Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy: study of the composition, geometry,

sequence, history and genesis of rocks and
unconsolidated materials.
Originally developed to bring order to layered rocks
(strata) and the events recorded therein, but
applicable to all Earth materials.

Nicholas Steno

1638-1686
Born in Denmark, Settled in Italy

From observing the effects of floods,

Steno concluded:
Particles settle from fluid in proportion to their size
and cover the surface in an even layer.
Any change in particle size leads to development of
horizontal layering = stratification
(layer=stratum, strata [plural])
Solid rocks that he was seeing deposited from fluids.

Stenos Principles

More principles for relative age

Principle of Cross
Cutting Relations

Principle of inclusions

North
America
Stratigraphic
Code
(2005
update)

Classes of stratigraphic units

I. Material categories based on content or physical limits
Lithostratigraphic:
Lithostratigraphic: sedimentary, extrusive igneous, or
metasedimentary or metavolcanic strata distinguished by lithic
characteristics and stratigraphic position (conform to Law of
Superposition).
Lithodemic:
Lithodemic: chiefly intrusive igneous or highly deformed rock,
extrusive igneous, or metasedimentary or metavolcanic strata
distinguished by lithic characteristics (generally dont conform
to Law of Superposition).
Magnetopolarity:
Magnetopolarity: units unified by specific magnetic properties;
distinct from underlying and overlying magnetostratigraphic
units.
Biostratigraphic:
Biostratigraphic: classification of bodies of rock based on their
fossil content.
Allostratigraphic:
Allostratigraphic: mappable units of rock that are identified on
the basis of bounding discontinuities.
Pedostratigraphic:
Pedostratigraphic: units consist of rock with one or more
pedological horizons developed in one or more
lithostratigraphic, lithodemic, or allostratigraphic unit.

Classes of stratigraphic units

II. Categories expressing or related to geologic age
A. Material categories used to define temporal spans
Chronostratigraphic:
Chronostratigraphic: a body of rock established to serve as the
material reference for all rocks formed during the same span of
time. Each boundary is synchronous.
Polarity-chronostratigraphic:
Polarity-chronostratigraphic: a body of rock that contains the
primary magnetic-polarity record imposed when the constituent
rock was deposited or crystallized during a specific interval of
geologic time.
B. Temporal (non-material) categories
Geochronologic:
Geochronologic: divisions of time distinguished on basis of the
rock record, as expressed by chronostratigraphic units. Not a
rock unit; it is a span of time.
Polarity-Chronologic: divisions of time distinguished on basis of
the record of magnetic-polarity, as expressed by polaritychronostratigraphic units.
Geochronometric:
Geochronometric: units established through direct division of
geologic time, expressed in years. Not based on time spans
designated by the rock record.

Lithostratigraphic Classification

Article 24.Formation.
Formation The formation is the
fundamental unit in lithostratigraphic
classification. A formation is a body of rock
identified by lithic characteristics and
stratigraphic position; it is prevailingly but not
necessarily tabular and is mappable at the
Earths surface or traceable in the subsurface.

Lithostratigraphic Classification

Supergroup - assemblage of related or superposed

groups. Regional to provincial scale.
Group - express natural relations among formations.
Small-scale to regional scale.
Formation - see prior page.
Member - part of formation with distinguishing traits.
Bed - smallest unit
Key or marker bed - thin distinctive bed that is widely
distributed.
Flow - smallest formal unit in extrusive volcanics.

Unit definition - boundary types

Often arbitrary boundaries if contact properties are gradational.

Lithostratigraphic boundaries are rarely synchronous.

Unit definition - boundary types

Lithodemic Classification

Biostratigraphic Classification
Article 48.Fundamentals of biostratigrpahy.
biostratigrpahy
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that
deals with the distribution of fossils in the
stratigraphic record and the classification of bodies
of rock or rock material into biostratigraphic units
based on their contained fossils.
Remark. (a) Uniqueness.Biostratigraphic units
are distinct from all other kinds of stratigraphic
units because their contained fossils record the
unidirectional process of organic evolution. As
such, the stratigraphic record as a whole contains
an unrepeated sequence of fossil taxa that may be
used to determine the relative age of their
enclosing strata.

Faunal succession

William Smith (1769-1839)

English, Geologist
(first geologic map)
George Cuvier (1769-1832)
French, Paleontologists/Geologist

Types of biozones
1. Range biozone (A,B)
2. Interval biozone (C,D)
3. Lineage biozone (E)
4. Assemblage biozone (F)
5. Abundance biozone (G)

F.

G.

Pedostratigraphic classification
Based on fossil soils.

Allostratigraphic classification
Based on discontinuities

Geologic Time Scale

Geochronologic
(Time)

Eon

Era

Chronostratigraphic
(Rock)

Eonothem
Erathem

Period
Epoch
Age

System
Series
Stage

Time Scale
For example: Maastrichtian Age
Phanerozoic Eon
Mesozoic Era

Cretaceous Period
Late Cretaceous Epoch
Maastrichtian Age

Start defined by: Mean of 12 biostratigraphic criteria of

equal importance. Closely above is lowest occurrence of
ammonite Pachydiscus neubergicus.
neubergicus. Boreal proxy is lowest
occurrence of belemnite Belemnella lanceolata.
lanceolata.
70.6 0.6 Ma
End Defined By: Iridium Anomaly. Associated with a major
extinction horizon (foraminifers, calcareous nannofossils,
nannofossils,
dinosaurs, etc.)
65.5 0.3 Ma

Time Scale

For example: Lutetian Age

Phanerozoic Eon
Cenozoic Era

Paleogene Period

Eocene Epoch (Sub-epoch: Middle Eocene)

Lutetian Age

Start Defined By: Planktonic foraminifer, lowest

occurrence of Hantkenina.
48.6 0.2 Ma

End Defined By: Near extinction of calcareous

nannofossil Reticulofenestra reticulata.
40.4 0.2 Ma

Stratigraphic Correlation

How do we put stratigraphic

columns that are separated
in space into relative
temporal order?

Stratigraphic Correlation

Lithostratigraphic
Biostratigraphic
Magnetostratigraphic
Geochronologic
Chemostratigraphic (e.g. iridium
anomaly at K-T boundary)

Lithostratigraphic
Correlation
Based on lateral
continuity.

Top of Navajo

Top of Kaibab

Rock Description and Creation

of a Lithostratigrpahic Column

Encountering a Sedimentary
Section

Attributes of particles
Grain-size
Sorting (poorly to well sorted)
Rounding (angular to rounded)
Particle and matrix/cement composition

Contacts between beds

Sedimentary Structures
Fossils, Bioturbation

Contacts

Primary Structures
Stratigraphic contacts
Younging Direction
Unconformities

Intrusive contacts

Sills and dikes

Batholiths

Fault Contacts
Normal, thrust, strike-slip

Folds
Anticlines, synclines

Is the sedimentary succession

right-side up?

Primary Structures
Pillow Basalts

Sedimentary Structures
Stromatolites, Belt Gp., MT

Graded beds

Sedimentary Structures
Ancient Mudcracks

Basic Question:
Is the section conformable?

Is the sedimentary pile

continuous?

Unconformities
Disconformity:
Disconformity same bedding
attitude above and below with missing
time (depositional hiatus)
Angular Unconformity:
Unconformity upper beds
truncate lower deformed strata

Nonconformity:
Nonconformity Sedimentary rocks
above low-relief erosional surface in
crystalline rocks

Buttress Unconformity:
Unconformity
Sedimentary strata onlap onto highrelief erosional surface

Disconformity

Maybe difficult to recognize with out a dramatic change in rock type or a

break in stratigraphic ages for a well dated succession

Nonconformity: Grand Canyon

Angular Unconformity: Grand Canyon

Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone (550 Ma) over tilted Grand Canyon

Supergroup (1.2-0.8 Ga) rocks

Angular unconformity
Death Valley