciences, as well as numerous research institutes.

Chicago city
BY #NOISCRIEM 8/09/2013 ENGLEZA

Chicago city
Chicago (city), Illinois, United States. Chicago is the third-largest city in the United States
and one of the country's leading industrial, commercial, financial, and transport centres. It
extends some 47 km (29 mi) along the south-western shore of Lake Michigan, occupying
flatland traversed by two short rivers: the Chicago River and the Calumet River. Both rivers have
been linked by canals with the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, establishing Chicago as the
connecting point in the waterway route between the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes-St
Lawrence Seaway. The city's rapid growth was due in large part to its location, with ready
access to markets and raw materials; it has the world's busiest airport, Chicago-O'Hare
International Airport. The population of Chicago in 1992 was estimated to be 2,768,483
(3,005,072 in 1980). The immigrant heritage of Chicago's population remains very strong, and
there is hardly an ethnic group in America not represented there. In 1990, German ancestry was
claimed by more people in Chicago (270,334) and in the metropolitan area (1,429,336), than
any other, and this was followed by Polish (261,899) and Irish (237,113) ancestry in the city.

Among the major minority groups, blacks account for almost one in five in the metropolitan
region as a whole, while Hispanics represent approximately one in nine residents. Black
presence in the suburban zone has hardly altered in the recent past, whereas Hispanic
proportions outside the central city are growing.

II

INDUSTRY AND LEISURE

Aided by an excellent distribution network, Chicago is America's most important rail and
haulage centre and is a significant port handling both domestic and international trade. Great
Lakes freighters and river barges deliver bulk commodities such as iron ore, limestone, coal,
chemicals, oil, and grain. Some of this freight is destined for processing plants in the heavily
industrialized Calumet River area. Foreign vessels arrive via the St Lawrence Seaway, bringing
such products as cars, steel, fish, and alcoholic beverages and carrying away machinery, farm
equipment, hides, and timber, as well as a variety of food products.
The Chicago metropolitan area has the highest number of manufacturing employees in the
United States. Chicago's largest employer is the electrical goods industry, followed by the steel,
machinery, fabricated metals, foods, printing and publishing, chemicals, and transport
equipment industries. It is one of the nation's leading producers of steel, metal goods,
confectionery, surgical appliances, rail equipment, soap, paint, cosmetics, cans, industrial
machinery, printed materials, and sporting goods. Chicago houses the headquarters of
numerous corporations and is a major wholesale market for grain, machine tools, food produce,
fish, and flowers. The Chicago Board of Trade and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange are among
the world's largest commodity markets. The city is a leading convention centre, with extensive
hotel facilities, including McCormick Place-on-the-Lake, a multi-purpose exhibition complex on
Lake Michigan. Chicago is divided into three sectionsthe North (largely residential), West
(mainly industrial), and South (diversely residential) Sides. The centre, known locally as the
Loop, shares shops and entertainment facilities increasingly with the city's multiplying suburbs.

Chicago has one of the world's most beautiful lakefronts. With the exception of a few miles of
industry on its southern extremity, virtually the entire lakefront is devoted to recreational uses,
with beaches, museums, harbours, and parks, which include Grant Park opposite the city centre,
Lincoln Park to the north, and Jackson Park to the south.
The world's first skyscraper was constructed in Chicago, in 1885, spawning the innovative
Chicago School of architecture. Among the renowned architects whose buildings have shaped
the city's skyline are Louis Sullivan, William Le Baron Jenney, Daniel H. Burnham, Frank Lloyd
Wright, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. The central part of the city has several of the world's

tallest buildings, including the Sears Tower, which at 110 storeys high is the tallest in the United
States. Construction of tall office buildings continues.
Chicago is home to the Cubs baseball team at Wrigley Field; the White Sox baseball team at
Cominskey Park; the Bears American football team; the Blackhawks ice hockey team; and Bulls
basketball teams.

Chicago is a major centre of higher education, with numerous colleges and universities. The
prestigious University of Chicago (1890) was the site in 1942 of the world's first controlled
nuclear chain reaction. Other schools of higher learning include Northwestern University (1851),
the Illinois Institute of Technology (1940); Loyola University of Chicago (1870), De Paul
University (1898), and the Chicago State University (1867).
Chicago contains several distinguished museums. These include the Art Institute of Chicago
(1879), one of the country's largest art museums; the Field Museum of Natural History (1893);
and the Du Sable Museum of African-American History. In Hyde Park are the Oriental Institute
and the Museum of Science and Industry (1893). In Lincoln Park are the Chicago Academy of
Sciences (1857) and the Chicago Historical Society (1856). Also notable is the Museum of
Contemporary Art. The Chicago Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1891, is considered one of the
world's finest.

III

HISTORY

In 1673 the French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet passed through what is now the
site of Chicago. They found a low, swampy area that Native Americans, mainly Sauk, Mesquakie,
and Potawatomi, called Checagou, referring to the wild onion that once grew in marshlands
along Lake Michigan. About a century later, Jean-Baptiste Point du Sable, a Haitian trader of
African and French descent, established the first permanent dwelling near the mouth of the
Chicago River. By 1837, helped by harbour improvements and the start of construction of the
Illinois and Michigan Canal, Chicago's population had reached 4,000. Growth was very rapid,
bolstered by the completion of the canal in 1848 and the coming of the railways in the early
1850s. The consolidated Union Stock Yards opened in 1865 to handle the cattle, pigs, and sheep
shipped by rail to Chicago for slaughter and packing. The city was first predominantly a port and
trading centre for raw materials from the Midwest and finished goods from the East, but it soon
developed as a major national railway junction and an important manufacturing centre.

Waves of immigrants from Europe, which included Poles, Jews, Russians, Czechs, Lithuanians,
Serbs, Italians, and Greeks, meant that Chicago became a chequerboard of different ethnic

communities. The generally low paid jobs and sub-standard living conditions of immigrants were
exposed in the 1906 novel The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. Southern blacks seeking better
opportunities migrated north after World War I.

During the second half of the 19th century, the city's large industrial worker population
campaigned actively for an eight-hour work day, better working conditions, and better wages.
Workers clashed with police on several occasions, including the Haymarket Square Riot of May
4, 1886. Two civilians and seven policemen were killed, and approximately 150 people wounded.
In nearby Pullman on June 27, 1894, workers of the Pullman Company, manufacturer of sleeper
trains, struck in response to unfair wage practices and the living and working conditions of the
company town. The American Railway Union responded with a support strike. Workers and their
families were attacked by rail deputies, federal troops, and city police. At least 30 people were
killed and 100 wounded before the strike was broken on July 17.

By 1890, due largely to its annexation of several suburbs, Chicago's population had
surpassed one million. Alternate periods of corruption and reform characterized the city's
political history for many years. In the summer of 1919, race riots erupted throughout America,
the worst occurring in Chicago when a black youth swimming in Lake Michigan drifted into an
area reserved for whites and was stoned and drowned. Police refused to arrest a white man
whom black observers considered responsible, and angry crowds gathered on the beach.
Violence erupted and continued throughout the city for 13 days, resulting in 38 dead, 537
injured, and 1,000 black families left homeless. The shocked national reaction helped launch
efforts towards racial equality through volunteer organizations and reform legislation. During
the Prohibition era (1919-1933) Chicago became notorious for its bootleggers and gangsters,
such as Al Capone, and for gang warfare, epitomized in the St Valentine's Day Massacre of
1929. The city's physical expansion in the 20th century was largely guided by the Burnham Plan
of Chicago (1909), a design for the city's future inspired by the world's Columbian Exposition.
Population continued to grow until it reached a peak of more than 3.6 million in 1950. In recent
decades extensive road building and slum clearance have been undertaken to alleviate urban
decay.

Croatia (Hrvatska)

Croatia (Hrvatska) has come a long way since the summer of 1991, when foreign tourists fled
from a region standing on the verge of war. Now that stability has returned, visitors are steadily
coming back to a country which boasts one of the most outstanding stretches of coastline that
Europe has to offer. This return to normality has been keenly awaited by Croats, but patriotism and a sense of the nation's place in history - remains a serious business here. Croatia was an
independent kingdom in the tenth century, fell under the rule of Hungary in the eleventh, and
was subsequently absorbed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire before becoming part of the new
state of Yugoslavia in 1918. Croatian aspirations were frustrated by a Yugoslav state which was
initially dominated by Serbs, and then (after 1945) ruled by Communists. Croatia's declaration
of independence on June 25, 1991 was fiercely contested by a Serb-dominated Yugoslav army
eager to preserve their control over portions of Croatia in which groups of ethnic Serbs lived.
The period of war - and fragile, UN-supervised ceasefire that followed - was finally brought to a
close by Croatian offensives during the summer of 1995. Croatia's capital, Zagreb, is a typical
central-European metropolis, combining elegant nineteenth-century architecture with plenty of
cultural diversions and a vibrant caf life. At the northern end of the Adriatic coast, the
peninsula of Istria contains many of the country's most developed resorts, with old Venetian
towns like Porec and Rovinj rubbing shoulders with the raffish port of Pula. Further south lies
Dalmatia, a dramatic, mountain-fringed stretch of coastline studded with islands. Dalmatia's
main town is Split, an ancient Roman settlement and modern port which provides a jumping-off
point to the most enchanting of Croatia's islands, Brac , Hvar , Vis and Korcula , where you'll find
lively fishing villages and the best of the beaches. South of Split lies the walled medieval city of
Dubrovnik, site of an important festival in the summer and a magical place to be whatever the
season.

Berlin
BY #NOISCRIEM 8/09/2013 ENGLEZA

Berlin, city in northeastern Germany, capital of a united Germany from 1871 to 1945 and again
since 1990. It lies on the flatlands of the North German Plain at the confluence of several rivers
and amid many lakes. The city's slight elevation made it a site for human settlement even in
prehistoric times. Berlin has a population of about 3,454,200 (1992 estimate) and an area of
approximately 889 sq km (343 sq mi).
After World War II (1939-1945) Berlin, badly damaged during the war, was situated within the
German Democratic Republic (GDR; also known as East Germany). The city was subsequently
partitioned into East Berlin and West Berlin. The divided city not only symbolized the collapse of
the German Empire, of which it was the capital, but also became a focus of Cold War tensions
between the Communist nations led by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the
group of Western nations led by the United States. The Berlin Wall, a barrier separating East and
West Berlin built by the East Germans in 1961, blocked free access in both directions until
November 1989; during the time it stood, at least 80 people died attempting to cross from East
to West Berlin. By the time Germany was unified in October 1990, much of the wall had been
torn down. A few small segments remain as memorials.

Economy

Following the division of the city of Berlin in 1949, the economies of the two halves of the city
were integrated into the economies of the two newly separated republics of Germany.
The economy of East Berlin was totally integrated with that of East Germany and also benefited
from a steady stream of visitors from West Berlin and West Germany. East Berlin was the hub of
East Germany's commercial, financial, and transportation systems, and, although it comprised
less than one-half of the former unified city, it was also a huge manufacturing center. Among its
principal manufactures were steel and rubber goods, electrical and transportation equipment,
chemicals, and processed food. The Spree River, which is connected by waterways with the
Baltic Sea, widened in East Berlin to form a major inland harbor. An airport at Schnefeld, just
south of the city, served both East and West Berlin.
Much of West Berlin's industrial capacity was destroyed in World War II, and its economy
suffered again during 1948 and 1949, when the USSR blockaded the area in an attempt to drive
out the Western powers. Beginning in the 1950s, however, West Berlin's economy was
revitalized with a great deal of assistance from West Germany and from the United States,
which provided support under the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan). The city soon
became an important manufacturing center, producing electrical and electronic equipment and
substantial quantities of machinery, metal, textiles, clothing, chemicals, printed materials, and
processed food. The city also developed as a center for international finance, for research and
science, and for the important West German film industry. It was linked to West Germany by
highways, canal systems, a railroad, and airplane services, which used Tegel, Tempelhof, and
Gatow airports in West Berlin and Schnefeld airport in nearby East Germany.
With the destruction of the Berlin Wall in 1989 the two halves of the city were once again
physically integrated. Their economic integration became official in July 1990. East Berlin
underwent a greater economic upheaval, with many formerly state-owned businesses
succumbing to privatization.

While reunification (Die Wende, or the change) allowed many families and friends long
separated by the Berlin Wall to reunite, it also brought with it numerous economic and social
problems. Berlin has been forced to deal with housing shortages, strikes and demonstrations,
unemployment, and increases in crime and right-wing violence against foreigners. Unification
costs in Germany have led to increased taxes, reduced government subsidies, and cuts in social
services.

Points of Interest

The imposing Brandenburg Gate (1788-1791), inspired by the Propylaea of the Acropolis in
Athens, Greece, is located at the western end of Unter den Linden, a famous boulevard in Berlin
that extends east to Museum Island, in the Spree River; the Brandenburg Gate was closed to
free access until December 1989. On or near the boulevard are the classical-style State Opera
House (1743); the State Library (1774-1780); the baroque Arsenal building (1695-1706;
designed by Andreas Schlter), now housing a historical museum; Saint Hedwig's Cathedral
(1747-1773); the Gothic

Church of Saint Nicholas (late 14th-early 15th century); the French Cathedral of the Platz der
Akademie area, the heart of the French quarter in the 17th century; and the University of Berlin
(1810), whose faculty has included 27 Nobel Prize winners and philosopher G. W. F. Hegel. Wellknown streets crossing Unter den Linden are the Friedrichstrasse and the Wilhelmstrasse, on
which once stood the Reichschancery of Adolf Hitler.
Berlin's most famous boulevard is the Kurfrstendamm, which is lined with fashionable hotels,
restaurants, shops, and movie theaters. At the boulevard's eastern end is a ruined tower, all
that remains of the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church (1891-1895; destroyed during World War
II), maintained as a reminder of the destructiveness of war. Adjacent to the ruins are a polygonal
church and its separate campanile (1959-1961). Branching from the Kurfrstendamm is the
Tauentzienstrasse, a major shopping street and the site of the Europa Center (1963-1965): a 22story complex of restaurants, shops, offices, cinemas, a planetarium, and an ice-skating rink. To
the northeast is the Tiergarten Park, largest of Berlin's nearly 50 parks, which extends about 3

km (about 2 mi) to the Brandenburg Gate. In the Tiergarten are the large, modern Congress Hall
(1957); the Reichstag building (1884-1894), once the seat of the German parliament, which was
gutted by fire in 1933 and again damaged at the end of World War II, but which has since been
largely restored; the Berlin Zoological Garden, the largest and one of the oldest in the world;
and an aquarium. Near the Tiergarten is the Kulturform complex, including the Museum of
Applied Arts; the Bauhaus Archives and Museum, commemorating the Bauhaus school of
architecture and design (1919-1933); the Musical Instrument Museum; the National Library; the
New National Gallery (1968), designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, housing a collection of
20th-century art; and the striking Philharmonie Concert Hall (1963), an asymmetrical structure
that serves as the home of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra.
Southeast of the Tiergarten is Oranienburger Strasse and environs, the heart of prewar Berlin's
Jewish district. Revitalization of the area has included restoration of the New Synagogue (1866),
which was badly damaged on Kristallnacht (see Holocaust) and by bombing. The synagogue is
now a center for the study and preservation of Jewish culture. The area is also known for its art
galleries, cafs, bars, and artists' studios. Berlin's oldest Jewish cemetery is nearby.
Museum Island, in eastern Berlin, is the site of the Pergamon Museum (1930), with a fine
collection of Greco-Roman and Asian art; the Bode Museum, with displays of ancient Egyptian
and Byzantine art; and the National Gallery (1866-1876), with exhibitions of 19th-century
painting.
On the eastern bank of the Spree is Alexanderplatz, a large square with restaurants and stores;
nearby are the Television Tower (365 m/1197 ft) and Red Town Hall. A statue facing the eastern
entrance to the town hall commemorates the Trummerfrauen (Rubble Women), thousands of
women of all ages who cleared up vast quantities of rubble left in Berlin after World War II.
Forests and farmland cover nearly one-third of Berlin. In the southwestern part of the city is the
vast Grunewald forest, which contains a great deal of woodland and the large Wannsee, formed
by the Havel River, as well as a Renaissance-style hunting lodge (principally mid-16th century,
with 18th-century additions), the large Olympic Stadium (built for the 1936 Olympic Games),
and a broadcasting tower (1924-1926) measuring 138 m (453 ft) high. Other points of interest
include Charlottenburg Palace (begun 1695), which houses the Museum of Decorative Arts, and
the neoclassical Humboldt.

In the Dahlem district of western Berlin, near the Grunewald, are a group of famous institutions,
which include the Painting Gallery, with displays of European painting from the 13th to the 16th
century; the Ethnological Museum; the Sculpture Gallery; museums of Indian, Islamic, and East
Asian art; and the German Folklore Museum. North of the Dahlem district is the Bridge Museum,
displaying 20th-century German Expressionist art by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-

Rottluff, and others. Other museums in the city include a museum of Greek and Roman
antiquities; the Brhan Museum, with Art Deco and Jugendstil collections displayed in period
settings; and the Egyptian Museum, which contains a world-famous bust of Nefertiti, queen of
Egypt in the 14th century BC.
Besides the University of Berlin, institutions of higher education include the Bruno Leuschner
College of Economics (1950); the Hanns Eisler College of Music (1950); the Free University of
Berlin (1948), founded mainly by professors and students dissatisfied with conditions at the
University of Berlin in East Berlin; and the Technical University of Berlin (1879). Additional
cultural facilities include museums of Berlin and German history, the Comic Opera, and the
Theater am Schiffbauerdamm, home of the Berliner Ensemble, noted for productions of plays by
German dramatist Bertolt Brecht, its founder. Also located in Berlin are the German Film and
Television Academy (1966) and the College of the Arts (1975). Additional performing-arts
facilities include the German Opera and the Hebbel Theater. The city is the site of an annual film
festival and numerous other festivals. Berlin hosts the annual Grne Woche, Germany's largest
agricultural fair.
In Berlin's northern suburb of Sachsenhausen is the site of one of the first concentration camps
in Germany, built in 1936; the site is now a memorial. After the war Soviet secret police used
the camp to house war criminals, former Nazis and military officers, and opponents of the
occupying regime. The camp was closed in March 1950. In 1992 arsonists set fire to the camp
museum during a wave of attacks against foreign asylum-seekers.
Berlin has an efficient integrated system of subways, elevated train lines, buses (including allnight service), and trams.

European Metropolis

In 1871 Berlin became the capital of the unified German Empire. During the following decades
the city grew into a major industrial center, specializing in machinery, electrical goods, and
textiles. Culturally, Berlin won worldwide fame for its excellent theaters, concerts, and
exhibitions; commercially, it benefited from a wide network of railroads converging at the city.
Extensive construction of factories and commercial buildings attracted thousands of workers,
most of whom were housed in large tracts of shoddy tenements.
After World War I (1914-1918) Berlin's adjacent communities were incorporated into the city,
increasing its population to 3,850,000. Berlin suffered economic setbacks during the troubled
Weimar Republic (1919-1933), but the wealth of its theatrical, musical, and other cultural
offerings remained unrivaled.

During the restrictive Nazi years (see National Socialism), Berlin's cultural life lost much of its
prestige. An ambitious building program, by which German dictator Adolf Hitler aimed to make
the city the world's foremost capital, was architecturally uninspired and never completed. In
1936 the city was host to the Olympic Games. During World War II large parts of Berlin were
destroyed by air raids and, toward the end of the war, by artillery fire and street fighting. By
1945, about 50,000 prewar buildings had been destroyed, many were in ruins, and the city
contained some 75 million cu m (101,250,000 cu yd) of rubble. Berlin's population was
2,800,000, down from its prewar 4,400,000.

National Capital
When Germany reunified in October 1990, a reunited Berlin once again became the national
capital. The seat of the federal government was scheduled to shift from Bonn to Berlin by the
year 2000, although the Bundesrat (federal council) and eight federal ministries will remain in
Bonn. Renovation of the Reichstag building is under way to accommodate the Bundestag (lower
house of parliament); the surrounding area will house federal government offices. South of the
Reichstag, Potsdamerplatz is scheduled for major development, including a $2-billion office
complex to open in 1998. In September 1994 French, British, and U.S. troops formally left Berlin.
Following the departure of Russian troops the month before, the event marked the end of an
occupation that had lasted for nearly 50 years.
After the unification of Germany in 1990, subsidies once provided by the German government
ended, forcing the Berlin government to make extensive cuts in its budget in the mid-1990s.
Public service jobs were trimmed, and costs for social services increased. Angry postal and
construction workers went on strike, and children and teachers protested the cuts in education
and services. In addition, expenditures by the government increased as it helped rebuild East
Berlin to bring it up to the standards of West Berlin.

Christmas traditions

Christmas traditions
Christmas
From old English Cristes maesse (Christ's Mass), older still, Yule, from the Germanic root geol. In
some languages:
English: Christmas, Yule, Noel
German: Weihnachten
Finnish: Joulu
Swedish: Jul
Italian: Il Natale
Spanish: La Natividad
French: Noel
The traditional Christmas is not a single day but a prolonged period, normally from 24th
December to 6th January. This included the New Year, thus increasing the festival value of
Christmas.

Magi
From Old Persian language, a priest of Zarathustra (Zoroaster). The Bible gives us the direction,
East and the legend states that the wise men were from Persia (Iran) - Balthasar, Melchior,
Caspar - thus being priests of Zarathustra religion, the mages. Obviously the pilgrimage had
some religious significance for these men, otherwise they would not have taken the trouble and
risk of travelling so far. But what was it? An astrological phenomenon, the Star? This is just
about all we know about it.

Christmas card
The practice of sending Christmas greeting cards to friends was initiated by Sir Henry Cole in

England. The year was 1843 and the first card was designed by J.C.Horsley. It was commercial 1000 copies were sold in London. An English artist, William Egley, produced a popular card in
1849. From the beginning the themes have been as varied as the Christmas customs
worldwide.

Star
The astrological/astronomical phenomenon which triggered the travel of the Magi to give
presents to child Jesus. Variously described as a supernova or a conjunction of planets it
supposedly happened around the year 7 BC - the most probable true birth year of Christ. Star is
often put to the top of the Christmas tree.

Christmas Day The traditional date for the appearance of Santa Claus, obviously from the
birthdate of Jesus (the word Christmas is from old English, meaning Christ's mass). This date is
near the shortest day of the year, from old times an important agricultural and solar feasting
period in Europe. The actual birthday of Jesus is not known and thus the early Church Fathers in
the 4th century fixed the day as was most convenient. The best fit seemed to be around the old
Roman Saturnalia festival (17 - 21 December), a traditional pagan festivity with tumultuous and
unruly celebrations. Moreover, in 273 Emperor Aurelianus had invented a new pagan religion,
the cult of Sol Invictus (invincible sun, the same as the Iranian god Mithra), the birthday of this
god being 25th December (natalis sol invicti). The Christian priests obviously saw this choice as
doubly meritorious: using the old customary and popular feasting date but changing the rough
pagan ways into a more civilized commemoration.
The first mention of the birthday of Jesus is from the year 354. Gradually all Christian churches,
except Armenians (celebrating 6th January which date is for others the baptismal day of Jesus
and the day of the three Magi), accepted the day. In American/English tradition the Christmas
Day itself is the day for Santa, in German/Scandinavian tradition the Christmas Eve is reserved
for presents.

Christmas symbolics
Candles,fires: Summer, warmth, paradise, end of darkness, Jewish Hanukkah
Tree: Eternal life, Paradise tree, pagan symbol
Apples: Apple of Paradise
Reindeer: A prop
Santa Claus: St Nicholas, pagan deity
Gifts: Customary (Romans, pagans everywhere), Magi
Mistletoe: Peace, kisses

Holly: Christ's crown of thorns

Gnomes: Pagan entirely
Straw: Stable & crib, pagan, handy material for deco
Sock: A prop (as chimney etc)

Christmas Crib
Jesus was born in a stable in Bethlehem. In Catholic countries this fact is brought to mind with
miniature replicas of the nativity scene. The manger, animals, miniatures of Jesus, Joseph,
Maria, the shepherds and the Three Magi are part of this very popular symbol. It was started
(says the legend) by St Franciscus of Assisi. The Pope has his own in Rome but nowadays the
custom is followed in Protestant countries, too.

Mistletoe
Sacred to ancient druids and a symbol of eternal life the same way as Christmas tree. The
Romans valued it as a symbol of peace and this lead eventually its acceptance among
Christmas props. Kissing under mistletoe was a Roman custom, too.
Decorations
Anything goes nowadays. In old times they were simple, wood, paper, straw and often very
intricate. Themes follow the general taste of each time but national traditions can be discerned
even now.

Christmas gifts
There are many roots of this custom. There is St. Nicholas the anonymous benefactor, there is
the tradition of Magi giving precious gifts to Jesus, there is the Roman custom of giving gifts of
good luck to children during Saturnalia. The day of gift giving varies greatly in different

Christian cultures and times:

6th December - in memory of St. Nicholas

24th December - Christmas Eve
25th December - Birthday of Jesus
1st of January - the New year
6th of January - The Epiphany, day of the Three Wise men, the Magi
The giver of the presents are many: Jesus himself, Old Father Christmas, Santa Claus, a Goat,
Befana (the female Santa in Italy), the three Magi, Christmas gnomes, various Saints, the
Kolyada (in Russia), the Joulupukki (in Finland). The oldest Finnish tradition did not necessarily

involve a giver of the presents at all: an unseen person threw the gifts in from the door and
quickly disappeared.

Christmas carols
The Catholic Church valued music greatly and it is no wonder that the early Christmas songs
date from 4th century (the earliest known is Jesus refulsit omnium by St.Hilary of Poitiers). The
Mediaeval Christmas music followed the Gregorian tradition. In Renaissance Italy there emerged
a lighter and more joyous kind of Christmas songs, more like the true carols (from the French
word caroler, meaning to dance in a ring). These songs continued to be religious and in Latin,
though. In Protestant countries the tradition, as everything Christmas-related, intensified.
Luther wrote and composed his song "From Heaven above I come to you". Music by Handel and
Mendelssohn was adapted and used as Christmas carols. The old Finnish/Swedish collection Piae
Cantiones was translated and published in English in mid - 19th century. The most famous of all,
Silent Night (Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht) was written by the Austrian parish priest Joseph Mohr
and composed by Franz Gruber, church organist, in 1818. In 19th century and later many
popular songs were written by composers (e.g. Adam, Sibelius). The themes of songs surpassed
religion and the totality of Christmas paraphernalia found its way to carol music.

Christmas plays
Religious plays were part of the Medieval Christian tradition and many of them were connected
with Christmas. The plays were often communal with pageants and general participation. A
popular theme was the coming of the Magi (the Three Kings), because the plot allowed lots of
pomp and decorative props to please the audience. These plays live on in many places, for
instance in Finland in the form of the traditional Star Boys drama.

Food
Christmas means eating in most parts of the Christian world. In old societies hunger was the
supreme king and eating was the highest contrast, the supreme way to nirvana. Meat of some
kind was the most important dish (was this connected with the words of Jesus, "this is my
flesh"?), often pork, ham, goose, (later turkey), fish (carp, salmon). An innumerable variety of
cakes and pastries, often very intricate and only baked for Christmas were and are known
throughout the world. Cakes could be hung from the Christmas tree, too.

Egyptian civilization

Egyptian civilization
According to the Egyptian account of creation, only the ocean existed at first. Then Ra, the
sun, came out of an egg (a flower, in some versions) that appeared on the surface of the water.
Ra brought forth four children, the gods Shu and Geb and the goddesses Tefnut and Nut. Shu
and Tefnut became the atmosphere. They stood on Geb, who became the earth, and raised up
Nut, who became the sky. Ra ruled over all. Geb and Nut later had two sons, Set and Osiris, and

two daughters, Isis and Nephthys. Osiris succeeded Ra as king of the earth, helped by Isis, his
sister-wife. Set, however, hated his brother and killed him. Isis then embalmed her husband's
body with the help of the god Anubis, who thus became the god of embalming. The powerful
charms of Isis resurrected Osiris, who became king of the netherworld, the land of the dead.
Horus, who was the son of Osiris and Isis, later defeated Set in a great battle and became king
of the earth.

Local Gods
From this myth of creation came the conception of the ennead, a group of nine divinities, and
the triad, consisting of a divine father, mother, and son. Every local temple in Egypt possessed
its own ennead and triad. The greatest ennead, however, was that of Ra and his children and
grandchildren. This group was worshiped at Heliopolis, the center of sun worship. The origin of
the local deities is obscure; some of them were taken over from foreign religions, and some
were originally the animal gods of prehistoric Africa. Gradually, they were all fused into a
complicated religious structure, although comparatively few local divinities became important
throughout Egypt. In addition to those already named, the important divinities included the
gods Amon, Thoth, Ptah, Khnemu, and Hapi, and the goddesses Hathor, Mut, Neit,
and Sekhet. Their importance increased with the political ascendancy of the localities where
they were worshiped. For example, the ennead of Memphis was headed by a triad composed of
the father Ptah, the mother Sekhet, and the son Imhotep. Therefore, during the Memphite
dynasties, Ptah became one of the greatest gods in Egypt. Similarly, when the Theban dynasties
ruled Egypt, the ennead of Thebes was given the most importance, headed by the father Amon,
the mother Mut, and the son Khonsu. As the religion became more involved, true deities were
sometimes confused with human beings who had been glorified after death. Thus, Imhotep, who
was originally the chief minister of the 3rd Dynasty ruler Zoser, was later regarded as a
demigod. During the 5th Dynasty the pharaohs began to claim divine ancestry and from that
time on were worshiped as sons of Ra. Minor gods, some merely demons, were also given
places in local divine hierarchies.

Iconography
The Egyptian gods were represented with human torsos and human or animal heads.
Sometimes the animal or bird expressed the characteristics of the god. Ra, for example, had the
head of a hawk, and the hawk was sacred to him because of its swift flight across the sky;
Hathor, the goddess of love and laughter,was given the head of a cow, which was sacred to her;
Anubis was given the head of a jackal because these animals ravaged the desert graves in
ancient times; Mut was vulture headed and Thoth was ibis headed; and Ptah was given a human

head, although he was occasionally represented as a bull, called Apis. Because of the gods to
which they were attached, the sacred animals were venerated, but they were never worshiped
until the decadent 26th Dynasty. The gods were also represented by symbols, such as the sun
disk and hawk wings that were worn on the headdress of the pharaoh.

Sun Worship
The only important god who was worshiped with consistency was Ra, chief of cosmic deities,
from whom early Egyptian kings claimed descent. Beginning with the Middle Kingdom (21341668 BC), Ra worship acquired the status of a state religion, and the god was gradually fused
with Amon during the Theban dynasties, becoming the supreme god Amon-Ra. During the 18th
Dynasty the pharaoh Amenhotep III renamed the sun god Aton, an ancient term for the physical
solar force. Amenhotep's son and successor, Amenhotep IV, instituted a revolution in Egyptian
religion by proclaiming Aton the true and only god. He changed his own name to Akhenaton,
meaning Aton is satisfied. This first great monotheist was so iconoclastic that he had the plural
word gods deleted from monuments, and he relentlessly persecuted the priests of Amon.
Akhenaton's sun religion failed to survive, although it exerted a great influence on the art and
thinking of his time, and Egypt returned to the ancient, labyrinthine religion of polytheism after
Akhenaton's death.

Burying the dead was of religious concern in Egypt, and Egyptian funerary rituals and
equipment

eventually

became

the

most

elaborate

the

world

has

ever

known. The

Egyptians believed that the vital life-force was composed of several psychical elements, of
which the most important was the ka. The ka, a duplicate of the body, accompanied the body
throughout life and, after death, departed from the body to take its place in the kingdom of the
dead. The ka, however, could not exist without the body; every effort had to be made, therefore,
to preserve the corpse. Bodies were embalmed and mummified according to a traditional
method supposedly begun by Isis, who mummified her husband Osiris. In addition, wood or
stone replicas of the body were put into the tomb in the event that the mummy was destroyed.
The greater the number of statue-duplicates in his or her tomb, the more chances the dead
person had of resurrection. As a final protection, exceedingly elaborate tombs were erected to
protect the corpse and its equipment.

After leaving the tomb, the souls of the dead supposedly were beset by innumerable dangers,
and the tombs were therefore furnished with a copy of the Book of the Dead. Part of this book, a
guide to the world of the dead, consists of charms designed to overcome these dangers. After
arriving in the kingdom of the dead, the ka was judged by Osiris, the king of the dead, and 42

demon assistants. The Book of the Dead also contains instructions for proper conduct before
these judges. If the judges decided the deceased had been a sinner, the ka was condemned to
hunger and thirst or to be torn to pieces by horrible executioners. If the decision was favorable,
the ka went to the heavenly realm of the fields of Yaru, where grain grew 3.7 m (12 ft) high and
existence was a glorified version of life on earth. All the necessities for this paradisiacal
existence, from furniture to reading matter, were, therefore, put into the tombs. As a payment
for the afterlife and his benevolent protection, Osiris required the dead to perform tasks for him,
such as working in the grain fields. Even this duty could, however, be obviated by placing small
statuettes, called ushabtis, into the tomb to serve as substitutes for the deceased.