Light and geometrical optics

Light (electromagnetic radiation)

Interference superposition of waves

Constructive sum of the displacements results in a greater displacement
Destructive interference sum of the displacements results in a smaller displacement
After passing through each other, waves that interfere will revert to their original shape,
unaffected by the interference
Youngs double slit experiment
Proves that matter and energy can display characteristics of both waves and particles
Coherent light passes through a pair of slits separated by distance d and is viewed at an angle
0, leads to constructive interference at angles
The light source must be monochromatic (single color/wavelength)
d=distance between slits
L= distance between slits
and image
X=distance between
intensity peaks

L
x

Thin films interference

Used to size small objects
Light shining on this film interferes constructively or destructively, as the thickness of the film
varies across the slides
Distance between the constructive interference zones = size of the
Diffraction
Light passing through an opaque material with a pinhole, the waves will bend at the wall edges
Smaller than wavelength opening will produce an even greater bending and viceversa
Diffraction grating several slits, but it words essentially in the same way as two slits do
Single slit diffraction
Wide central maximum contains most of the light energy
Intensity is brightest right at the center and falls off gradually until the first minimum on
either side
X-ray diffraction
Measure the average spacing between layers or rows of atoms
Polarization of light
Unpolarized light electric field oscillates among several planes
Screening out all photons not having an electric field in one particular direction, the resulting
light with all electric fields oriented in the same direction is called plane-polarized light
Polarized isotropic light loses 1/2 of its intensity, since only keeps all components
perpendicular to that direction
Malus law
Doppler Effect
Waves are unaffected by the sped of the source which produces them
If the source moves relative to the receiver of the waves, each wave will travel a different
distance in order to reach the observer as fast as the waves, hence they will not arrive at the
same frequency of their emission
Calculation
Assume observer has a fixed position
Source moving towards the object v (-)
Check the direction of the movement, if the direction is the same, use the same sign for v 0
a

d=

f v
=
fs c

and

v
=
s c

Visual Spectrum
Visible light is small fraction of the spectrum (390-10 -9m and 750-10-9)
Blue light = greatest energy, shortest wavelength, highest frequency
Red has the lowest frequency = lowest frequency
Violet has the highest frequency = shortest wavelength
Roy G. Biv.

Frequency

Energy
X rays and gamma rays have the highest frequency and the shortest wavelength
Plancks formula = Energy of a photon = constant x frequency

Laser
Collimated very narrow wavelength of the light, since they are very parallel, and travels
over long distances with little spread
Coherent different parts of the laser beam are related to each other in phase
Monochromatic one wavelength, since its stimulated emission comes from one set of
atomic energy levels

Geometrical Optics

Laws of Reflection (Reflection from plane surface)

Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Reflected ray lies in the same place as the incident ray
and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence
Two rays are in opposite sides of the normal
Refraction velocity of light through a medium with depend
on the medium itself
Refractive index indicates the ratio of the speed c of an
electromagnetic wave in a vacuum to the speed of that
wave in a given medium
RI >1

Refraction affects both

the speed and the

wavelength of light
Incident and transmitted rays are on opposite sides of the normal
Snells law relationship between the index of refraction of each medium
and the angle incidence, and the angle of refraction
Calculate the angle of refraction

Dispersion (change of refraction index with

wavelength)
Amount that lights bend at an interface between
two materials varies with the wavelength
In a prism the color of the visible light spectrum
refract according to their wavelength

Total internal reflection

If the angle of incidence is large enough, the entire amount of photos will be reflected
at the angle of reflection, and none will refract
Light enter form a denser medium towards a less dense medium
The angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle of the
medium

Critical angle is the angle of incidence, produce 90 angle of refraction in the less
dense medium, any angle larger than the C.A. and the light will reflect back into
the water
Spherical Mirrors
Concave (converging) mirror
Thicker center will converge light
Focal point is separated from the
mirror by the Focal length =
radius of the curvature
Positive focal length
Magnification is greater when the
object is closer to the focal point
If the object is placed greater
than one focal length in front of the mirror, a real image is produced
Convex (diverging) mirror
Thinner center will diverge light
Focal length = radius of the curvature
Negative focal length
Focal point is virtual
Regardless of where the object is placed in front of the mirror, a virtual
image is formed behind the mirror between focal length and vertex
In a virtual image, light rays appear to diverge from the image point, but they do not. In a
real image, the rays actually do pass through the image point
Virtual images are formed by diverging rays
Real images are always formed by converging rays
Mirror equation

Thin lenses
Distance of the image is related to the focal length and the distance of the object

Convex and Concave lenses are both converging

Convex
Real images are on the opposite side of the lens as the object, because light
travels through the lens and can focus on a screen behind the lens
Virtual images are on the same side of the lens as the object, because light cannot
focus in front of a lens
Concave
The virtual images formed by the lens is on the same side of the lens as the object
Lens strength/power
Measured in diopters (m-1)

Spherical aberration defects in lens shape can create aberrations, therefore not
casting perfect images (rays fail to converge) of an object
Chromatic aberration index of refraction varies for different frequencies, hence the
focal point of a lens also varies with frequency

Combination of lenses
Image of the 1st optical device is the object of the 2nd optical device

Magnification by multiple lenses is equal to the sum of all the individual magnifications

Ray tracing
Concave lens object placement has little effect on the nature of the image
Ray 1 Horizontal ray striking the lengs, bends outward
Ray2 through the middle of the lengs continues straight
Ray from the object headed to the far focal point continues horizontal
Convex lens
Ray 1 horizontal is refracted through the far focal point
Ray 2 strikes the middle of the lens and continues straight

Ray 3 passes through the focal point and strikes the lens, will leave the lens horizontal

Optical instruments
Eye = lens focuses real image on retina.
Glasses = diverging (concave) lens for near-sightedness, converging (convex) for farsightedness.
Magnifying glass = virtual, erect, larger image formed when p < f for a converging lens.

Sound
Production of sound
Sound is longitudinal wave that can be
produced from the disturbance of matter
Sound waves arise from the vibrations and
collisions of molecules within a particular substance
Sinusoidal waves are the simplest type of sound with a defined wavelength, amplitude
and frequency
High frequency sounds are generated by nerves closest to the oval window
Speed of sound
Sound waves movement compress the medium in front of it
Compressional waves move outward in all directions from the source of sound
Movement creates areas of high pressure and low pressure
Rarefaction High pressure is associated with decreasing volume
Relative speed
Speed at which particles return to their original position following a disturbance =
speed of sound in that medium
Strength of the intermolecular forces and the density determines speed
Vsolid> Vliquid > V gas
Pitch and Intensity
Pitch indicates the frequency of the sound waves
Higher pitch means higher frequency
Intensity subjective loudness of a sound

Intensity level
Human ear is sensitive to a broad range of intensities that span many powers of 10,
therefore a logarithmic scale is used
Intensity dissipates with distance by a squared factor
Every time that distance from the source is increased by a factor of 3, the intensity
drops by a factor of 10, so the dB-level decreases by 10
Decibel = intensity level of a sound

Attenuation
Combined effect of scattering and absorption
Amplitude of the wave decreases exponentially with distance traveled

Doppler effect (frequency change as the source and observer move relative to each other)
Moving sound source or observer
If the source is moving at a steady speed, the center of the emitted circles of waves
will be equally spaced along its path
Source is moving towards the observer = Vs positive
Observed frequency is higher than the source frequency
If the source is moving towards the observer, the wavelength seems smaller (-)
If the source is moving away from the observer, the wavelength seems larger(+)

Stationary source-moving observer

Observer moving away from the source measures a frequency lower than fs
Observer moving toward the source moves opposite to the direction of the wave
Vo is negative and the observed frequency is higher than fs
Observer moving towards the source, wavelength seems smaller (+)
Observer moving away from the source, wavelength seems larger (-)

Resonance
Forced motion in tune with the natural frequencies (resonant frequencies)
Standing wave does not appear to move in either direction along the length of the string
Produced from waves traveling in opposite directions along a string that combine to
produce a wave disturbance, oscillating without propagating
Node point along the string that is never displaced
Pulses interfere with each other in a destructive fashion
Antinode point along the string that reaches maximum displacement
Pulses add in a constructive fashion
Every harmonic frequency is always a whole number multiple of the fundamental
frequency fn=nf1
Resonance in pipes
Open end produce antinodes
Closed end produce nodes
Length of an open pipe

Length of a closed pipe

Lowest frequency mode (fundamental frequency mode) for a pipe open at both ends

Open pies can vibrate at all multiples of the fundamental frequency

(n=1,2,3)

Closed pipe vibrates at odd multiples of the fundamental frequency

(n=1,3,5)

Harmonics
Frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency
F>f1 overtones
f2 second harmonic and the first overtone
Ultrasound
Higher frequency and shorter wavelength
Absorption coefficient describes the lost in
intensity of the wave as it travels along
Reflection property of sound

Solids
Elastic properties
Stress is the force applied to an object divided by the area over which the force is
applied
Unit: N/m2

Strain is the fractional change in an objects shape

No units
Elastic limit point at which the stress is no longer proportional to the strain, beyond
this point there is covalent breakage of the lattice structure
Ultimate tension strength point at which material is under maximum stress,
beyond this point, fracture will occur

Youngs Modulus (Modulus of elasticity

Proportionality constant that relates the stress to the strain
Tensile compressive forces and tensile stretching forces

Bulk Modulus (difficulty to deform)

Change in the volume of an object = compression
Relates how much the volume of a solid changes as the pressure surrounding it
changes
Negative sign indicates that an increase in external pressure will reduce the volume of
a solid
Bulk forces involves forces that are perpendicular to the surface of an object

Shear stress/modulus one layer slides

across another layer in a material
Thermal Expansion coefficient

Solid undergo expansion when heated, as their molecules absorb more energy and
vibrations increase
Expansion can occur lineally or through volume
Change in temperature change in length

Electrostatics
Charges
Charged particles interact with each other through interaction of their charges and through
magnetic fields
Coulomb forces (electrostatic) always exist between charged particles
Charge conservation
Net changes between two objects in contact are opposite in sign and always equal in
magnitude
Conductors allow for movement of charge ex. Metals
Insulators impede the movement of charge ex. Gas or plastic
Coulombs law
Electrical force between two objects depend on the distance between them
Unit: Coulomb
F (-) attractive force
F( +) repelling force

Electric field
Region of space where a charged particle would feel an electrostatic
force
Field lines represent the orientation and strength of the electric field
and never intersect
Represent the way a charge would migrate (+ to -)
Intensity of the field at a given point is proportional to the local
density of field lines
Close together = strong electric field

Parallel Plates
Charges distribute themselves on a way that minimize their repulsion, resulting in an uniform
electric field
Only the net electrical force determines the motion of the test charge

Equipotential lines
Electric potential at any point in an electric field

Test charge at any point on that circle would experience the same some and have the same
pontetial to move
They connect all points within an electric field sharing the same potential
Work is only done if the electric field has a component tangent to the equipotential surface
Equipotential lines and electric filed are perpendicular to one another
Movement towards a field line > higher to lower potential

Potential
Potential difference
Charged particles tend to move towards a region of space where its electrical potential energy
decreases
Unit: Joule/Coulomb (J/C) = V (volt)

Volt is the unit of electrical potential difference

Absolute potential
Indicates the voltage at other points in space relative to the ground point
Ground point point of reference in electrical circuits

Electric Dipole

Electric field established when two charges of opposite signs are separated from one
another by some distance

Behavior in an electric field

In an uniform electric field = 0
900, electric dipole perpendicular to the electric field , PE=0
00, electric dipole parallel to the electric field, PE = (-)
1800, electric dipole antiparallel to the electric field, PE = (+)

Electrostatic Induction
Charged body in contact with a neutral conductor, induces uneven
distribution of electrons within the conductor, making one
negatively charged relative to the other
Gausss Law
Electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the
enclosed surface

Electromagnetic Radiation
Properties of electromagnetic radiation
Travelling oscillation of an electric and a magnetic field, perpendicular to each other
o Magnetic and electric field are both perpendicular to one another and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
It has particle-like properties in addition to those associated with wave motion
Span over a large number of frequencies or wavelengths
All the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum differ from one another in their
wavelength
and their frequency

Visible light 4-7x1014 Hz = visible spectrum

o Red to violet