CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION
The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all the future work will be
built. If one fails to build the foundation of knowledge provided by the review of related literature,
his work is likely to be shallow and native and will often becomes a duplicated one.
In the field of education, as it is in other fields too, the research worker needs up to
date information, about what has been thought and done in the particular areas from which he
intends to take up a problem of research. It helps the researcher to decide whether the evidence
already available solves the problem adequately without further investigation and there by avoid
the risk of duplication.
According to Lokesh Koul (1984) The Knowledge of related literature brings the
researcher up to date on the work which others have done and thus to stage the objectives early
and concisely.
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF RELATED LITERATURE
The following are the importance of related literature.
i.
ii.

The review of related literature enables the researcher to define the limits of his fields.
The review of related literature helps to avoid duplication on one hand and it also suggests

iii.

means of further study on the other hand.

By reviewing the related literature the researcher can avoid unfruitful and useless problem

iv.

areas.
The review of related literature gives the researcher an understand of the research

v.

methodology which refers to the study to be conducted.

It provides a comprehensive view of the topics and also of the relevance significance and

vi.
vii.

practicability.
It contributes to the general scholarship of the investigator.
The important specific reason for reviewing the related literature is to know about the
recommendation to previous researcher listed in their studies for further research.

2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF RELATED LITERATURE

i.

It helps the research worker to find what is already known, what others have attempted to
find out, what are the methods have been promising or disappointing and what problems
remain to be solved.

ii.

It is basis for most of the research project in science and humanities. It forms the

iii.

foundation upon which all future work will be built.

It enables the researcher to know the means of getting to the frontiers in the field of
research. Unless the researcher learnt what others have done and what still remains to be
done, its difficult to develop a research project that will contribute something to the

iv.

knowledge existing in the field.

It furnishes the researcher with indispensable suggestions about comparative data, good

v.

procedure likely methods and dried techniques.

The insight into the methods, measures employed by other will lead to significant

vi.

improvement of the research design.

It provides ideas, theories, explanations, hypotheses, or methods of research in formulating

vii.

and studying the problem.

It helps in locating comparative data useful in the interpretation of results.

2.4 PURPOSE OF REVIEW

According to John. W. Best and James (1999), The researcher is a specialist rather than a
generalist.
The purpose of review are as follows:
i.

The review of related literature enables the researcher to delimit and define the research

ii.

problem.
By reviewing the related literature the researcher can avoid unfruitful and useless problem

iii.

area.
Through the review of related literature, the researcher can avoid unintentional duplication

iv.

of well-established findings.
Review of related literature gives the researcher understanding of the way the study is to

v.

be conducted.
Reviewing the related literature is also to know aout the recommendations of previous
researchers listed in their studies for further research.

2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The studies directly or indirectly related to the present study are summarized in this chapter.
The investigator classified the Related Review of studies into two types:
The studies reviewed are given below:
a. Related Indian Studies
b. Related Foreign Studies

2.6 INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

2.6.1 INDIAN STUDIES
Study: 1
Ambedkar (2012) conducted a study on Multiple Intelligences in relation to Achievement
Motivation among XI standard students of Pondicherry. The objective of this study was
to study the differences between Multiple Intelligences and Achievement Motivation among
11th standard students in Puducherry with respect to the gender and locality. In the present
study, the researcher adopted normative survey type of Research design. A sample of 1250
11th standard students was taken using cluster sampling technique for the present
investigation. For the purpose of collection of data related to the present study, Multiple
Intelligences tool (constructed and validated by the investigator) and Achievement
Motivation tool a standardized tool by Pratiba Deo & Mohan (1985) were used.
Study: 2
Lalitha (2011) conducted a study on Intrapersonal Intelligence and Affect Intensity of
high school students. The objective of this study was to study the difference between
Intrapersonal Intelligence and Affect Intensity of high school students. In the present study
the researcher adopted survey method. A sample of 400 students in Tirunelveli district was
selected. Intrapersonal intelligence scale developed by investigator and Arockiasamy (2011)
and affective intensity scale developed by Larsen and Deiner (1987) for used data collection.
The findings were there was a significant difference male and female high school students in
their Intrapersonal Intelligence. There was no significant difference between high school
students in their affect intensity and Intrapersonal Intelligence.
Study: 3
Antony Gracious (2011) conducted a study on Multiple intelligence and Computer
Efficacy of prospective teachers. Multiple Intelligence and Computer Efficacy of
prospective teachers was conducted to find out the relationship between multiple
Intelligence and computer efficacy of prospective teachers. Data for the study were collected
using self made multiple intelligence inventory and computer efficiency scale. Were used
collected data. The investigator used stratified random sampling technique for selecting the

sample. The sample consisted of 242 Prospective Teachers. For analyzing data; t test and
Pearsons product moment co-efficient were the statistical techniques used. Finding
shows that there

was no significant relationship between Multiple Intelligence and

Computer Efficacy of prospective teachers.

Study:4
Alwin (2010) conducted a study on Relationship between Locus of Control and
Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX standard students. The main objective of this study were
(I) to find out the level of Locus of Control Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX standard students.
(II) To find out the relationship between Locus of Control and Intrapersonal Intelligence of
IX standard students. 200 students comprising equal number of boys, girls and co-education
drawn from government, private, aided and co-education secondary school students situated
in rural and urban areas of Tirunelveli district selected through stratified random sampling
technique severed as a sample for the study. Locus of control scale inventory by Nowicki
and Strickland (1973) and Intrapersonal Intelligence scale is a part of multiple intelligence
developed by Terry Armstrong (2000) were used to collect data. The findings there was
significant difference between boys and girls students in their Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX
standard students. There was no significant difference between relationship between boys and
girls high school students in their Locus of Control and Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX
standard students.
Study: 5
Anthony Muthu (2009) conducted a study on Multiple Intelligence of primary school
teachers. Objective of the study was to find out difference between multiple intelligence
of primary school teachers by their (i) gender (ii) locality (iii) marital status and (iv)
type of school. Population for the study was

primary school teachers from

Virudhunagar educational district. Sample for the study was 200 primary school teachers
from Virudhunagar educational district. t, chi-square test and ANOVA were the statistics
used to analyse the data. Findings of the study were

(i) there was a significant

difference between multiple intelligence of primary school teachers by their gender, locality
(ii) There was no significant difference between multiple intelligence of primary school
teachers by their marital status and type of schools.
Study: 6
Shanthi (2009) conducted a study on Relationship between Multiple Intelligence and
Achievement in Physics of College Students
Objective of the study was to find the relationship between multiple intelligence and
Achievement in Physics in total, male and female. Population of the study was college
students in Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts. Sample for the study were 250 college
students. Tool for the study were multiple intelligence by Gardner (1983) and

Achievement test was prepared by investigator. Statistics for the study were Mean
Standard Deviation, t test, chi-square test and correlation used to analyse the data
Findings of the study were (i) there was no significant difference between gender and
multiple intelligence (ii) there was a significant difference between gender, medium of
instruction, locality and achievement in Physics.
Study: 7
Micheal Leo and Venkatesh (2009) conducted a study on Relationship between
multiple intelligence and academic achievement in Biology of XI standard students
Objective of the study was to find the relationship between multiple intelligence and
Academic Achievement. Tool for the study were multiple

intelligence by Gardner

(1983) and Achievement test was self made. t, chi square test, correlation and
ANOVA were the statistics used to analyse the data. Findings of the study were (i) no
significant difference by their gender, medium of instruction, Locality, Type of school and
Religion and community in their Multiple intelligence. (ii) There was a significant
difference in Academic Achievement with respect to gender, medium, locality, Type of
school and Community. (iii) There was no relationship between in total and Multiple
Intelligence and achievement with respect to but there was a relationship between
Multiple Intelligence and achievement in total.
Study: 8
Jemila (2009) conducted a study on Multiple Intelligence and achievement of higher
secondary students in commerce. Objective of

the study was to find the relationship

between multiple intelligence and achievement in Commerce. Population of the study was
Higher Secondary Commerce students of Tirunelveli district. 250 samples were selected by
stratified random sampling. Tools for the study were multiple intelligence Inventory by H.
Gardner (1983) and Achievement test prepared by the investigator and its reliability
(0.79). Mean, correlation and ANOVA were the statistics used to analyze the data. Findings
of the study were there was a significant relationship between multiple intelligence and
achievement test.
Study: 9
Velmurgan and Annaraja (2008) conducted a study on Multiple intelligence and
achievement in social science of IX standard students. Objective of the study was to find
the relation between multiple intelligence and achievement in social science. Tools for the
study were multiple intelligence inventories by H.Gardner (1983). achievement test prepared
by the investigator. Mean correlation and ANOVA were the statistics used to analysist he

data. The sample, of the study was 285 IX Standard Students from Tirunelveli district.
Findings of the study were no significant relationship between multiple intelligence and
achievement in social science.
Study: 10
Sudheesh Kumar (2007) conducted a study on Developing reflective thinking among
pre-service teachers through Multiple Intelligence Teaching Approach (MITA). The
major objective of the study was to examine the effectiveness of multiple intelligence
teaching approach in the development of reflective

thinking

among pre service

teachers. Two intact groups of pre-service first year teachers were selected from two District
Institute of Education and Training (DIET) as experimental and control groups. The
Integrated Reflective Thinking Indicator (IRTI), lesson transcript for existing method of
teaching, Learning Style Inventory (LSI), Approach to Studying Inventory (ASI), Verbal
Group Test of Intelligence (VGTI), Standard Progressive Matrices Tests (SPM), Classroom
Environment Inventory (CEI) and General data sheet for Socio-economic Status on both
the experimental and control group were used for the

data collection. Analysis of

covariance and Scheffe were used as statistical technique for finding result. The major
findings

were:

i)

the

experimental

group

had higher

scores in relation to

the

development of reflective thinking. ii) Scheffe Test of post-hoe comparison also

revealed the effectiveness of MITA on the development of reflective thinking in case of
experimental group, and iii) pre-service teachers taught through MITA differ significantly
from pre-service teachers taught through the existing method of teaching.
2.6.2 Foreign Studies
Study: 1
Ambedkar (2012) conducted a study on Multiple Intelligences in relation to Achievement
Motivation among XI standard students of Pondicherry. The objective of this study was
to study the differences between Multiple Intelligences and Achievement Motivation among
11th standard students in Puducherry with respect to the gender and locality. In the present
study, the researcher adopted normative survey type of Research design. A sample of 1250
11th standard students was taken using cluster sampling technique for the present
investigation. For the purpose of collection of data related to the present study, Multiple
Intelligences tool (constructed and validated by the investigator) and Achievement
Motivation tool a standardized tool by Pratiba Deo & Mohan (1985) were used.

Study: 2
Lalitha (2011) conducted a study on Intrapersonal Intelligence and Affect Intensity of
high school students. The objective of this study was to study the difference between
Intrapersonal Intelligence and Affect Intensity of high school students. In the present study
the researcher adopted survey method. A sample of 400 students in Tirunelveli district was
selected. Intrapersonal intelligence scale developed by investigator and Arockiasamy (2011)
and affective intensity scale developed by Larsen and Deiner (1987) for used data collection.
The findings were there was a significant difference male and female high school students in
their Intrapersonal Intelligence. There was no significant difference between high school
students in their affect intensity and Intrapersonal Intelligence.
Study: 3
Antony Gracious (2011) conducted a study on Multiple intelligence and Computer
Efficacy of prospective teachers. Multiple Intelligence and Computer Efficacy of
prospective teachers was conducted to find out the relationship between multiple
Intelligence and computer efficacy of prospective teachers. Data for the study were collected
using self made multiple intelligence inventory and computer efficiency scale. Were used
collected data. The investigator used stratified random sampling technique for selecting the

sample. The sample consisted of 242 Prospective Teachers. For analyzing data; t test and
Pearsons product moment co-efficient were the statistical techniques used. Finding
shows that there

was no significant relationship between Multiple Intelligence and

Computer Efficacy of prospective teachers.

Study: 4
Alwin (2010) conducted a study on Relationship between Locus of Control and
Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX standard students. The main objective of this study were
(I) to find out the level of Locus of Control Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX standard students.
(II) To find out the relationship between Locus of Control and Intrapersonal Intelligence of
IX standard students. 200 students comprising equal number of boys, girls and co-education
drawn from government, private, aided and co-education secondary school students situated
in rural and urban areas of Tirunelveli district selected through stratified random sampling
technique severed as a sample for the study. Locus of control scale inventory by Nowicki
and Strickland (1973) and Intrapersonal Intelligence scale is a part of multiple intelligence
developed by Terry Armstrong (2000) were used to collect data. The findings there was
significant difference between boys and girls students in their Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX
standard students. There was no significant difference between relationship between boys and

girls high school students in their Locus of Control and Intrapersonal Intelligence of IX
standard students.
Study: 5
Anthony Muthu (2009) conducted a study on Multiple Intelligence of primary school
teachers. Objective of the study was to find out difference between multiple intelligence
of primary school teachers by their (i) gender (ii) locality (iii) marital status and (iv)
type of school. Population for the study was

primary school teachers from

Virudhunagar educational district. Sample for the study was 200 primary school teachers
from Virudhunagar educational district. t, chi-square test and ANOVA were the statistics
used to analyse the data. Findings of the study were

(i) there was a significant

difference between multiple intelligence of primary school teachers by their gender, locality
(ii) There was no significant difference between multiple intelligence of primary school
teachers by their marital status and type of schools.
Study: 6
Shanthi (2009) conducted a study on Relationship between Multiple Intelligence and
Achievement in Physics of College Students
Objective of the study was to find the relationship between multiple intelligence and
Achievement in Physics in total, male and female. Population of the study was college
students in Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts. Sample for the study were 250 college
students. Tool for the study were multiple intelligence by Gardner (1983) and
Achievement test was prepared by investigator. Statistics for the study were Mean
Standard Deviation, t test, chi-square test and correlation used to analyse the data
Findings of the study were (i) there was no significant difference between gender and
multiple intelligence (ii) there was a significant difference between gender, medium of
instruction, locality and achievement in Physics.
Study: 7
Micheal Leo and Venkatesh (2009) conducted a study on Relationship between
multiple intelligence and academic achievement in Biology of XI standard students
Objective of the study was to find the relationship between multiple intelligence and
Academic Achievement. Tool for the study were multiple

intelligence by Gardner

(1983) and Achievement test was self made. t, chi square test, correlation and
ANOVA were the statistics used to analyse the data. Findings of the study were (i) no
significant difference by their gender, medium of instruction, Locality, Type of school and
Religion and community in their Multiple intelligence. (ii) There was a significant

difference in Academic Achievement with respect to gender, medium, locality, Type of

school and Community. (iii) There was no relationship between in total and Multiple
Intelligence and achievement with respect to but there was a relationship between
Multiple Intelligence and achievement in total.
Study: 8
Jemila (2009) conducted a study on Multiple Intelligence and achievement of higher
secondary students in commerce. Objective of

the study was to find the relationship

between multiple intelligence and achievement in Commerce. Population of the study was
Higher Secondary Commerce students of Tirunelveli district. 250 samples were selected by
stratified random sampling. Tools for the study were multiple intelligence Inventory by H.
Gardner (1983) and Achievement test prepared by the investigator and its reliability
(0.79). Mean, correlation and ANOVA were the statistics used to analyze the data. Findings
of the study were there was a significant relationship between multiple intelligence and
achievement test.
Study: 9
Velmurgan (2008) conducted a study on Multiple intelligence and achievement in social
science of IX standard students. Objective of the study was to find the relation between
multiple intelligence and achievement in social science. Tools for the study were multiple
intelligence inventories by H.Gardner (1983). achievement test prepared by the investigator.
Mean correlation and ANOVA were the statistics used to analysist he data. The sample, of the
study was 285 IX Standard Students from Tirunelveli district. Findings of the study were no
significant relationship between multiple intelligence and achievement in social science.
Study: 10
Sudheesh Kumar (2007) conducted a study on Developing reflective thinking among
pre-service teachers through Multiple Intelligence Teaching Approach (MITA). The
major objective of the study was to examine the effectiveness of multiple intelligence
teaching approach in the development of reflective

thinking

among pre service

teachers. Two intact groups of pre-service first year teachers were selected from two District
Institute of Education and Training (DIET) as experimental and control groups. The
Integrated Reflective Thinking Indicator (IRTI), lesson transcript for existing method of
teaching, Learning Style Inventory (LSI), Approach to Studying Inventory (ASI), Verbal
Group Test of Intelligence (VGTI), Standard Progressive Matrices Tests (SPM), Classroom
Environment Inventory (CEI) and General data sheet for Socio-economic Status on both

the experimental and control group were used for the

data collection. Analysis of

covariance and Scheffe were used as statistical technique for finding result. The major
findings

were:

i)

the

experimental

group

had higher

scores in relation to

the

development of reflective thinking. ii) Scheffe Test of post-hoe comparison also

revealed the effectiveness of MITA on the development of reflective thinking in case of
experimental group, and iii) pre-service teachers taught through MITA differ significantly
from pre-service teachers taught through the existing method of teaching.
2.7 SELF CONFIDENCE
2.7.1 FOREIGN STUDIES
Study: 1
Aya Goto (2014) conducted a study on Maternal Confidence of Fukushima Mothers
before and after the Nuclear Power Plant Disaster in Northeast Japan: Analyses of
Municipal Health Records. The present study focused on levels and associated factors of
maternal confidence (one of the indicators used to evaluate Japan's national Maternal and
Child Health Plan) before and after the accident. Comparing three samples of mothers with
18-month-old children in Fukushima City (218 in 2010; 300 in 2011, the year of the accident;
and 188 in 2012) indicated that maternal confidence was lower in 2011 compared to 2010
and 2012. Interpersonal problems at home were significantly associated with lower maternal
confidence in 2011, as well as increased depression in 2012. Other factors associated with
lower maternal confidence across these 3 years were poorer perceived health and first-time
motherhood. Suggested strategies include giving special attention to maternal confidence
after nuclear disasters, as well as continuous monitoring of maternal confidence and a focus
on mothers' interpersonal issues. Improving access to health information is one key to
supporting maternal confidence after a disaster occurs.
Study: 2
Aidin (2014) conducted a study on Foreign Students Self-Confidence in Learning
Chinese.This survey study was aimed to inspect different amount of self-confidence
experienced by foreign students in learning Chinese. Forty two students from the CICE
(College of International Cultural Exchange) of CCNU (Central China Normal University), in
Wuhan, in spring 2013, has been randomly given a questionnaire about their motivation,
effort, self-confidence, and the subjective evaluation of the effect of their own native
languages on their overall performance in Chinese. It was assumed that phonological
similarity between learners native language and Chinese can enhance their self-confidence,

and consequently, increase their performance. However, since processing an actual CLS
(cross-language similarity) is beyond the scope of this study, and the perceptual similarity
evaluation of individuals has shown to be inaccurate, the study has failed to find such
relationship, and even found some negative links. Never the less, result shows a significant
effect of the number of languages participant speak on their perceived performance. Also
their perceived performance has a significantly positive correlation with some self-confidence
components.
Study: 3
Sadler (2013) conducted a study on The role of Self-confidence in Learning to Teach in
Higher Education. The paper Analysed teacher self-confidence, which emerged as a theme
within a wider study into the influences upon new academics' development as teachers over
time. Three interviews took place, over a two-year period, with 11 new teachers from a range
of higher education institutions and discipline areas. The first phase of analysis was the
creation of detailed cases studies for three of the participants, of which one is reported in the
current paper to illustrate the role of self-confidence in teacher development. The second
phase used a thematic analysis of all interview transcripts. The new teachers' self-confidence
appeared as a key influence in the use of teaching strategies that actively involved the
students. Content knowledge and teaching skills were related to feelings of self-confidence,
with "experience" being a key factor in the teachers' perceptions of their knowledge and
skills. The findings hold implications for managers to ensure new staff have as familiar and
stable teaching schedule as possible, and teacher developers to encourage dialogue and
reflection in relation to the self-confidence and content knowledge of new teachers.
Study: 4
Park (2012) conducted a study on Relationship between Technology, Parent Education,
Self-Confidence, and Academic Aspiration of Hispanic Immigrant Students. This study
utilized data from the TIMSS 2007. To compare the effect size of technology use, multigroup analyses of the path model were performed with Analysis of moment Structures. The
result showed that later immigrated students' technology use is positively related to their
mathematics performance. They may gain more benefits from technology use than
moderately or early immigrated student groups. It is reasoned that later immigrated Hispanic
students may reduce their learning hindrance associated with cultural barriers or limited
English proficiency by using educational technology. Enhancement in the investment of

educational technology into this subgroup may narrow the achievement gap between later
immigrated, moderately immigrated, and early immigrated students.
Study: 5
Kleitman (2011) conducted study on Meta cognitive Beliefs, Self-Confidence and Primary
Learning Environment of Sixth Grade Students
The present study examined the relationship between academic self-efficacy and perception
of one's own competence in memory and reasoning abilities, and their role in predicting the
Self-confidence trait. The study also aimed to determine the role of key classroom factors
(goal orientation and self-efficacy with the teacher) in predicting self-beliefs, the Selfconfidence trait and academic achievement in Year 6 students (N = 177). EFA and Path
analysis were used to determine these relationships. The hypothesized path model was tested
in a simultaneous fashion of the entire system of variables to determine whether or not
hypothesized relationships were consistent with data. The results suggest that academic selfefficacy and metacognitive competency beliefs define a broad factor--Metacognitive Beliefs-which serves as a key predictor of Self-confidence. Mastery goal-orientation and self-efficacy
with teacher predicted metacognitive beliefs and, indirectly, Self-confidence. Students with
stronger Metacognitive beliefs were less engaged in self-handicapping behaviours. Known
common factors--intelligence, gender and a proxy for SES, school fees were controlled for.
The present study has important implications for both metacognitive theory and educational
practice.
Study: 6
Ravindra (2012) conducted a study on A Comparative study of Psycho-social Climate and
self-confidence among Students of Professional and Non-Professional Courses.
The present study aims to compare the status of perceived home environment and Selfconfidence among professional and non-professional courses with gender difference. The
sample consist 100 subjects 50 from professional course and 50 from non-professional
course. For the data collection Home environment scale and self-confidence inventory was
used. Two way ANOVA was used for determine the difference of dependant variable and also
calculated mean score for actual differences. The result shows that students from professional
course have better perceived the home environment than the non-professional course. But
there is no gender difference of perception of home environment. The second dependant

variable self-confidence was found in professional group but not high level. and also not
gender difference of self-confidence.
Study :7
Mohammad Ali (2011) conducted a study on Moderating Effects of Self-Confidence and
Sport Self-Efficacy on the Relationship between Competitive Anxiety and Sport
Performance. The aim of this study was to examine moderating effects of self-confidence
and sport self-efficacy on the relationship between competitive anxiety and sport performance
in a sample of Iranian athletes. A total of 246 volunteer athletes (149 males, 97 females) were
included in this study. All participants were asked to complete Multidimensional Competitive
Anxiety Questionnaire and Sport Self-Efficacy Scale. To measure the athletes sport
performance, their coaches were asked to complete the Sport Achievement Scale. The results
revealed that self-confidence and sport self-efficacy moderated the relationship between
competitive anxiety and sport performance. Analysis of the data revealed that moderating
effects of self-confidence for the association of cognitive and somatic dimensions of
competitive anxiety with sport performance were partial. On the other hand, the moderating
effects of sport self-efficacy for the association of cognitive and somatic dimensions of
competitive anxiety with sport performance were full.
Study:8

Rodrigues (2009) conducted a study on Characterization of the negativism, activation,

self-confidence and cognitive orientations levels of alpinists. The present study aims to
characterize the levels of negativism, activation, self-confidence and cognitive orientation of
different mountain sports participants, taking into account various variables (i.e. gender; age;
years of experience; nationality; training and, specific sport). The sample was composed of
45 participants (40 male and 5 female) with an age range between 20 and 61 years of age
(M=33, 91; SD= 8,97), who completed the Portuguese or English version of the CSAI-2 and
TEOSQ questionnaires, according to their linguistic proficiency. The main results revealed
that the variable years of experience (and not age) correlated positively with the levels of
self-confidence and task orientation. On the other hand, but in accordance with postulated
theories, it was verified a positive association between the levels of negativism and ego
orientation. Due to the relatively few studies done until today on this thematic and this type

of samples, the results were discussed in relation to the respective theoretical models and
specificities of this sport.
Study: 9
Beckmann (2009) conducted a study on Self-Confidence and Performance Goal
Orientation Interactively Predict Performance in a Reasoning Test with Accuracy
Feedback. This study analysed individual differences' perspective on performance feedback
effects in psychometric testing. A total of 105 students in a mainstream secondary school in
North East England undertook a cognitive ability test on two occasions. In one condition,
students received item-specific accuracy feedback while in the other (standard condition) no
feedback was provided. While accuracy feedback had, on average, no effect on test
performance, differential effects were observed. Performance goal orientation and selfconfidence moderated feedback effects on performance. The provision of accuracy feedback
seemed to have performance optimising effects upon test takers with high performance goal
orientation in combination with low self-confidence.
Study: 10
Chang (2008) conducted a study on Science Achievement and Students' Self-Confidence
and Interest in Science. The interrelationship between senior high school students' science
achievement (SA) and their self-confidence and interest in science (SCIS) was explored with
a representative sample of approximately 1,044 11th-grade students from 30 classes attending
four high schools throughout Taiwan. Statistical analyses indicated that a statistically
significant correlation existed between students' SA and their SCIS with a moderate effect
size; the correlation is even higher with almost large effect sizes for a subsample of higherSCIS and lower-SCIS students. Results of t-test analysis also revealed that there were
significant mean differences in students' SA and their knowledge (including physics,
chemistry, biology, and earth sciences subscales) and reasoning skill subtests scores between
higher-SCIS and lower-SCIS students, with generally large effect sizes. Stepwise regression
analyses on higher-SCIS and lower-SCIS students also suggested that both students' SCIS
subscales significantly explain the variance of their SA, knowledge, and reasoning ability
with large effect sizes.
2.7.2 INDIAN STUDIES
Devi (2015) conducted A Study of Academic Achievement of 10+1 Students in Relation to
Their Metacognition, Self-Confidence and Family Environment

The present study was aimed to study the relationship of Academic Achievement of 10+1
students of Haryana with their Metacognition, Self-Confidence and Family Environment and
interactional effect of Gender, Locale and Type of School on these variables. Metacognition
inventory by Govil (2003), Self-confidence inventory by Agnihotri (1987) and Family
Environment scale by Bhatia and Chadha (1993) were used for undertaking the study.
Academic Achievement was determined on the basis of percentage obtained by the students
in X class annual examination conducted by HBSE. The sample was selected from four
districts of Haryana using multi-stage and stratified random sampling technique and
comprised of 800 students studying in senior secondary schools of Board of School
Education Haryana. For analysis and interpretation of data descriptive and inferential
statistical techniques were used.
The results of the present study shows that 10+1 students of Haryana are high in their
academic achievement but average in their metacognition, self-confidence and family
environment. The study revealed that metacognition, self-confidence and family environment
are significantly related with the academic achievement of the students.
Study: 2
Murugan (2014) conducted a study on A study on Self-confidence among B.Ed. Students.
The present study aims to find out the Self-confidence among students in relation to gender,
locality and fathers education. The present study has been conducted with 610 B.Ed. .,
college students studying Puducherry region. The sample was selected by using random
sampling technique. The findings of the study reveal that the Self-confidence among the
B.Ed. students is high. It is noted that Self-confidence of B.Ed. students is not influenced by
gender and locality. Fathers education has significant difference on the Self-confidence.
Study: 3
Singh (2014) conducted a study on Effect of Meditation on Self Confidence of StudentTeachers in Relation to Gender and Religion. The aim of present study was to find out
effect of Shaktipat meditation on self-confidence of student teachers. An experiment was
conducted on 152 student-teachers of B. Ed. Course on the basis of non-randomized control
group pre-test post-test design. Self Confidence Inventory (1987) developed by Rekha
Agnihotry, Ravens Standard Progressive matrices (2000 ed.) were used for data collection.
Analysis by ANCOVA showed that Shaktipat Meditation was an effective practice to improve
self-confidence. Further, gender was found to be significantly affect Self Confidence whereas
religion not. Both male and female (gender); and both Hindu and Sikhs (religion) student-

teachers have equally benefited from meditation when pre- Self Confidence and general
intelligence were statistically controlled.
Study: 4
Babita (2014) conducted a study on Teacher Effectiveness and Self-Confidence as
Predictors of Burnout among Male Secondary School Teachers. The study was intended
to predict burnout of male secondary school teachers on the basis teacher effectiveness and
self-confidence. Sample of the study consists of 300 male teachers of Government secondary
schools of Punjab, India. Maslach burnout inventory (Form Ed) by Maslach and Jackson
(1986) was used to collect data of burnout, Kulsum teacher effectiveness Scale (KTES) by
Kulsum (2000) and Self.confidence inventory (ASCI) by Agnihotri (1987) were used to
collect data of teacher effectiveness. The results of the study showed significant negative
relationship between teacher effectiveness and the two dimensions of burnout i.e. emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization of teachers where as significant positive relation exists
between teacher effectiveness and personal accomplishment (third dimension of Burnout).
Study: 5
Aggarwal Preeti, (2012) conducted a study on A Comparative Study of Self Confidence of
Single Child and Child with Sibling. There is no significant difference between Self
Confidence of single child and child with sibling. For the purpose of study 80 children were
being selected on random sampling basis out of cluster of students of class IX and X. in the
area of NCR. Out of which 40 students were single child and 40 students were children with
sibling. For the purpose of study Agnihotri Self Confidence Inventory (ASCI) by Dr.(Miss)
Rekha Agnihotri was administered to the sample. The analysis of data revealed that the
children with sibling have more self-confident than single children. There is significant
negative relationship between sense of alienation and lack of self-confidence. If the sense of
alienation is high, the level of self-confidence is low.
Study: 6
Gaurav Dureja (2011) conducted a study on Self-confidence and Decision Making
between Psychology and Physical Education Students: A comparative study. The present
study aimed to compare the self-confidence and decision making abilities between
psychology and physical education students. A total of eighty (N = 80) male subjects
participated; forty (N = 40) psychology students and forty (N = 40) physical education
students from various affiliated colleges of Panjab University, Chandigarh were randomly
selected for the collection of data. The age of the subjects ranged between 19 to 25 years.
Self-confidence was measured by applying self-confidence questionnaire and decision

making was measured by applying decision making questionnaire. The ttest was applied to
find out the difference between mean scores of psychology and physical education students.
The level of significance was set at 0.05. The results revealed significant difference with
regard to variable self-confidence between psychology and physical education students.
However, the results with regard to the variable decision making were found statistically
significant between psychology and physical education students. Physical education students
have better self-confidence and decision making level as compared to their counterpart
psychology students.
Study: 7
Parvathamma and Sharnamma (2010) conducted a study on anxiety level and level of
Self-confidence and their relation with academic achievement.
To find outthe difference between level of Self-confidence of the boys and girls students of
IX standard. For the present study six high schools of Chamrajnaga taluk in Karnataka were
selected randomly. Totally 300 students were selected by randomly selecting 50 students from
each school including boys and girls. For the present study, following tool were used, Selfconfidence checklist (SCC) by Basvanna and Anxiety scale by Srivastasva & Govind Tiwari
and school records for academic achievement t test was used for determining the
significance of difference between the means. Pearsons product movement correlation
technique was used to find out the relationship between anxiety, Self-confidence and
academic achievement. There was significant difference between Self-confidence level of
boys and girls.
Study: 8
Mohd Hafir (2009) conducted a study on The relationship between academic
self-confidence and cognitive performance among Engineering Students. The main
The objectives were to determine if there is any difference in the academic self-confidence of
students givenpositive stimulus and negative stimulus to determine if there is any difference
in the cognitive performance of students given positive stimulus and negative stimulus.There
is no statistically significant difference between the academic self-confidence of students
given positive and negative stimulus. There is no statistically significant difference between
the cognitive performance of students given positive and negative stimulus. The samples for
the study were selected using the stratified random sampling method where one polytechnic
was chosen randomly from 20 polytechnics and 122 subjects were selected from this
polytechnic. The data gathering tools were a GSC questionnaire, an ACS instrument and a
cognitive test instrument. The results indicated that cognitive performance among

engineering students is improved when giving positive verbal input and the opposite is
observed when given a negative verbal input.
Study: 9
Raweewat Rattanakoses (2009) conducted a study on Evaluating the Relationship of
Imagery and Self-Confidence in Female and Male Athletes.
The aim of the study to find out the relationship between imagery and self-confidence in
athletes by use of a self-report of sports experiences. It was expected that females would have
imagery and self-confidence differences compared to males. It was also expected that the use
of imagery can improve an athletes physical fitness level and performance so that a high
level of imagery may be linked to Self Confidence. In addition, it is predicted that for both
genders, imagery ability and Self Confidence will positively correlate with the range of low
to high scores on the questionnaires. The selected population consisted of athletes who were
students of the Khan Kaen Sport School in punjab, and who are studying and training in
sports training programs 5 days a week. All subjects were randomly selected by purposive
sampling of all the selected athletes (n=120), 71 (59.2%) were male and 49 (40.8%) were
female. These athletes had different competitive sports backgrounds (e.g. football,
weightlifting, handball, boxing, and tennis) and also took a break in training during the offseason of their programs.This study showed that there is a correlation between males and
females, as determined based on an ANOVA test which compared imagery and selfconfidence. Subscale physical fitness levels consisted of medium, high, and highest levels,
and all levels were significantly different (F=15.760, P<0.001, df (degrees of freedom) 2,
117) for imagery and significantly different (F=6.088, P<0.05, df2, 117) for self-confidence.
Study: 10
Geeta (2006) conducted a study on Impact of Emotional Maturity on Stress and
Self Cofidence of Adolesce.
As emotions do play central role in the life of an individual, one is expected to have higher
emotional maturity in order to lead a effective life. It is also true that our behavior is
constantly influenced by the emotional maturity level that we possess. Especially, the
adolescents who are observed to be highly emotional in their dealings need to be studied. In
view of this, an attempt is made in present study to find out the impact of emotional maturity
of adolescents on their stress and Self-confidence. Sample of the study consists of 105
adolescents studying in XI and XII class at Dharwad city Karnataka State, India. The scales
such as emotional maturity (Singh and Bhargav, 1994), Self Confidence Inventory (Rekha
Agnihotri, 1987) and Students Stress Scale (Deo, 1997) were administered on the selected

sample. Along with responses to the above scales, some personal data information were also
collected from the sample. The obtained responses were scored and converted to standard (T)
scores, further subjected to t and F tests. The findings revealed that the adolescents with
high emotional maturity have significantly high stress (t=10.44; p< 0.001) and selfconfidence (t=-2.92; p< 0.01) when compared to those with low emotional maturity.
Adolescents with more number of siblings have shown significantly higher level of Self
-confidence (t = 2.96; p< 0.01) than their counter parts. It is also found that educational level
of father has significantly influenced stress of their adolescent children (F= 5.303; p< 0.01).
Adolescent boys tend to have significantly higher stress than girls (t=1.72) and girls tend to
have significantly high Self-confidence (t=1.83).
CRITICAL REVIEW