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Chapter7:DislocationsandStrengtheningMechanisms

Chapter7.DislocationsandStrengthening
Mechanisms
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[Chapter6.MechanicalPropertiesofMetals][Chapter7.DislocationsandStrengtheningMechanisms]
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[Chapter19.ElectricalProperties]

Chapter7.DislocationsandStrengtheningMechanisms
1.Introduction
Thekeyideaofthechapteristhatplasticdeformationisduetothemotionofalargenumber
ofdislocations.Themotioniscalledslip.Thus,thestrength(resistancetodeformation)can
beimprovedbyputtingobstaclestoslip.
2.BasicConcepts
Dislocationscanbeedgedislocations,screwdislocationsandexistincombinationofthe
two(Ch.4.4).Theirmotion(slip)occursbysequentialbondbreakingandbondreforming
(Fig.7.1).Thenumberofdislocationsperunitvolumeisthedislocationdensity,inaplane
theyaremeasuredperunitarea.
3.CharacteristicsofDislocations
Thereisstrainaroundadislocationwhichinfluenceshowtheyinteractwithother
dislocations,impurities,etc.Thereiscompressionneartheextraplane(higheratomic
density)andtensionfollowingthedislocationline(Fig.7.4)
Dislocationsinteractamongthemselves(Fig.7.5).Whentheyareinthesameplane,they
repeliftheyhavethesamesignandannihilateiftheyhaveoppositesigns(leavingbehinda
perfectcrystal).Ingeneral,whendislocationsarecloseandtheirstrainfieldsaddtoalarger
value,theyrepel,becausebeingcloseincreasesthepotentialenergy(ittakesenergytostrain
aregionofthematerial).
Thenumberofdislocationsincreasesdramaticallyduringplasticdeformation.Dislocations
spawnfromexistingdislocations,andfromdefects,grainboundariesandsurface
irregularities.
4.SlipSystems
Insinglecrystalstherearepreferredplaneswheredislocationsmove(slipplanes).There
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theydonotmoveinanydirection,butinpreferredcrystallographicdirections(slip
direction).Thesetofslipplanesanddirectionsconstituteslipsystems.
Theslipplanesarethoseofhighestpackingdensity.Howdoweexplainthis?Sincethe
distancebetweenatomsisshorterthantheaverage,thedistanceperpendiculartotheplane
hastobelongerthanaverage.Beingrelativelyfarapart,theatomscanmovemoreeasily
withrespecttotheatomsoftheadjacentplane.(Wedidnotdiscussdirectionandplane
nomenclatureforslipsystems.)
BCCandFCCcrystalshavemoreslipsystems,thatismorewaysfordislocationto
propagate.Thus,thosecrystalsaremoreductilethanHCPcrystals(HCPcrystalsaremore
brittle).
5.SlipinSingleCrystals
Atensilestresswillhavecomponentsinanyplanethatisnotperpendicularto
thestress.Thesecomponentsareresolvedshearstresses.Theirmagnitude
dependsonorientation(seeFig.7.7).
R=coscos
IftheshearstressreachesthecriticalresolvedshearstressCRSS,slip(plastic
deformation)canstart.Thestressneededis:
y=CRSS/(coscos)max
attheanglesatwhichCRSSisamaximum.Theminimumstressneededfor
yieldingiswhen==45degrees:y=CRSS.Thus,dislocationswilloccur
firstatslipplanesorientedclosetothisanglewithrespecttotheappliedstress
(Figs.7.8and7.9).
6.PlasticDeformationofPolycrystallineMaterials
Slipdirectionsvaryfromcrystaltocrystal.Whenplasticdeformationoccursinagrain,it
willbeconstrainedbyitsneighborswhichmaybelessfavorablyoriented.Asaresult,
polycrystallinemetalsarestrongerthansinglecrystals(theexceptionistheperfectsingle
crystal,asinwhiskers.)
7.DeformationbyTwinning
Thistopicisnotincluded.
MechanismsofStrengtheninginMetals
Generalprinciples.Abilitytodeformplasticallydependsonabilityofdislocationstomove.
Strengtheningconsistsinhinderingdislocationmotion.Wediscussthemethodsofgrainsize
reduction,solidsolutionalloyingandstrainhardening.Theseareforsinglephasemetals.
Wediscussotherswhentreatingalloys.Ordinarily,strengtheningreducesductility.
8.StrengtheningbyGrainSizeReduction
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Thisisbasedonthefactthatitisdifficultforadislocationtopassintoanothergrain,
especiallyifitisverymisaligned.Atomicdisorderattheboundarycausesdiscontinuityin
slipplanes.Forhighanglegrainboundaries,stressatendofslipplanemaytriggernew
dislocationsinadjacentgrains.Smallanglegrainboundariesarenoteffectiveinblocking
dislocations.
Thefinerthegrains,thelargertheareaofgrainboundariesthatimpedesdislocation
motion.Grainsizereductionusuallyimprovestoughnessaswell.Usually,theyieldstrength
varieswithgrainsizedaccordingto:
y=0+ky/d1/2
Grainsizecanbecontrolledbytherateofsolidificationandbyplasticdeformation.
9.SolidSolutionStrengthening
Addinganotherelementthatgoesintointerstitialorsubstitutionalpositionsinasolution
increasesstrength.Theimpurityatomscauselatticestrain(Figs.7.17and7.18)whichcan
"anchor"dislocations.Thisoccurswhenthestraincausedbythealloyingelement
compensatesthatofthedislocation,thusachievingastateoflowpotentialenergy.Itcosts
strainenergyforthedislocationtomoveawayfromthisstate(whichislikeapotentialwell).
Thescarcityofenergyatlowtemperaturesiswhyslipishindered.
Puremetalsarealmostalwayssofterthantheiralloys.
10.StrainHardening
Ductilemetalsbecomestrongerwhentheyaredeformedplasticallyattemperatureswell
belowthemeltingpoint(coldworking).(Thisisdifferentfromhotworkingistheshapingof
materialsathightemperatureswherelargedeformationispossible.)Strainhardening(work
hardening)isthereasonfortheelasticrecoverydiscussedinCh.6.8.
Thereasonforstrainhardeningisthatthedislocationdensityincreaseswithplastic
deformation(coldwork)duetomultiplication.Theaveragedistancebetweendislocations
thendecreasesanddislocationsstartblockingthemotionofeachone.
Themeasureofstrainhardeningisthepercentcoldwork(%CW),givenbytherelative
reductionoftheoriginalarea,A0tothefinalvalueAd:
%CW=100(A0Ad)/A0
Recovery,recrystallizationandGrainGrowth
Plasticdeformationcauses1)changeingrainsize,2)strainhardening,3)increaseinthe
dislocationdensity.Restorationtothestatebeforecoldworkisdonebyheatingthroughtwo
processes:recoveryandrecrystallization.Thesemaybefollowedbygraingrowth.
11.Recovery
Heatingincreaseddiffusionenhanceddislocationmotionrelievesinternalstrain
energyandreducesthenumberofdislocation.Theelectricalandthermalconductivityare
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restoredtothevaluesexistingbeforecoldworking.
12.Recrystallization
Strainedgrainsofcoldworkedmetalarereplaced,uponheating,bymoreregularlyspaced
grains.Thisoccursthroughshortrangediffusionenabledbythehightemperature.Since
recrystallizationoccursbydiffusion,theimportantparametersarebothtemperatureand
time.
Thematerialbecomessofter,weaker,butmoreductile(Fig.7.22).
Recrystallizationtemperature:isthatatwhichtheprocessiscompleteinonehour.Itis
typically1/3to1/2ofthemeltingtemperature.Itfallsasthe%CWisincreased.Belowa
"criticaldeformation",recrystallizationdoesnotoccur.
13.GrainGrowth
Thegrowthofgrainsizewithtemperaturecanoccurinallpolycrystalline
materials.Itoccursbymigrationofatomsatgrainboundariesbydiffusion,thus
graingrowthisfasterathighertemperatures.The"drivingforce"isthe
reductionofenergy,whichisproportionaltothetotalarea.Biggrainsgrowat
theexpenseofthesmallones.
ImportantTerms:
Coldworking
Criticalresolvedshearstress
Dislocationdensity
Graingrowth
Latticestrain
Recovery
Recrystallization
Recrystallizationtemperature
Resolvedshearstress
Slip
Slipsystem
Strainhardening
Solidsolutionstrengthening

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